PEDS: Ch. 16 Nursing Care of the Child With an Alteration in Intracranial Regulation/Neurologic Disorder

The nurse is using the pediatric Glasgow Coma Scale to assess a child's level of consciousness. What would the nurse assess? Select all that apply.

Eye opening Verbal response Motor response The pediatric Glasgow Coma Scale assesses level of consciousness using three parts: eye opening, verbal response, and motor response.

A 4-year-old child is brought to the emergency department after being in a motor vehicle accident. The child experienced head trauma in the accident. When assessing the child, which will be the first change noted in the presence of increasing intercranial pressure?

Change in level of consciousness A change in the level of consciousness is the initial finding in the client who is experiencing an increase in intracranial pressure.

The nurse caring for a child with a cranial injury knows that broad-spectrum antibiotics are used to reduce cerebral edema.

False Antibiotics or antivirals are used to treat infectious disease processes. Glucocorticoids and diuretics are used to reduce cerebral edema.

A nurse is assessing a 3-year-old child for possible bacterial meningitis. Which sign would indicate irritation of the meninges?

Positive Kernig sign A positive Kernig sign can indicate irritation of the meninges. A positive Brudzinski sign also is indicative of the condition. A positive Chadwick sign is a bluish discoloration of the cervix indicating pregnancy.

The parents of a child with a history of seizures who has been taking phenytoin (Dilantin) ask the nurse why it's difficult to maintain therapeutic plasma levels of this medication. Which statement by the nurse would be most accurate?

"Small increments in dosage lead to sharp increases in plasma drug levels." Within the therapeutic range for phenytoin, small increments in dosage produce sharp increases in plasma drug levels. The capacity of the liver to metabolize phenytoin is affected by slight changes in the dosage of the drug, not necessarily the length of time the client has been taking the drug. Large increments in dosage will greatly increase plasma levels, leading to drug toxicity.

A child who has been having seizures is admitted to the hospital for diagnostic testing. The child has had laboratory testing and an EEG, and is scheduled for a lumbar puncture. The parents voice concern to the nurse stating, "I don't understand why our child had to have a lumbar puncture since the EEG was negative." What is the best response by the nurse?

"The lumbar puncture can help rule out any infection in fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord as the cause of the seizures. Lumbar punctures are performed to analyze cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) to rule out meningitis or encephalitis as a cause of seizures. A normal EEG does not rule out epilepsy because seizure activity rarely occurs during the actual testing time. A 24-hour or longer EEG can help in diagnosing a seizure disorder. Just telling the parents that it needs to be done, to be patient, or it is a routine does not address the parents' concerns.

A 1-year-old has just undergone surgery to correct craniosynostosis. Which comment is the best psychosocial intervention for the parents?

"The surgery was successful. Do you have any questions?" Often what parents need most is someone to listen to their concerns. Although this is a good time for education, let the parents adjust to their baby's appearance and adapt your teaching to their questions, comments, and knowledge level.

A child is home with the caregivers following a treatment for a head injury. If the child makes this statement, the caregiver should contact the care provider.

"You look funny. Well, both of you do. I see two of you." The caregiver should notify the health-care provider immediately if the child vomits more than three times, has pupillary changes, has double or blurred vision, has a change in level of consciousness, acts strange or confused, has trouble walking, or has a headache that becomes more severe or wakes him or her from sleep. These instructions should be provided in written form to the caregiver. Just feeling naueauted is not a reason to notify the provider.

What finding is consistent with increased ICP in the child?

Bulging fontanel Children with increased ICP exhibit bulging fontanels. They typically have a decreased appetite, are restless, and have trouble sleeping.

The nurse is discussing with a parent the difference between a breath-holding spell and a seizure. The nurse would be correct in telling the parent what information in regard to seizures?

Convulsive activity occurs. During seizures convulsive activity is typically noted. During a breath-holding spell, the child is bradycardiac, cyanosis occurs at the onset, and the EEG is normal.

A child with a seizure disorder is being admitted to the inpatient unit. When preparing the room for the child, what should be included? Select all that apply.

Oxygen gauge and tubing Suction at bedside Padding for side rails When planning the client's environment it is imperative that both safety items and those to manage the seizure are present. The side rails should be padded to prevent injury during seizure activity. Oxygen setup should be provided. Suction may be needed. Tongue blades and smelling salts are not employed.

The nurse is preparing a care plan for a child who has a seizure disorder. The child experiences tonic-clonic seizures. Which nursing diagnosis will the nurse identify as having the highest priority?

Risk for injury A seizure disorder is caused by a disruption in the electrical impulses in the brain. Tonic-clonic seizures is the most dramatic seizure disorder. It is characterized by a loss of consciousness, along with the entire body experiencing tonic contractions followed by rhythmic clonic contractions alternating with relaxation of all muscle groups. Cyanosis may be noted due to apnea, and saliva may collect in the mouth due to inability to swallow. All of these symptoms would make Risk for injury the highest priority.

Which of these age groups has the highest actual rate of death from drowning?

Toddlers Toddlers and older adolescents have the highest actual rate of death from drowning.

The nurse is educating the parents of a 7-year-old girl with epilepsy about managing treatment of the disorder at home. Which intervention is most effective for eliminating breakthrough seizures?

Understanding the side effects of medications The most common cause of breakthrough seizures is noncompliance with medication administration, which may occur if the parents do not understand what side effects to expect or how to deal with them. Treating the child as though she did not have epilepsy helps improve her self-image and self-esteem. Placing the child on her side on the floor is an intervention to prevent injury during a seizure. Instructing the teacher on how to respond when a seizure occurs will help relieve anxiety and provide a sense of control.

Dexamethasone is often prescribed for the child who has sustained a severe head injury. Dexamethasone is a(n):

steroid. A steroid may be prescribed to reduce inflammation and pressure on vital centers.

A pregnant client asks if there is any danger to the development of her fetus in the first few weeks of her pregnancy. How should the nurse respond?

"During the first 3 to 4 weeks of pregnancy, brain and spinal cord development occur and are affected by nutrition, drugs, infection, or trauma." Brain and spinal cord development occur during the first 3 to 4 weeks of gestation. Infection, trauma, teratogens (any environmental substance that can cause physical defects in the developing embryo and fetus), and malnutrition during this period can result in malformations in brain and spinal cord development and may affect normal central nervous system (CNS) development. Good health before becoming pregnant is important but must continue into the pregnancy. Hardening of bones occurs during 13 to 16 weeks gestation, and the respiratory system begins maturing around 23 weeks' gestation.

A child has been diagnosed with a basilar skull fracture. The nurse identifies ecchymosis behind the child's ear. This would be documented as:

Battle sign Two signs of basilar skull fracture include Battle sign (bruising or ecchymosis behind the ear) and "raccoon eyes" (blood leaking into the frontal sinuses causing an edematous and bruised periorbital area). Rhinorrhea is CSF leakage from the nose. Otorrhea is CSF leaking from the ear.

The nurse is caring for a 6-year-old child with an external ventricular drainage device. The nurse is concerned about the minimal drainage in the past few hours. What actions by the nurse are indicated? Select all that apply.

Check tubing clamps to ensure they are open. Ensure the tubing is not kinked. Nursing care of an external ventricular drainage device requires the nurse ensure all connections are secure and labeled. The amount of drainage requires close observation. If drainage is absent or minimal the nurse must assess the tubing to make certain it is not clamped or kinked. The level of the drip chamber must be set at the height of the child (at the clavicle). Taking the temperature will be useful to assess for the presence of infection but that is not currently a concern. Asking the child to cough and deep breathe should not be done. Deep breathing is beneficial for all postoperative clients, but coughing may increase pressures and should be avoided.

The nurse caring for an infant with craniosynostosis, specifically positional plagiocephaly, should prioritize which activity?

Moving the infant's head every 2 hours Positional plagiocephaly can occur because the infant's head is allowed to stay in one position for too long. Because the bones of the skull are soft and moldable, they can become flattened if the head is allowed to remain in the same position for a long period of time. Massaging the scalp will not affect the skull. Measuring the intake and output is important but has no effect on the skull bones. Small feedings are indicated whenever an infant has increased intracranial pressure, but feeding an infant each time he fusses is inappropriate care.

Any individual taking phenobarbital for a seizure disorder should be taught:

never to discontinue the drug abruptly. Phenobarbital should always be tapered, not stopped abruptly, or seizures from the child&'s dependency on the drug can result.

An otherwise healthy 18-month-old child with a history of febrile seizures is in the well-child clinic. Which statement by the father would indicate to the nurse that additional teaching should be done?

"I always keep phenobarbital with me in case of a fever." Anticonvulsants, such as phenobarbital, are administered to children with prolonged seizures or neurologic abnormalities. Ibuprofen, not phenobarbital, is given for fever. Febrile seizures usually occur after age 6 months and are unusual after age 5. Treatment is to decrease the temperature because seizures occur as the temperature rises.

A mother has just given birth to an infant born with anencephaly. The mother states, "With all of the technological advances in medicine, I am hopeful of a good prognosis for my baby." How should the nurse respond?

"It must be very difficult to deal with this diagnosis. Tell me what you know about the prognosis." Anencephaly is a defect in brain development resulting in small or missing brain hemispheres, skull, and scalp. The majority of infants will be stillborn or die within hours to several days of birth. There have been a few cases in which the infant has lived for several months. Showing empathy and determining what the mother knows about the prognosis will help direct the conversation.

The nurse is caring for an adolescent who suffered an injury during a diving accident. During assessment the client is demonstrating the posturing in the figure. The nurse is aware that this type of posturing is the result of injury to what area?

Brain stem Decerbrate posturing is seen with injuries occurring at the level of the brain stem. Decorticate posturing occurs with damage of the cerebral cortex. Both types of posturing are characterized by extremely rigid muscle tone. Injuries to the frontal lobe of the brain and the mid-cervical spine would not cause these types of posturing.

A 9-year-old diagnosed with neurofibromatosis is being evaluated for the presence of a brain tumor. What tests may be ordered to diagnose this condition? Select all that apply.

Computed tomography Magnetic resonance imaging Computed tomography is used for visualization of tumors, ventricles, brain tissue, CSF, hematomas, and cysts. Magnetic resonance imaging is also useful in tumor identification. Lumbar puncture is used to measure CSF pressure and collect CSF samples for laboratory tests. Electroencephalograms detect and locate abnormal electrical discharges produced in the brain. Radiology identifies the presence of fractures, widened skull sutures, calcifications, bone erosion, or skeletal anomalies.

Absence seizures are marked by what clinical manifestation?

Loss of motor activity accompanied by a blank stare An absence seizure consists of a sudden, brief arrest of the child's motor activity accompanied by a blank stare and loss of awareness. A tonic seizure consists of a brief onset of increased tone or muscle. A myoclonic seizure is characterized by sudden, brief jerks of muscle groups. An atonic seizure involves a sudden loss of muscle tone and loss of consciousness.

A child was just brought into the emergency department after falling off a skateboard. The parents report that their child lost consciousness briefly and they noticed watery drainage coming from the nose. What action should the nurse take first?

Notify the emergency department physician of the information the parents reported If clear liquid fluid is noted draining from the ears or nose, the physician should be notified immediately. If the fluid tests positive for glucose, this is indicative of leaking. The other assessments can continue after notifying the physician of these findings.

The nurse is assessing a child following a head injury sustained in a bicycle accident. The child falls asleep frequently unless the parents are talking to the child or the nurse is asking the child questions. How should the nurse document the child's level of consciousness?

Obtunded Obtunded is defined as a state in which the child has limited responses to the environment and falls asleep unless stimulation is provided. Fully conscious describes a child who has no neurological changes. Stupor exists when the child only responds to vigorous stimulation. Decreased level of consciousness is a vague term that does not describe the assessment findings.

The nurse is assessing a toddler for motor function. Which activity will be the most valuable?

Watch the child reach for a toy. Watching the child reach for a toy would be most valuable for assessing motor function because the infant should be able to extend extremities to a normal stretch. Catching a ball is too advanced for a toddler to accomplish. Looking at a picture book would help assess visual acuity and eye movement. Eating potato chips would help assess sensor function for taste.

A school-aged girl with seizures is prescribed phenytoin sodium, 75 mg four times a day. An instruction you would want to give her parents regarding this is:

their child will have to practice good tooth brushing. A side effect of phenytoin sodium is hypertrophy of the gumline. Good tooth brushing helps prevent inflammation under the hypertrophied tissue.

The nurse is collecting data from the caregivers of a child admitted with seizures. Which statement indicates the child most likely had an absence seizure?

"He was just staring into space and was totally unaware." Absence seizures rarely last longer than 20 seconds. The child loses awareness and stares straight ahead but does not fall. Absence seizures rarely last longer than 20 seconds. The child loses awareness and stares straight ahead but does not fall. Myoclonic seizures are characterized by a sudden jerking of a muscle or group of muscles, often in the arms or legs, without loss of consciousness. Complex partial seizures cause nonpurposeful movements, such as hand rubbing and lip smacking. During the prodromal period of the tonic-clonic seizure, the child might have a lack of coordination.

Antibiotic therapy to treat meningitis should be instituted immediately after which event?

Collection of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and blood for culture Antibiotic therapy should always begin immediately after the collection of CSF and blood cultures. After the specific organism is identified, bacteria-specific antibiotics can be administered if the initial choice of antibiotic therapy isn't appropriate. Admission and initiation of I.V. therapy aren't, by themselves, appropriate times to begin antibiotic therapy.

Preterm infants have more fragile capillaries in the periventricular area than term infants. This put these infants at risk for which problem?

Intracranial hemorrhaging Fragile capillaries in the periventricular area of the brain put preterm infants at risk for intracranial hemorrhage. Closure of the fontanels has nothing to do with fragile capillaries within the brain. Larger head size gives children a higher center of gravity which causes them to hit their head more readily. Congenital hydrocephalus may be caused by abnormal intrauterine development or infection

A nurse demonstrates understanding of the various levels of consciousness as they progress from most alert to least alert. Place the levels of consciousness in the order that reflects this progression.

Oriented to person, place, and time Disorientation Obtundation Stupor Coma Levels of consciousness in order from most alert to least alert are orientated to person, place, and time (full consciousness); confusion (disorientation); obtundation; stupor; and finally coma

When assessing a neonate for seizures, what would the nurse expect to find? Select all that apply.

Ocular deviation Elevated blood pressure Jitteriness Tachycardia Neonatal seizures may be difficult to recognize but may be manifested by tremors, jitteriness, tachycardia and elevated blood pressure, and ocular deviation. Tonic-clonic contractions typically are more common in older children.

The nurse is educating parents of a male infant with Chiari type II malformation. Which statement about their child's condition is most accurate?

"Take your time feeding your baby." One of the problems associated with Chiari type II malformation is poor gag and swallowing reflexes, so the infant must be fed slowly. There is a great risk of aspiration, requiring that the child be placed in an upright position after feeding. The goal of surgery is to prevent further symptoms, rather than to relieve existing ones. Infrequent urination is a problem associated with type I malformations

The nurse is caring for a child admitted with simple partial motor seizures. Which clinical manifestation would likely have been noted in the child with this diagnosis?

The child had shaking movements on one side of the body. Simple partial motor seizures cause a localized motor activity, such as shaking of an arm, leg, or other part of the body. These may be limited to one side of the body. Myoclonic seizures are characterized by a sudden jerking of a muscle or group of muscles, often in the arms or legs, without loss of consciousness. Complex partial seizures may cause nonpurposeful movements, such as hand rubbing and lip smacking. During the prodromal period of the tonic-clonic seizure, the child might have a lack of coordination.

The nurse knows that the heads of infants and toddlers are large in proportion to their bodies, placing them at risk for what problem?

Head trauma A larger head size in relation to the rest of their body size gives young children a higher center of gravity, which causes them to hit their head more readily, thus placing them at risk for head trauma. Fragile capillaries in the periventricular area of the brain put preterm infants at risk for intracranial hemorrhage. Congenital hydrocephalus may be caused by abnormal intrauterine development or infection. Positional plagiocephaly is caused by an infant's head remaining in the same position for too long.

The mother of a toddler tells the nurse during a routine well-child appointment that she is concerned because, "It seems like my son is falling and hitting his head all of the time." What is the best response by the nurse?

"Due to the size of their heads and immature neck muscles falling is common, but I will let the physician know your concerns." The head of the infant and young child is large in proportion to the body, and is the fastest-growing body part during infancy and continues to grow until the child is 5 years old. In addition, the infant's and child's neck muscles are not well developed. Both of these differences lead to an increased incidence of head injury from falls. The nurse should still let the physician know the mother's concerns in case there is another issue causing the falls.

What information is most correct regarding the nervous system of the child?

As the child grows, the gross and fine motor skills increase. As the child grows, the quality of the nerve impulses sent through the nervous system develops and matures. As these nerve impulses become more mature, the child's gross and fine motor skills increase in complexity. The child becomes more coordinated and able to develop motor skills.

The nurse is speaking with the mother of an infant being treated for hydrocephalus. Which statement by the mother indicates the need for further instruction?

"My baby's prematurity may have contributed to this condition." Hydrocephalus is not a specific illness, but results from underlying brain disorders. It results from an imbalance in the production and absorption of CSF. In hydrocephalus, CSF accumulates within the ventricular system and causes the ventricles to enlarge and increases in ICP to occur. Hydrocephalus may be congenital or acquired. Congenital hydrocephalus is present at birth and is often due to a genetic disposition or environmental influences during fetal development. Maternal conditions that may be associated with hydrocephalus include meningitis, prematurity with intracranial hemorrhage, and mumps encephalitis.

The father of a 7-year-old boy reports to the nurse that two or three times over the past weeks he has observed his son seemingly staring into space and rubbing his hands. The behavior lasts for a minute or so, followed by an inability of the child to understand what's being said to him. When the nurse asks the child about his experience, he says he doesn't know what his father is talking about. What type of seizure do these symptoms indicate the child is experiencing?

Complex partial seizures Complex partial seizures, also called psychomotor seizures, begin in a small area of the brain and change or alter consciousness. They cause memory loss and staring. Nonpurposeful movements such as hand rubbing, lip smacking, arm dropping, and swallowing may occur. Following the seizure the child may sleep or be confused for a few minutes. The child is often unaware of the seizure. Simple partial sensory seizures may include sensory symptoms called an aura (a sensation that signals an impending attack) involving sight, sound, taste, smell, touch, or emotions (a feeling of fear, for example). The child may also have numbness, tingling, paresthesia, or pain. Simple partial motor seizures cause a localized motor activity such as shaking of an arm, leg, or other part of the body. Absence seizures rarely last longer than 20 seconds. The child loses awareness and stares straight ahead but does not fall. The child may have blinking or twitching of the mouth or an extremity along with the staring. Immediately after the seizure, the child is alert and continues conversation but does not know what was said or done during the episode.

A 6-year-old has had a viral infection for the past 5 days and is having severe vomiting, confusion, and irritability, although he is now afebrile. During the assessment, the nurse should ask the parent which question?

"Did you use any medications like aspirin for the fever?" Severe and continual vomiting, changes in mental status, lethargy, and irritability are some of the signs and symptoms of Reye syndrome, which can occur as a result of ingesting aspirin or aspirin-containing products during a viral infection. Tylenol (acetaminophen) is allowed for viral infections in the school-age child. The type of fluids consumed during the illness has nothing to do with Reye syndrome. The temperature rise would be important for a much younger child because of the chance of febrile seizures, but not in this age child.

The nurse has just admitted a 17-year-old diagnosed with bacterial meningitis. The parents of the adolescent tell the nurse, "We just don't understand how this could have happened. Our child has always been healthy and also just received a booster vaccine last year?" How should the nurse respond?

"I understand your frustration. Unfortunately immunizations are not 100% effective in preventing the infection." Showing empathy while letting the parents know that vaccines are not 100% effective is the best response. Questioning them about being sure would not be the best response unless there was reason to believe their information was not accurate. There is nothing to lead the nurse to believe that a different strain of bacteria caused the infection, or that the the child's immune system is compromised.

The nurse is observing an infant who may have acute bacterial meningitis. Which finding might the nurse look for?

Irritability, fever, and vomiting Findings associated with acute bacterial meningitis may include irritability, fever, and vomiting along with seizure activity. Fontanels would be bulging as intracranial pressure rises, and Kernig's sign would be present due to meningeal irritation. Jaundice, drowsiness, and refusal to eat indicate a GI disturbance rather than meningitis.

The nurse is preparing a toddler for a lumbar puncture. For this procedure, the nurse should place the child in which position?

Lying on one side, with the back curved Lumbar puncture involves placing a needle between the lumbar vertebrae into the subarachnoid space. For this procedure, the nurse should position the client on one side with the back curved because curving the back maximizes the space between the lumbar vertebrae, facilitating needle insertion. Prone and seated positions don't achieve maximum separation of the vertebrae.

In caring for the child with meningitis, the nurse recognizes that which nursing diagnosis would be the most important to include in this child's plan of care?

Risk for injury related to seizure activity The child's risk for injury would be an appropriate nursing diagnosis. Surgery is not indicated for the child with meningitis, and the history of seizures does not impact the airway clearance. Growth and development issues are a concern but not likely delayed due to this diagnosis.

An 8-year-old girl is diagnosed as having tonic-clonic seizures. You would want to teach her parents that:

their daughter should maintain an active lifestyle. It is important for children with seizures to maintain as near normal a lifestyle as possible to maintain self-esteem and achievement. Most seizure medications must create a therapeutic level before they are effective.

The nurse is talking with a teen and her parents about triggers for her frequent headaches. Which statements indicate an understanding? Select all that apply.

"I may experience headaches during certain periods in my menstrual cycle." "Giving up cola may be beneficial to helping me avoid headaches." "Chocolate may trigger my headaches." Teaching about headaches should include a discussion about possible triggers. Foods containing chocolate and caffeine should be restricted in the diet as they may trigger headache pain. Changes in the menstrual cycle may also be tied to headaches. Spicy foods are not tied to headaches.

The mother of a 12-year-old with Reye syndrome approaches the nurse wanting to know how this happened to her child, saying, "I never give my kids aspirin!" What could the nurse say to begin educating the woman?

"Sometimes it's hard to tell what products may contain aspirin." Salicylates are in a wide variety of products, so consumers must read the small print very carefully or they will miss the warning. The parent needs to be receptive to further education, and raising the possibility the child was responsible does not accomplish that goal. Don't state the obvious, but also don't minimize the situation. Encouraging the mother to ask for information and offering explanations in terms she will understand are important, but this response does not address the mother's assertion

Seven-year-old Isabelle has been complaining of headache, coughing, and an aching chest. The care provider makes a diagnosis of a viral infection. The child's mother tells the nurse that when Isabelle first said she had a headache, the child's father gave her half of an adult aspirin. The mother has heard of Reye syndrome and asks the nurse if her child could get this. Which statement would be best for the nurse to say to this mother?

"This might or might not be a problem. Watch Isabelle for signs of lethargy, unusual irritability, confusion, or vomiting. If you notice any of these, bring her to the emergency room immediately so she can be checked for Reye syndrome." Reye syndrome usually occurs after a viral illness, particularly after an upper respiratory infection or varicella (chickenpox). Administration of aspirin during the viral illness has been implicated as a contributing factor. As a result, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that aspirin or aspirin compounds not be given to children with viral infections. The symptoms appear within three to five days after the initial illness: The child is recuperating unremarkably when symptoms of severe vomiting, irritability, lethargy, and confusion occur. Immediate intervention is needed to prevent serious insult to the brain including respiratory arrest.

After teaching a group of students about neural tube disorders, the instructor determines that additional teaching is needed when the students identify this as a neural tube defect.

Arnold-Chiari malformation Arnold-Chiari malformation is a deformity of the cerebellar tonsils being displaced into the upper cervical canal. Anencephaly is a neural tube defect. Encephalocele is a neural tube defect. Spina bifida occulta is a neural tube defect.

A group of nursing students are reviewing cerebral vascular disorders and risk factors in children. The students demonstrate understanding of the material when they identify which as a risk factor for hemorrhagic stroke?

Arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) Vascular malformations such as intracranial AVMs are a risk factor for hemorrhagic stroke. Sickle cell disease is a risk factor for ischemic stroke. Congenital heart defects are risk factors for ischemic stroke. Meningitis or other infection is a risk factor for ischemic stroke.

The nurse is completing a nursing history on a female client who has just found out she is 6 weeks' pregnant. She reports that over the last 2 months she has been drinking excessive amounts of alcohol every weekend and smokes a half-pack of cigarettes per day. What is the nurse concerned with given this information? Select all that apply.

Brain development in the fetus Spinal cord development in the fetus The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system (CNS). Development of these structures begins in the first 3 to 4 weeks of gestation from the neural tube. Infection, trauma, teratogens (any environmental substance that can cause physical defects in the developing embryo and fetus), and malnutrition during this period can result in malformations in brain and spinal cord development and may affect normal CNS development.

A preschool-age child has just been admitted to the pediatric unit with a diagnosis of bacterial meningitis. The nurse would include which recommendation in the nursing plan?

Decrease environmental stimulation A child with the diagnosis of meningitis is much more comfortable with decreased environmental stimuli. Noise and bright lights stimulate the child and can be irritating, causing the child to cry, in turn increasing intracranial pressure. Vital signs would be taken initially every hour and temperature monitored every 2 hours. Children with bacterial meningitis are usually much more comfortable if allowed to lie flat because this position doesn't cause increased meningeal irritation

During the physical assessment of a 2½-month-old infant, the nurse suspects the child may have hydrocephalus. Which sign or symptom was observed?

Dramatic increase in head circumference A dramatic increase in head circumference is a symptom of hydrocephalus, suggesting that there is a build-up of fluid in the brain. Only one pupil that is dilated and reactive is a sign of an intracranial mass. Vertical nystagmus indicates brain stem dysfunction. A closed posterior fontanel would be frequently seen by this age.

A 6-month-old infant is admitted with suspected bacterial meningitis. She is crying, irritable, and lying in the opisthotonic position. Which intervention should the nurse take initially?

Institute droplet precautions in addition to standard precautions. Bacterial meningitis is a medical emergency. The child must be placed on droplet precautions until 24 hours of antibiotics have been given. Encouraging the mother to hold and comfort the child is an intervention but not the priority one: the focus is to get the infant the appropriate medications to fight the infection and to prevent its spread. Educating the family about preventing bacterial meningitis would be appropriate later once the initial infection has been controlled. Palpating the fontanels is used to assess for hydrocephalus.

A 10-year-old boy has been experiencing complex partial seizures and has not responded well to medication. Surgery is planned to remove brain tissue at the seizure foci. Which diagnostic test would be the most accurate in identifying the seizure foci?

Positron emission tomography (PET) The diagnostic technique of positron emission tomography (PET) involves imaging after injection of positron-emitting radiopharmaceuticals into the brain. These radioactive substances accumulate at diseased areas of the brain or spinal cord. PET is extremely accurate in identifying seizure foci. Brain scans identify possible tumor, subdural hematoma, abscess, or encephalitis. Echoencephalography is often used in neonatal ICUs to monitor intraventricular hemorrhages and other problems frequently encountered by preterm infants. Myelography is the x-ray study of the spinal cord following the introduction of a contrast material into the CSF by lumbar puncture to reveal the presence of space-occupying lesions of the spinal cord.

A 9-year-old boy is suffering from headaches but has no signs of physical or neurologic illness. Which intervention would be most appropriate?

Teach the child and his parents to keep a headache diary. A headache diary can help identify any triggers so that the child can avoid them. Triggers can include foods eaten, amount of sleep the night before, or activities at home or school that might be causing stress. Reviewing signs of increased intracranial pressure would be inappropriate because increased intracranial pressure is not associated with headaches. Having the child sleep without a pillow is an intervention to reduce pain from meningitis. Vomiting more than twice is an indication that the parents should notify the physician or nurse practitioner when the child has a head injury.

The nurse is providing education to the parents of a female toddler with hydrocephalus who has just had a shunt placed. Which statement is the best to make during a teaching session?

Tell me your concerns about your child's shunt. Always start by assessing the family's knowledge. Ask them what they feel they need to know. Knowing when to call the doctor and how to raise the child's head are important, but they might not be listening if they have another question on their minds. "Autoregulation" is too technical—base information on the parents' level of understanding.

The nurse is interviewing the caregivers of a child brought to the emergency unit. The caregiver states, "She has a history of seizures but this time it lasted more than 30 minutes and she just keeps having them." The most accurate description of this child's condition would be:

The child is in status epilepticus. Status epilepticus is the term used to describe a seizure that lasts longer than 30 minutes or a series of seizures in which the child does not return to his or her previous normal level of consciousness. The child likely is having generalized seizures, but the most accurate description of what is happening is status epilepticus. With infantile spasms, muscle contractions are sudden, brief, symmetrical, and accompanied by rolling eyes. With absence seizures the child loses awareness and stares straight ahead but does not fall.

During the trial period to determine the efficacy of an anticonvulsant drug, which caution should be explained to the parents?

The child shouldn't participate in activities that could be hazardous if a seizure occurs Until seizure control is certain, clients shouldn't participate in activities (such as riding a bicycle) that could be hazardous if a seizure were to occur. Plasma levels need to be monitored periodically over the course of drug therapy; daily monitoring isn't necessary. Dosage changes are usually based on plasma drug levels as well as seizure control. Anticonvulsant drugs should be withdrawn over a period of 6 weeks to several months, never immediately, as doing so could precipitate status epilepticus

When caring for a child who has a history of seizures, which nursing interventions would be appropriate? Select all that apply.

The nurse pads the crib or side rails before a seizure. The nurse positions the child on the side during a seizure. The nurse stays with the child and calls for help when a seizure begins. The nurse has oxygen available to use during a seizure. The nurse teaches the caregivers regarding seizure precautions. The nurse should pad the crib sides and keep sharp or hard items out of the crib. The nurse should also position the child to one side to prevent aspiration of saliva or vomitus and have oxygen and suction equipment readily available for emergency use. The nurse should teach family caregivers seizure precautions so they can handle a seizure that occurs at home. The nurse should not put anything in the child's mouth; doing so could cause injury to the child or to the nurse. It is important for the nurse to promptly inform other members of the care team when a child is experiencing seizure activity, but leaving the bedside to do so would be unsafe.

A nurse is providing information to the parents of a child diagnosed with absence seizures. What information would the nurse expect to include when describing this type of seizure? Select all that apply.

This type of seizure is more common in girls than it is in boys. You might see a blank facial expression after a sudden stoppage of speech. This type of seizure is usually short, lasting for no more than 30 seconds. You might have mistaken this type of seizure for lack of attention. Absence seizures are more common in girls than boys and are characterized by a sudden cessation of motor activity or speech with a blank facial expression or rhythmic twitching of the mouth or blinking of the eyelids. This type of seizure lasts less than 30 seconds and may have been mistaken for inattentiveness because of the subtle changes. Absence seizures are not associated with a postictal state.

The nurse is caring for a 3-year-old boy who is experiencing seizure activity. Which diagnostic test will determine the seizure area in the brain?

Video electroencephalogram A video electroencephalogram can determine the precise localization of the seizure area in the brain. Cerebral angiography is used to diagnose vessel defects or space-occupying lesions. Lumbar puncture is used to diagnose hemorrhage, infection, or obstruction in the spinal canal. Computed tomography is used to diagnose congenital abnormalities such as neural tube defects.

The nurse has developed a nursing plan for the care of a 6-year-old girl with congenital hydrocephalus whose shunt has become infected. The most important discharge teaching point for this family is:

ensuring the parents know how to properly give antibiotics. Educating parents how to properly give the antibiotics would be the priority intervention because the child's shunt has become infected. Maintaining cerebral perfusion is important for a child with hydrocephalus, but the priority intervention for the parents at this time is in regards to the infection. Establishing seizure precautions is an intervention for a child with a seizure disorder. Encouraging development of motor skills would be appropriate for a microcephalic child.

The mother of a newborn with a caput succedaneum asks the nurse how this happened to her baby. Which response by the nurse would be most appropriate?

"During delivery, your vaginal wall put pressure on the baby's head." Caput succedaneum results from pressure from the uterus or vaginal wall during a head-first delivery. The use of forceps is associated with a cephalohematoma. Caput succedaneum is not due to the baby's head becoming blocked inside the vagina. The cause of caput succedaneum is known; it is caused by pressure from the uterus or vaginal wall during a head-first delivery.

The nurse is educating the family of a 7-year-old with epilepsy about care and safety for this child. What comment will be most valuable in helping the parent and the child cope?

"Use this information to teach family and friends." Families need and want information they can share with relatives, childcare providers, and teachers. Wearing a helmet and having a monitor in the room are precautions that may need to be modified as the child matures. The boy may be able to bike ride and swim with proper precautions.

The nurse is providing education to the parents of a 2-year-old boy with hydrocephalus who has just had a ventriculoperitoneal shunt placed. Which information is most important for the parents to be taught?

"Watch for changes in his behavior or eating patterns." Changes in behavior or in eating patterns can suggest a problem with his shunt, such as infection or blockage. Irritability, lack of appetite, increased crying, or inability to settle down may indicate increased intracranial pressure. Any headache needs to be monitored, but if it goes away quickly, such as after eating, it probably isn't a problem. It is not necessary to keep the child's head raised 30 degrees. The child's shunt will not be affected by the amount of television viewed.

The nurse is assessing the neurological functioning of a preschool child. What actions will best review functioning of cranial nerve III?

A bright-colored toy is moved in the child's visual fields. Cranial nerve III, the oculomotor nerve, is assessed by using a brightly colored object to assess the child's ability to watch its movement. Cranial nerve I (olfactory nerve) controls the sense of smell. Asking the child to smell objects would be an assessment of this cranial nerve. Cranial nerve VII (facial nerve) is assessed by monitoring symmetry of facial movements. Cranial nerve VIII (acoustic nerve) is assessed by whispering.

A 6-month-old infant is admitted with a diagnosis of bacterial meningitis. The nurse would place the infant in which room?

A private room near the nurses' station A child who has the diagnosis of bacterial meningitis will need to be placed in a private room until that child has received I.V. antibiotics for 24 hours because the child is considered contagious. Additionally, bacterial meningitis can be quite serious; therefore, the child should be placed near the nurses' station for close monitoring and easier access in case of a crisis.

The eyes of a 9-year-old who suffered a head injury are crossed. Besides checking ICP, which intervention would be most important for the nurse to perform?

Assess the child's level of consciousness. Decreased level of consciousness is frequently the first sign of major neurologic problems after head trauma. While body temperature is an important indicator of infection, it is not a priority here. Preventing harm by setting the side rails is more important for a seizure client. The child's eyes will correct themselves when ICP is reduced.

During physical assessment of a 2-month-old infant, the nurse suspects the child may have a lesion on the brain stem. Which symptom was observed?

Horizontal nystagmus Horizontal nystagmus is a symptom of lesions on the brain stem. A sudden increase in head circumference is a symptom of hydrocephalus suggesting that there is a buildup of fluid in the brain. An intracranial mass would cause only one eye to be dilated and reactive. A closed posterior fontanel is not unusual at 2 months of age

Which nursing assessment data should be given the highest priority for a child with clinical findings related to meningitis?

Signs of increased intracranial pressure (ICP) Assessment of fever and evaluation of nuchal rigidity are important aspects of care, but assessment for signs of increasing ICP should be the highest priority due to the life-threatening implications. Urinary and fecal incontinence can occur in a child who's ill from nearly any cause but doesn't pose a great danger to life.