Performance Exam 2

Timely goals

Achievable in a reasonable period of time

Adapt goals to individual athlete

Adapt goals to motives, personality, and type of sport in order to improve goal effectiveness. Level of competition influences the types of goals. Higher level athletes tend to focus on - overall performance, winning, and fun/enjoyment. Lower level athletes tend to focus on - having fun, making friends, and staying fit. Goal setting may be more beneficial for athletes at higher skill levels

Motivation Toward Least Effort

Animals and humans are motivated to achieve the highest goals but with the least expenditure of motivation resources as possible

Approach vs. avoidance motivation

Approaching a desirable goal vs avoiding an undesirable goal. Focus on approach versus avoidance goals impacts intrinsic motivations performance. Focusing on approaching mastering skills predicts greater enjoyment and performance, Focusing on avoiding poor play leads to worse performance

Somatic anxiety

Arises from perception of physiological responses to stressful situations Racing heartbeat, faster breathing, or feelings of nausea Low before event. Increases rapidly from about 24 hours before the event begins

Cognitive anxiety

Arises from thoughts/concerns. High as a competitive event approaches, until event begins. Fluctuates during event, depending on performance

Drive Theory

Arousal increases lead to performance increases. Arousal caused by situation. Does not distinguish between somatic and cognitive anxiety. Difficult tasks to Easy tasks to low to high performance. Keep in mind that correlation does not equal causation!

External event informational function

Because you were able to do X, that means you are effective. Increases intrinsic motivation. Enhances high-quality learning. Enhances self-regulation.

Trait anxiety

Behavioral disposition, or personality dimension. React anxiously in situations that should not be anxiety provoking -State anxiety: temporary, caused by situation

Rejoice goals

Celebrate your progress

Increasing motivation factors

Create Motivating Environments, Emphasize Effort, Not Outcome, Recognize Individual Differences Use Appropriate Reinforcement, Give Positive and Personal Feedback

Competence Motivation Theory

Describes the importance of feeling worthy and competent. Experiencing successful results leads to an increase in self-efficacy and positive feelings, increasing perceived competence. Experiencing negative results leads to negative feelings, such as shame and anxiety, decreasing competence motivation

Self-efficacy theory

Describes the importance of having a belief in one's own ability to carry out a given task. Within the right domain, people with high self-efficacy are more likely to exert effort, set more challenging goals, and persist longer.

Social approval goal orientation

Desire for social acceptance & avoiding embarrassment/defeat. Particularly important for interactive and team-sport athletes.

Goal setting benefits

Directed attention, Increased effort, Prolonged persistence

Brain activity measurements

EEG to measures electrical activity. fMRI measures blood flow to specific areas of the brain

Social facilitation theory

Extends Drive Theory, describing how the presence of other people can create arousal. People who engage in a task in front of others experience higher levels of arousal than those who are by themselves Different effects on performance depending on how good a person is at a particular task. If you are good at a task, arousal will lead you to perform even better. If you are not so good at a task, arousal may lead to worse performance

Extrinsic motivation positive

External rewards don't decrease intrinsic motivation. Verbal praise leads to an increase in intrinsic motivation. Top golfers have higher performance with financial incentive.

Motivation Continuum

External, introjected, identified, and integrated regulation.

Appropriate feedback

Feedback marks progress towards goals and demonstrates that coaches are genuinely interested in helping them learn and Improve. May increases intrinsic motivation. Verbal and non-verbal praise can motivate. Be empathic (empathetic), Give choices, Provide clear and attainable objectives, Include specific solutions to improve performance, Be delivered in a respectful tone of voice, See that the coach valued their hard work, Realize that mistakes are part of learning, Believed that high effort will lead to improvement, Coaches need to give personal, and personalized feedback whenever possible

Achievement motivation

Focus on mastering a task, achieving at a high level, persisting even when confronted by obstacles. Often described as competitiveness, men tend to be higher in competitiveness.

Goal pursuit Resuming

Helps get back on track once an interruptions occurs

Inverted U Theory

High arousal is associated with increased performance, but only up to a point. Performance is typically - lowest when arousal is very low (boredom) or very high (anxiety), highest when arousal is at a moderate level. Ideal level of arousal also depends on sport. Athlete's skill level impacts the level of arousal necessary for peak performance. Inexperienced athletes may benefit more from low arousal. Experienced athletes may benefit more from high arousal

Choking

High pressure situations cause anxiety, disrupting athletes' ability to execute. Presence of supporting audiences can lead to worse performances, especially in high pressure situations where expectations are high.Home teams have a higher winning percentage, BUT home teams sometimes play poorly under high pressure situations. NBA players are less accurate in free throws when taking shots when their team is behind by only one point in the final minutes of the game. Athletes who are high in fear of negative evaluation are even more likely to "choke" under pressure

Catastrophe model

Interaction between the effects of somatic and cognitive anxiety on performance. Claims that the inverted U best describes the influence of physiological arousal on performance for people at low levels of cognitive anxiety. If performance pressure is low, gradual increases in arousal will improve performance; further increase will impair. If performance pressure is high + moderate or high Cognitive anxiety, increased physiological arousal can lead to a "catastrophe": sudden and substantial drop in performance. Relatively little empirical research has examined this overall model

Primary appraisal

Interpret the situation and how it relates to them. Am I in danger? Estimate of whether one has anything at stake.

Integrated theory motivation

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, external, interjected, identified, and integrated regulation, amotivation.

Inspiration goals

Is it right to pursue this goal

Practice goals in training

May maintain motivation and lead to performance improvement. speed skaters in a goal setting program .Completed more laps and drills in practice. Showed fewer off-task behaviors

Motivation

Means to move. It is the direction and intensity of one's effort and persistence.

Athletes who are focused on performance goals

More willing to break a rule. More likely to lie to an official and cheat. More likely to engage in aggressive and anti-social behavior in an attempt to outperform opponents and teammates.

Appropriate goals

Not all goals are equally effective for improving results

Goal pursuit finishing

Obtaining the goal

Goal setting theory

People who form goals are energized to show increased effort. This, in turn, increases your effectiveness at reaching goals What is goal setting?

Integrated theory psychological mediators

Perceptions of competence, autonomy, relatedness = 3 psychological basic needs

Need achievement theory

Personal factors and situational factors in predicting achievement behavior. People vary in their motivation to avoid failure And achieve success. People take into consideration the specific achievement situation they are facing, including their probability of success and the incentive value of that success. Interaction of personal and situational factors influences athletes' behavioral tendencies and emotional reactions.

fight-or-flight

Physiological arousal. When threatened, energy is shifted from the nonessential body systems to those necessary to respond to the challenge (by fighting or fleeing)

Specific and measurable goals

Precise and measurable goals are associated with better performance. Goals that are hard to measure (ex: "try my hardest") are less motivating. Specific goals are linked to better task performance

Measurable goals

Quantifiable standards that you record

Goal barriers

Stress, fatigue, lack of time, academic pressures, social relationships, lack of confidence, too many goals, lack of goal feedback, and family/work responsibilities. Coaches can identify lack of team cohesion, injury, and lack of conditioning as barriers to goal achievement

Action-oriented goals

That indicate what is to be done. Line upon line, precept upon precept

Trait Anxiety Measures

The Sport Anxiety Scale-2 (SAS-2), Cognitive Somatic Anxiety Questionnaire (CSAQ)

Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning

The level of arousal (or anxiety) that leads to peak performance differs for different athletes Each athlete has an optimum level of arousal ( "individualized zone")

Relatedness

The need to feel connected and belongingness with others.

Biochemical measures

The presence of norepinephrine, epinephrine, and cortisol can be detected in blood or urine tests.

The Sport Competition Anxiety Test

Trait anxiety, used with both adult and child athletes

Appropriate reinforcement

Types of reinforcers. Reinforcement will vary based on athletes' interests, ability, personality, and age. Frequent reinforcement is very helpful to young or new athletes. Reinforce behavior that is close to the desired behavior Rewarding performance (effort) is better than a rewarding outcome. Coaches should reward both physical skills and social/emotional skills.

Action plan for goals

What needs to happen in order for the goal to be met. Focus on making those things happen (ex: need to master a set of skills before moving on to the next level). Goals should include a time element

Creating motivating environments

Focus on rewarding improvements over time and emphasizing the importance of effort. Helps athletes believe that coach expects they can do well. Increases intrinsic motivation, which leads to better performance. Emphasizing effort instead of outcome reduces pressure on athletes. Be sure to develop all athletes' skills (not just the best players)

Achievement Goal Theory

Focus on mastery goals leads to better outcomes, including higher levels for enjoyment in athletic events. Pursuit of mastery goals is associated with greater effort and higher levels of intrinsic motivation (and lack of fear of performing poorly)

Performance, process, and outcome goal connection

Process goals help meet performance goals.Performance goals help meet outcome goals. Focusing solely on outcome goals can lead to failure to set process and performance goals. Process/performance goals might be necessary to achieve outcome goals

Realistic goals

Reachable, yet challenging goals. It is okay to "fail"

Increased effort in goals

Realistic short-term goals -> experience success -> increase motivation. Goal setting can be especially useful when athletes are finding it difficult to get/stay, motivated. Segment the goal into smaller, more manageable chunks.

Goal achievement strategies

Record - and Monitor - Goals, Create an Action Plan, Increase Goal Commitment, Adapt Goals to Individual Athletes, Provide Goal Feedback and Support, Recognize Barriers to Goal Achievement

Goal difficulty

Relative challenge associated with achieving a particular goal. Too easy, won't push themselves. Too difficult, discouraged/withdraw further effort

Accountability goals

Report to yourself or someone else

Physiological arousal Positive

exhilaration or excitement

Overjustification

external rewards tend to undermine intrinsic interest.

Self determination theory introjection

external, I should study.

Self determination theory integration

external, I'm the kind of person who studies

Self determination theory regulation

external, no tv if you don't study.

Self determination theory identification

external, studying is important.

Five factors involved with achievement anxiety

fear of performance failure, fear of negative social evaluation, fear of physical harm, situation ambiguity, disruption of well-learned routine

Anxiety

feeling of nervousness and worry

Law of less work

given a choice between two equally valued incentives, select incentive that requires the least effort

Principle of least effort

given a choice between two equally valued incentives, select incentive that requires the least effort

Process Goals

technique or strategy. Focus on the specific actions or behaviors an athlete needs to perform. Linked with achieving outcome/performance goals. Examples: keeping a firm but relaxed grip on a golf club, keeping knees bent when landing a dismount

Competence

the experience of mastery and being effective in one's activity.

Three part experience of amotivation Lack of Autonomy:

"I am not interested in the task." "The task has no appeal or meaning to me."

Three part experience of amotivation Lack of Competence:

"I cannot effectively perform the required behavior." "I cannot obtain the desired outcomes."

Three part experience of amotivation Lack of Relatedness

"I dislike the people involved with this activity." "I have no sense of connection with others in this domain."

Implementation Intentions

An "if-then" plan that specifies in advance the goal striving process. Deciding in advance (a pre-action period) on When, where, and how goal-striving is to occur. If-then plan, For the person on a diet: If I see the cookies at the grocery store, then I will ignore them. The point: Implementation Intentions close the door on volitional problems (Should I do it? Do I feel like it? Maybe I should do something else.)

Secondary appraisal

Assess the resources available for coping. What can I do about this? A more positive interpretation of the situation leads to better Performance. Involves a person's assessment for coping with possible benefit, harm, or threat.

Goal pursuit getting started

Attaining goals requires not only effective goal setting but also a pre-action period in which one decides when, where, and how that goal will be implemented.

Integrated Theory of Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation model

Autonomy, competence, and relatedness = motivation -Autonomy: the feeling one has choice and willingly endorsing one's behavior.

Flow

Balance between difficulty and time and skill required. Too hard = frustration, too easy = boredom

Revise goals

Based on the evaluation (if necessary)

How to Harness Your Arousal

Be aware of the arousal. Think of anxiety as a signal. Utilize regulation strategies to reframe and channel. Aim sweet spot and focus task at hand, and that you can handle situation.

Self-Efficacy model

Belief you will do well = Greater effort & persistence = success. Belief you will do poorly = Less effort & persistence = failure.

Athletes who focus on mastery goals

Better sportsmanship. Like their teammates and coach more

Mere presence in arousal

Can be arousing even when we are not evaluated or distracted. Effect of others' presence increases with their number Being in a crowd intensifies positive or negative reactions. Enhances arousal

People in groups loaf less when the task is

Challenging: Appropriate stretching, Appealing: Rewards are significant, Involving: Personally meaningful Each group member's contributions are identifiable, Evaluate each other's performance, Group members are friends

The Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2

Cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, self-confidence

Self-report measures

Commonly used by sport psychologists, researchers, and coaches to measure athletes' level of arousal, anxiety, and stress.

Evaluation apprehension in arousal

Concern for how others are evaluating us

Goal feedback and support

Even with self-set goals, receiving feedback is motivating, aids in persistence. Athletes need support for goal pursuit from parents, friends, and coaches. Athletes tend to receive support for outcome goals. Remember to support "lower level," intermediate goals

Sport-confidence model

Focuses on people's enduring beliefs about their competence within athletics, and the impact of these beliefs on performance. Beliefs are influenced by achievements, self-regulation, and the social climate. Sport confidence is described as a combination of cognitive efficiency, physical skills/training, and resilience

Cognitive evaluation theory

Focuses on the CAUSES of intrinsic motivation and the factors that increase or decrease motivation. The impact of external rewards varies depending on how these rewards are perceived. Explains how an extrinsic event, money, grade, affects intrinsic and extrinsic motivations. The event's effect on the psychological needs for competence and autonomy.

Goal setting and performance

Goal setting has a positive effect on performance across many sports. Goal setting is the most common mental skill used by injured athletes in their recovery

Impact of goal type

Goals are inter-related - specific performance and process goals linked with outcome goals. Outcome goals can increase anxiety during an event. College athletes tend to emphasize outcome goals over performance goals. Higher achieving athletes tend to be more focused on process goals. Process and performance goals are easier to adjust

Prolonged persistence with goals

Goals motivate persistence. Dividing large goals into smaller ones increases persistence Specific motivation for the goal also influences persistence. Athletes who are focused on achieving particular goals may also need to learn new strategies for achieving such goals. Goal setting may increase team cohesion, which in turn improves performance outcomes

Increase goal commitment

Greater commitment is linked with successfully accomplishing goals. Goals created cooperatively can also improve motivation, persistence, and performance more than assigned goals. Athletes who set their own goals are more likely to internalize them. Coach-set goals can be effective if athletes internalize them/ want to achieve them.

Evaluate goals

How the goal has progressed. Be flexible, patient and kind to yourself

Physiological arousal

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis or HTPA axis).

External event Controlling function

If you do X, then you get Y. Decreases intrinsic motivation. Interferes with quality of learning. External regulation increases; self-regulation undermined.

Goal pursuit persisting

Implementation intentions help direct one's attention toward goal-directed action while excluding distractions

Competence Motivation Theory Model

Motivation to be competent in sport = successful attempt = feeling competent = high motivation = persistence. Motivation to be competent = unsuccessful attempt = feeling incompetent = low motivation = fewer attempts = losing motivation

Reversal Theory

In its simplest terms, 'Telic' is indicative of goal-focused motivation and behavior, whereas 'Paretelic' is a process focused motivation and behavior. For example, the telic state of a javelin thrower may be to exceed 70 meters. The paratelic behavior of the same javelin thrower may kick in when during a competition, this goal fades into the background. They may be feeling the grip of the javelin in their right palm as their number is called to throw or experiencing the rush of adrenaline the crowd begins to clap rhythmically. The goal has been momentarily forgotten, and the 'here-and-now' is everything.

Behavioral measures

Observe outward manifestations of anxiety or stress. Fidgeting, heavy breathing, rapid heart rate, or nausea Can avoid some self-report problems (unwilling to admit feeling anxious)

Goal Types

Outcome Goals, Performance Goals, Process Goals

Extrinsic motivation negative

Overjustification. Recreational athletes are intrinsic rather than competitive. If scholarship was taken, intrinsic motivation would decrease. No scholarship goes to a scholarship that would have an intrinsic decrease. Big raise lowers immediate performance.

Self-efficacy theory 4 factors

Own Experiences, Vicarious Experiences, Emotional and Physiological States, verbal persuasion = self-efficacy = performance.

Flow

Positive state in which a person feels a balance between the challenges of the situation and their skills to cope. State of flow is associated with - Very positive state, Fully absorbed performance, No sense of time passing, Achieving positive results. Achieved by mental/physical preparation, self-confidence, focus, positive attitude, and motivation. Athletes may vary in their ability to achieve flow. Athletes who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to experience flow. Optimism and hardiness may also be a factor in flow. Research is correlational, link with performance is unknown. Possible third variables: training, quality of coaching, or personality. Athletes experiencing flow may perform better, or playing well makes athletes feel a state of flow. Experienced athletes: More automatic processing. Inexperienced athletes: Too much deliberate effort

Social factors influence athletes' beliefs about themselves

Self-perceptions then influence feelings of competence, autonomy, and ability to relate to other people. These feelings, psychological mediators, then influence the type of motivation athletes feel, leading to particular consequences.

Effective goal setting

Set appropriate goals. Develop goal achievement strategies. Idea = planning = strategy = success

Directed Attention

Setting goals puts focus on a particular aspect of the game. During practice, athletes can focus more intensely on the skills necessary to achieve goals. Vidic & Burton (2010). 8-week goal setting intervention on female Division I tennis players. Increases in motivation, self-confidence, and performance.

High sport-confidence

Show better levels of performance. Use more effective strategies for achieving goals. Block out distractions and maintain focus Bounce back from adverse experiences.

Multidimensional anxiety theory

Somatic and cognitive anxiety influence performance in different ways. Peak performance occurs at a moderate level of physiological arousal. Cognitive state anxiety is negatively associated with performance (peak performance requires low levels of worry) Cognitive state anxiety was associated with lower levels of performance. Somatic state anxiety was associated with Decreased performance at high and low levels, but with increased performance at moderate levels.

Meaningful goals

Something that is concordant (congruent) and relevant for you. Matches your values. The "why"

SMARTGoals

Specific, Measurable, Action-oriented (attainable or adjustable), Realistic (relevant), Timely

SMMAARTIER-R Goals

Specific, measurable, meaningful, action-oriented goals, accountability, realistic, timely, inspiration, evaluate, revise, rejoice -Specific goals: Precise performance standards. Schedule - Implementation intentions. Deciding in advance when, where, and how goal -striving is to occur

Self-confidence

a person's overall view of him or herself as being generally capable.

Self-efficacy

a person's self-confidence within a specific domain.

Distraction in arousal

Wonder how co-actors are doing or How an audience is reacting

Record and monitor goals

Writing down goals increases effectiveness. Making goals public leads to more improvement than keeping goals private. Recording goals can help reduce undesirable behaviors. Monitoring progress promotes goal attainment, allows for goal revision if necessary

Arousal

a blend of physiological and psychological activity, or the level of alertness in a given situation.

Yips

a state of nervous tension affecting an athlete (such as a golfer) in the performance of a crucial action

Need Achievement Theory model

achievement motivation x probability of success = seek out success, focus on pride. Anti-failure motivation x Incentive value of success = avoid failure, focus on shame. According to this theory, people vary in whether they are more strongly motivated by a desire to achieve or a fear of failure, and take into consideration both the probability of success and the incentive value of that success. The interaction of these personal and Situational factors influence athletes' behavioral tendencies and emotional reactions.

Hypothalamus in stress

activates sympathetic nervous system & endocrine System.

Self-handicapping

adopting or claiming impediments to success as a way of maintaining self-esteem

Integrated theory consequences

affect, sportsmanship, persistent, general enjoyment

Psychological arousal Negative

anxiety, feelings of arousal

Cognitive evaluation theory positive feedback

athletes see positive feedback as more informational and less controlling than negative feedback. Positively increase intrinsic motivation. Negative decreases intrinsic and lowers perceived competence. Coaches have more influence than scholarship.

Reversal Theory

certain psychological processes, especially certain motivational and emotional processes, exhibit bistability rather than homeostasis (i.e. unistability). Switching from one stable state to the other in a bistable system can be referred to as a "reversal" (hence the name of the theory) and may be brought about by a number of different factors. Arousal and anxiety have different effects on performance for different people. Arousal impacts performance depending on how a person interprets that arousal. Kerr & Males (2010), elite lacrosse players who lost all four games at a world championship tournament. Circumstances that could have been seen in a positive light were instead viewed in a negative light. May have contributed to overall poor performance

Mind to muscle

cognitive; visualization, meditation

Extrinsic motivation

comes from an external source. Awards, trophies, money, praise, social status. We do it because of the outcome that will result by doing the task. Promotions, pay raises, bonuses, benefits, prizes, winning, perks.

Intrinsic motivation

comes from an internal source. Fun of competing, desire to learn new skills, excitement of performing well. We do it because of the interest and enjoyment in the task itself. Enjoyment, purpose, growth, curiosity, passion, fun, self-expression. Higher levels of enjoyment of and commitment, better participation, better performance. More likely to practice and experience flow.

Two functions of external events

control behavior and inform competence. Which is more salient determines how the external event will affect intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Subjective goals

describe general statements of intentions, not precisely measured in terms of whether they were accomplished (ex: "tried my best")

External regulation

describes behavior that is entirely motivated by a fear of punishment or a desire for a reward

Mastery Approach

desire for mastery

Mastery Avoidance

desire to avoid incompetence

Performance Avoidance

desire to avoid performing worse than others

Performance Approach

desire to be competent in relation to others

Outcome goals

end result. Focus on competitive results, typically a comparison to the opponent. Dependent on athlete's performance and the performance of others. Examples - Finishing a season with a certain number of wins, Defeating a particular player, Winning a gold medal

Physiological arousal

heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, muscle tension, and skin conductance

Transactional model

how people appraise a particular event is more important than the event itself

Stress

imbalance between demands of a situation and a person's beliefs about their ability to cope

Competence Motivation Theory positive feedback

increase in perceived competence (leads to higher levels of intrinsic motivation), higher in perceived competence. Those who receive more frequent corrective information following a mistake feel lower in perceived confidence.

Social loafing

individuals' tendency to reduce their own individual output when their contributions on a task will be combined with those of other people. More likely to occur when individuals' output isn't clear or measurable, Other members on a person's team are high in ability person doesn't feel his/her output will make a meaningful difference.

Self determination theory intrinsic

internal, studying is fun.

Integrated regulation

internalizing the external pressures on behavior and seeing behavior as freely determined. Essentially as effective as intrinsic motivation

Implementation intention

is striving to accomplish that goal and specifies when, where, and how one will achieve the goal.

The experience of AMOTIVATION

lack of competence, lack of autonomy, lack of relatedness

Performance environments

lead to extrinsic motivation, pressure, anxiety, use of maladaptive coping strategies. Create a performance-focused environment by emphasizing: outperforming others, avoiding making mistakes, rewarding only the best, Athletes' goal orientation can change over time based on the environment

Mastery-Focused environments

lead to higher levels of perceived competence, self-esteem, enjoyment, intrinsic motivation, and the experience of flow. Create a mastery-focused environment by emphasizing: Hard work, Skill development, Improvement over time, and, Valuing each athlete's role Impact of environment on motivation

Goal theory model

learners behavior = mastery goals or goals or performance goals.

Task goal orientation

mastery. Focus on improving skills and ability over time. Tend to choose challenging tasks. Prefer competing against high quality opponents

Identified regulation

motivated by external factors but feeling personal choice over participation

Self determination theory amotivation

no motivation, why study?

Sport-Confidence Model model

objective sport situation = trait sports confidence or state sports confidence or competitive orientation = Performance of skill = subjective outcome of skill.

Introjected regulation

partially intrinsically motivated, but is also motivated by controlling external factors.

Ego goal orientation

performance. Focus on outperforming others. Tend to choose relatively easy tasks. Prefer to compete against those they can beat

Self-Determination Theory

posits that different types of motivation can be organized along a continuum of self-determination or perceived locus of Causality. Behavior, motivation, regulatory styles, level of autonomy, perceived locus of causality, relevant regulatory processes. From non-self Determined to self-determined.

The Adrenal glands in stress

produce glucocorticoids, or steroid hormones, such as cortisol, helping to protect the body from injuries

Motivation for different individuals

recognize that athletes are motivated by different strategies. Motives may change over time and in a season. Create motivating environments

Mastery goals

reflect a desire to gain knowledge and skills.

Performance goals

reflect a desire to look competent in others' eyes.

Adrenal glands in stress

release epinephrine and norepinephrine. Increases heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate. Pupils widen and blood flows toward the muscles.

The pituitary gland in stress

releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Goal intention

setting a goal and specifies what one wants to achieve.

Muscle to mind

somatic; PMR, deep abdominal breathing

Goal

something a person is consciously and deliberately trying to accomplish

Objective goals

specific achievements a person wants to accomplish, measured as success/failure (ex: winning a national championship)

Performance goals

specific standard. Focus on a particular outcome, regardless of how other teams or competitors perform, less dependent on others' performances. Focus on individual achievements. Examples Running a mile in a given amount of time, Striking out a certain number of batters, Scoring a specific number of points in a basketball game

Integrated theory Social factors

success/failure, competition/cooperation, coaches behavior.

Achievement Goal Theory

task or ego goal orientation.