POLS 101 Test 2
The decline in partisan attachment in the electorate, the growth in the number of voters identifying as independent, and the rise in so-called split ticket voting was referred to as
Dealignment
Which of the following is a way that interest groups use the courts to influence public policy
filing amicus curiae briefs
Broadcast media
television, radio, or other media that transmit audio and/or video content to the public TV reaches more ppl than any other news source Few topics, not as in depth, and do very little of their own reporting; a lot of info comes from written/printed news sources
Popular opinion
fleeting, momentary public opinion instances in the moment, not an enduring value
Digital divide
gap in access to the internet among demographic groups based on education, income, age, geographic location, and race/ethnicity
Public interest groups
groups that claim they serve the general good rather than only their own particular interests Environment, consumer protection 20% of groups Common Cause
Most Americans share common set of values
liberty, equality, and democracy
Which of the following factors is not currently an obstacle to voting in the United States
literacy tests
Selection bias
polling error that arises when the sample is not representative of the pop'n being studies, which creates errors in over-representing or under-representing some opinions
Random digit dialing
polling method in which respondents are selected at random from a list of 10-digit telephone numbers, with every effort made to avoid bias in the construction of the sample
Push polling
polling technique in which the questions are designed to shape the respondent's opinion Tool designed to influence people's opinion on issues
Agenda setting
power of the media to bring public attention to particular issues and problems
National committees
Between conventions, each national political party is technically headed by its national committee (Democratic National Committee- DNC), (Republican National Committee- RNC) Try to raise money for party candidates and minimize disputes w/in party to enhance media image, overseen by chairperson Raise tens of millions of: Soft money, now use Super PACS
Ranked choice voting
Form of instant runoff voting in that it guarantees the winner of an election has support from the majority, rather than a plurality Leads to more civility in political campaigns, fewer negative campaigns, and cooperation among candidates
Explaining political participation
Socioeconomic status Wealthy have less costs (bcs own transportation, higher paying job with some flexibility) Civic engagement Degree to which people are invested in thinking of politics (public issues) and how much do you think you can make a difference Formal obstacles Voting on Tuesdays Political mobilization-Process by which people get organized to engage in political activity Political setting People more likely to be mobilized during national election Asking people to participate makes people way more likely to vote
Majority system
a type of electoral system in which, to win a seat in the parliament or other representative body, a candidate must receive a majority of all the votes cast in the relevant district Less parties Often leads to runoffs
Plurality system
a type of electoral system in which, to win a seat in the parliament or other representative body, a candidate need only receive the most votes in the election, not necessarily a majority of the votes cast (US) Less parties
liberty
freedom from government control Americans feel that gov't inference in lives and property should be minimal Also place greater emphasis on liberty and freedom of expression than citizens in other democratic countries, including freedom of speech, free internet and free press
Three forces that shape public opinions in marketplace
gov't, private groups (interest groups), and news media
Partisan gerrymandering
occurs when politicians from one party intentionally manipulate the boundaries for legislative election districts to disadvantage their political opponents' chance of winning an election and advantage their own political party
Early voting
option in some states to cast a vote at a polling place or by mail before the election 37 states allow
Permanent absentee ballots
option in some states to have a ballot sent automatically to you home for each election, rather than having to request an absentee ballot each time Increases turnout and saves gov't mone
Political parties
organized groups that attempt to influence the gov't by electing their members to important gov't offices Need to be competitive + responsible = greater voter turnout
In general, FCC regulations apply only to
over-the-air broadcast media
The theory that competition among organized interest will produce balance and compromise with all the interest regulating one another is
pluralism
the three stages of John Zaller's model of opinion formation are
"recieve," "accept," and "sample."
Digital media
(online newspapers and magazines, streaming videos, social media, online tabloids) Digital news source of choice among those under 50 Streaming replacing broadcasting
Economic and corporate groups
1/3 of offices lobbying in Washington 23% labor unions, 6 in 10 groups rep business, corporations, or trade associations Industries that spend the most: financial, insurance, real estate, pharmaceutical (most) Some interest groups organize bcs they have direct economic interest in government policies Examples include: Business Groups (Bue Cross Blue Shield, Boeing), labor groups (teamsters), professional associations (American Bar Association)
If a state has 10 members in the US house of representatives how many votes in the electoral college does that state have
12
Which group won voting rights most recently?
18-20 year olds
Labor groups
2% total interests groups registered to lobby Professional associates Just over 10% those lobbying, medical and bar associations
How many states currently have an initiative process that lets citizens draft legislation, circulate petitions, and place measures on the ballot for popular vote
24
Adversarial journalism refers to
A form of reporting in which the media adopt a skeptical or even hostile posture toward the opinions and behaviors of their audience
socialism refers to
A political ideology that emphasizes social ownership and strong government
Public broadcasting outlets that receive government funding through license fees, subsidies, or tax dollars
Account for less than 5% of media market share in the United States
Picking presidents: the electoral college
After officially nominated at party convention, candidates compete in general election People don't directly elect the president
They lose network of elected leaders, public officials, activist, and interest groups try together by a public policy if she was referred to as
An issue network
african americans
Are more likely to participate when they feel a shared sense of collective identity
Political knowledge
Better-informed individuals can recognize political interests and act consistently to further them (more likely to be partisans and have ideology, conservative/liberal) Higher education/income = greater political participation, and therefore more influence
Ideological groups + advocacy groups
Christian Coalition Moveon.org Anti-abortion
Which statement best describes influence over politics and public policy decisions in the United States
Citizens who are more affluent and more educated have a disproportionately large influence over politics and public policy decisions in the United States
Media leaks
Come from many different sources, but most often from higher up gov't officials and politicians
African Americans
Concentrated poverty and segregation created barriers to Black political participation, shared sense of collective identity among Black voters helps to increase voting participation African Americans more likely to vote than White Americans (may be due to linked fate)
Regulating lobbying
Congress has tried to limit lobbying role by adopting stricter guidelines Lobbying Disclosure Act Expanded definition of the organization and individuals that must register to lobby 1996: Congress limited size of gifts to its own members Lots of other rules lobbyists just found their way around
The second party system (1830s)
Democrats and the Whigs Democrats (Jeffersonian republicans) Supporters of Andrew Jackson Strong support from the South and West Favored free trade (were against tariffs) Whigs just followed the Federalist party Strong in the Northeast and among merchants United more by opposition to the Democrats than policy Emphasized candidates' personal qualities Members of Whigs and anti-slavery democrats joined the new Republican Party, nominated Lincoln National party conventions to choose the president- still elites but some opening)
The so-called New Deal coalition was severely strained
During the 1960s by conflicts over civil rights in the Vietnam war
The periodic episodes in American history in which an "old" dominant political party is replaced by a "new" dominant political party are called
Electoral realignments
Party-in-the-electorate and elections
Gender gap More than 90% of Black voters identify as Democrats Jewish more likely to support Democrats, White Protestant more likely to identify with Republicans Socioeconomic class has effect on party support and the wealthy more likely to support republicans
Public-sector groups
Harvard, research groups 10% National League of Cities, think tanks, universities
the consumer confidence index is
Has been a fairly accurate predictor of presidential outcomes
In nearly every election since 1980, the average amount of money spent by House incumbents to secure reelection has
Has been greater than the average amount of money spent by challengers
States that allow for same day registration
Have higher rates of voter turn out among younger and less educated voters then states that do not allow for same day registration
Which of the following statements about political knowledge is not accurate
In general citizens with high levels of political knowledge are less likely to belong to political organizations and to be active in politics
In 2018 Republicans won the Senate seats in which of the following states
Indiana, Missouri, and North Dakota
Ballot measures
Initiatives and referenda have been found to increase voter turnout esp in midterms but also in presidential elections Only 24/50 states do them
More than 3/4 of the daily print newspapers in the United States are owned by
Large media conglomerates
Which of the following statements about Latinos is not accurate
Latinos have tended to favorite Republican candidates in a recent national elections
Latinos
Make up great percent of pop'n (17%), and although they are less likely to be registered and turnout, its increasing They vote democratic and don't let their religion dictate politics, latinx heavily favored Democrats in recent elections More likely to vote when they're represented by their own in legislature (descriptive representation)
What political parties do/ functions of political parties
Mobilize citizens in the electorate to vote/ attract partisans Offer choices to voters in elections/ recruit candidates/control nominations Provide officeholders w organization for running gov't Coordinate policy and government
To win under the plurality system used in most American elections a candidate must receive
More votes than his or her opponents regardless of the percent
Nominating presidential candidates: primaries and caucuses
Most states: primary elections, 1/3: caucus Caucuses: essentially big party business meetings where districts meet up and decide who they prefer, caucuses give party leaders and activists a larger role in selecting candidates for public office than primaries do Candidate strategies to win states holding primaries are different than for states using caucuses bcs voter turnout in caucuses so much lower than primaries
Approaches to interest group membership: two case studies
MoveOn Informational selective benefits (daily/weekly news) Solidarity benefits (volunteering/donating) Purposive benefits (might be most effective in maintaining new online citizen advocacy groups)- knowledge that one is contributing to the important cause AARP American Association of Retired Persons Successfully provided selective benefits to overcome free-rider problem: Guidance against consumer fraud, low-interest credit cards, auto insurance, discounted mail-order pharmacy "telephone tree" to contact elected officials on issues important to them (healthcare)
Age and participation
Older (homeownership and property taxes) more likely to vote than younger
Newspapers (print) newspapers magazines
Oldest media, mot ppl read digital versions today Can help set political agenda of a nation by informing views on public matters Have to be objective, standardized Less journalists, less circulation, and less advertising money as a result (2016 saw increase in subscriptions) The Washington Post owned by Bezos, making money, investigative journalism (esp on 45) Subscriptions viable models for revenue for some
Lobbying to the president
Only the best most well known lobbyists
Expressive politics
Participation in politics becoming more expressive of opinions due to social media Increased participation in digital politics, esp through social media, may force elected officials to better represent the people
3rd party system: The civil war and post-civil war party system
Party realignment (completely switch party) Republicans dominated North (business middle class support) Republican party forms as anti-slavery party- Pledged to ban slavery from the western territories Whigs go away Won presidency with Lincoln in 1860 Led reconstruction in the South after the Civil War Democrats dominated South (working class immigrant support) Remained competitive despite the South's recession Dominant party in the South after Reconstruction Northern support from immigrants and working class Pro slavery
Presidential elections
Presidential elections have special rules bcs they are only public office in US elected by all American citizens (even tho technically the electoral college elects the president, not direct popular vote of citizens) National convention delegate system for nominating candidates is unique to presidential elections Nominating presidential candidates: primaries and caucuses
Adversarial journalism
Reporting in which media adopt a skeptical or even hostile posture toward the gov't and public officials Aggressive techniques of investigating, publicity, and exposure necessary for this role
A political party is different from an interest group and that a political party
Seeks to control the government by nominating candidates and electing its members to office
Asian Americans
Smaller pop'n (6%), have economic and education levels closer to White Americans, but less likely to participate than White or African Americans, their turnout is more similar to Latinos Diversity of Asian pop'n has impeded the development of group-based political power Vote increasingly Democratic
Fundraising
Spend 40-50% of time on this Incumbents find it easier
Which of the following is not an activity in which interest groups frequently engage
Starting their own political party
The now-defunct requirement that broadcasters provide time for opposing views when they air programs on controversial issues was called
The fairness doctrine
Which of the following is not a reason that many Americans appear to prefer online news
The accuracy and objectivity compared to traditional media outlets
In Buckley v. Valeo, the supreme court ruled that
The right of individuals to spend their own money to campaign is constitutionally protected
Regulation of the Broadcast Media
Through Federal Communications Commission (FCC), the gov't regulates the business and content of broadcast media Part of the federal gov't, can be regulated bcs public airways for television is limited Finite commodity of radio- legit for gov't to regulate it so diversity is represented Online media is tricky bc it is very hard to regulate and is not subject to FCC rules
Digital communication
Today's advocacy groups relatively inexpensive to organize and are quick to adapt, focusing on wise umbrella of issues With some more focused groups like the Sierra Club on the environment Streamlined less staff that work remotely Grassroots strategies to pressure officials; social media to organize rallies, generate headlines, fund-raising events, letter-writing campaigns, etc Improve representation of citizens through the internet
Campaign strategy
Two general election campaigns: Grassroots campaigns: political campaigns that operate at the local level, often using face-to-face communication to generate interest and momentum by citizens Mass media campaigns
Electoral college
US president needs to receive majority of votes in electoral college to win Each state given set # votes in electoral college based on size of congressional delegation
Voting: Voter ID Laws
Voter Id laws are determined by the states and can be a barrier to voting Lots of people don't have drivers licenses- especially in urban areas (NY) Lots of people also don't have a passport bcs its used for international travel, lots of people don't do that They require voters to provide proof of identity Exist in 34 states Photo ID required in 14 states Republicans argue that laws are needed to prevent voter fraud Democrats counter that voter fraud is nearly nonexistent and that ID laws are designed to suppress turnout
One reason that there are few were women than men in elected office is that
Women are less likely to run for office than men
Gender and participation
Women register and vote at rates similar or higher than those of men (women out preform men a marginal amount)
Proportional representation:
a multiple-member district system that allows each political party representation in proportion to its percentage of the total vote Increase # of competitive viable political parties
Caucus (political)
a normally closed political party business meeting of citizens or lawmakers to select candidates, elect officers, plan strategy, or make decisions regarding legislative matters Primaries seem democratic but are really controlled by the wealthy and endorsements (bcs low turnout in primaries)
party platform
a party document, written at a national convention, that contains party philosophy, principles, and policy positions Opportunity for party to showcase its candidate- acceptance speeches
Traditional political participation:
activities designed to influence gov't, including voting, campaign contributions and face-to-face activities such as volunteering for a campaign or working on behalf of a candidate or political organization, signing a petition
Digital political participation
activities designed to influence politics using the internet, including visiting a candidate's website, organizing events online, and signing an online petition More interactive experience based on traditional participation Digital participation leads to likelihood of voting, contributing to political campaigns, or talking about politics w family members
Institutional advertising
advertising designed to create a positive image of an organization Create + maintain positive association b/w organization and the community at large in hope of drawing on these favorable feelings as needed for specific political campaigns later on Protests and demonstrations Sponsorships of boycotts
The media's powers to determine what becomes a part of political discussion is known as
agenda setting
An incumbent is a candidate who
already holds the office he or she is running for
Party identification
an individual voter's psychological ties to one party or another Democrats make up slightly more than 1/3, Republicans make up less than 1/3
Policy entrepreneur:
an individual who identifies a problem as a political issue and brings a policy proposal into the political agenda Policies to expand their party's base of support while eroding that of the opposition
Town hall meeting:
an informal public meeting in which candidates meet with ordinary citizens; allows candidates to deliver messages w/o the presence of journalists/commentators
Membership association
an organized group in which members play a substantial role, sitting on committees and engaging in group projects
News aggregator
application or feed that collects web content such as news headlines, blogs, podcasts, online videos, and more in one location for easy viewing Reddit, Google News
Gerrymandering
apportionment of voters in districts in such a way as to give unfair advantage to one racial or ethnic group or political party
Values (or beliefs)
basic principles that shape a person's opinions about political issues and events Morals (liberty, freedom, democracy: political values held by most Americans
Collective goods
benefits sought by groups that are broadly available and cannot be denied to nonmembers
Incumbent
candidate running for re-election to a position that he/she already holds
penny press
cheap, tabloid-style newspaper produced in the 19th century, when mass production of inexpensive newspapers fist became possible due to the steam-powered printing press; a penny press news paper cost one cent compared with other papers, that cost more than 5 cents, similar to how the internet functions now
Public opinion:
citizen's attitudes about political issues, leaders, institutions, and events, more durable opinions about institutions, generally stay the same over time
Political ideology
cohesive set of beliefs that forms a general philosophy about the role of government Liberal/conservative, libertarian, etc Informs your public opinion Ideological thinking separates Americans, most Americans don't even really know what ideologies mean Surveys usually ask two questions to measure ideology: Should gov't play large role in determining the distribution of economic beliefs? (Yes) Should gov't actively promote a particular set of social values? (Yes) Four ideological types: Liberals (yes first, no second) Conservatives (no first, yes second) Populists (yes to both) Libertarians (no to both) Textbook mentions socialists More people being liberal, increase in conservative, moderate decrease (put don't move crazy amounts, its gradual)
Benefits sought by groups that are broadly available and cannot be denied to nonmembers are called
collective goods
Midterm elections
congressional elections that do not coincide with a presidential election; also called off-year elections (every 2 years)
today, the term ___ refers to someone Who generally supports the social and economic status quo and is suspicious of efforts to introduce new political formulas and economic arrangements
conservative
Which of the following techniques is considered most effective in mobilizing voters
face-to-face contact
Digital citizens:
daily internet user with broadband (high-speed) home internet access and the technology and literacy skills to go online for employment, news, politics, entertainment, commerce, and other activities
Gender gap
distinctive pattern of voting behavior reflecting differences in views between women and men Women more likely to vote Democratic (reduced military, support gun control and social programs) Women favor rehabilitation, men favor incarceration Runs around 10 points in presidential elections
Party polarization:
division between the two major parties on most policy issues, with members of each party unified around their party's positions with little crossover Congress is very partisan (most polarized it's been in decades), but most Americans are moderate, may be because of how they're voted in As members of Congress become more ideological, more power is given to party leaders to control legislation Distinguishing feature of the current party system
Social desirability effect
effect that results when respondents in a survey report what they expect the interviewer (or socially acceptable) wishes to hear rather than what they believe
Campaign:
effort by political candidates and their supporters to win the backing of donors, political activists, and voters in their quest for political office
Primary elections
elections held to select a party's candidate for the general election
Pluralism
heory that all interests are and should be free to compete for influence in the gov't; the outcome of this competition is compromise and moderation Elite pluralism more accurately depicts American politics; through group politics, economic elites have more influence that mass-based forces Criticisms of pluralism, some argue that: Interest groups over-represent the wealthy in society Interest groups provide self-serving and biased info that warp policy-making
In the 2016 general election, voters who said they felt the country and the economy were headed in the wrong direction were most likely to vote for
jill stein
Discount purchasing and health insurance are examples of
material benefits
The practice of tailoring campaign messages to individuals and small, homogeneous groups is referred to as
microtargetting
Interest group
ndividuals who organize to influence the gov'ts programs and policies Many interest groups create PACs in their name for money-giving arm of interest group Interest groups focus on policies of gov't, political parties focus on personnel of gov't Not all interests are represented equally in society, so interest groups politics work to advantage of some, disadvantage of others Economic groups better mobilize (oil + gas industries, etc) The character of interest groups Interest groups form: To increase the chance people will be heard People will be represented in government
Party activists
partisans who contribute time, energy, and effort to support their party and its candidates
Referendum
practice of referring a proposed law passed by a legislature to the vote of the electorate for approval or rejection (all 50 states) Initiate + referendum = ballot measures, direct democracy, increase voter turnout
Ballot initiative
proposed law/policy change that is placed on the ballot by citizens or interest groups for a popular vote
Public funding of presidential campaigns was
rejected by all four major-party presidential candidates in 2012 and 2016
most leaks originate with
senior government officials, prominent politicians, and political activists
Sample
small group selected by researchers to represent the most important characteristics of an entire population Pollsters begin by choosing as sample of the total pop'n to interview Selecting a representative sample is key to being able to make generalizations about a poll's results Random sampling is one of best ways to get generalized model Sample size must be large enough to provide accurate representation of the pop'n
Friendship and networking are examples of
solidary benefits
The term public opinion is used to describe
the beliefs and attitudes that people have about issues, events, elected officials, and policies
Divided government:
the condition in American government wherein the presidency is controlled by one party while the opposing party controls on or both houses of Congress
Same-day registration
the option in some states to register on the day of the election, at the polling place, rather than in advance of the election Increases turnout by abt 5% Has greatest effect in boosting voting rates and making participation between different demographic groups more equal
Majority party
the party that holds the majority of legislative seats in either the House or the Senate Where Speaker of the House comes from
Staff organization
type of membership group in which a professional staff conducts most of the group's activities
Which event shattered the amicable relationship between the press and the presidency
vietnam war
Social media
web- and mobile- based techs that are used to turn communication into interactive dialogue among orgs, communities, and individuals; social media techs take on many different forms including text, blogs, podcasts, photos, streaming video, Facebook, and Twitter Secondary source after TV for most, primary for some (young)
Micro-targeting:
when political campaigns tailor messages to individuals in small homogenous groups based on their group interests to support a candidate or policy issue
Which party was formed in the 1830s in opposition to Andrew Jackson's presidency
whig
in 2016, Trump and the Republicans recieved a majority of votes from
whites and men
Equality of opportunity
widely shared American ideal that all people should have the freedom to use whatever talents and wealth they have to reach their fullest potential Based on individual success and effort, not family contributions (education as surefire way to success)
Which of the following statements is true about the 2018 elections
youth turnout increased significantly
Delegates:
a representative who votes according to the preferences of his or her constituency Chosen by states party leaders, Democratic party requires proportional representation, Republicans do not
An open primary is a primary election in which
All registered voters, including independence, are able to choose which party primary they will participate in
The paradox of voting in America
Americans believe voting is important, yet we do not have great participation in elections in comparison to other developed countries
Party-as-organization
At the national level, there are many different party organizations: both Democrats and Republicans have: National committees (DNC; RNC) Senatorial Committees (DSCC; NRSC) Ask people to donate to your campaign here, not from the capital building (that's prohibited) Congressional Committees (DCCC; NRCC)
super pacs
Can raise and spend unlimited amounts of money as long as their activities are not coordinated with those of the formal party organizations or the candidates
Benefits of online news
Convenience Always accessible through mobile devices, may lead to more informed citizenry Use of media associated w more interest in politics, greater knowledge of politics, and greater likelihood of discussing politics w friends and family, and voting Currency Speed and scope of coverage, major news stories break first online and travel around the globe by social media Depth More info than 60-second sound bites in television and radio news Blending text and visual combines print and TV Diversity Online sources much more diverse than traditional media, can le ad to increase in political knowledge and interest More diversity but also more chances for outright lies to be spread Enhances political engagement Citizen journalism Arab spring uprising
Are there drawbacks to digital participation?
Echo chambers, filters out competing ideas = polarization and hyper-partisanship People will only trust news sources from like-minded sources, dismissing news from other sources Exacerbated partisan conflict, social divisions, culture wars, intolerance of races, religion, etc Anonymity can lead to forums for hate speech, terrorist appeals, and harassment May lead to "disruption of the public square" Targeted groups, such as women and minorities, may opt out of participating in discussion of politics bcs may receive hate from expressing opposing opinions
Radio
Evolved w popularity of podcasts NPR Increased radio listening AM/FM formats remained steady in revenue, w uptick in podcast/online radio Comedy SNL, important news source for young ppl and liberals, well informed abt politics
Public funding
Federal Election Campaign Act also provides for public funding of presidential campaigns, candidates not required by law to accept public funding Those that do not accept it are not affected by any expenditure limits Unlimited spending by candidates of their own money
Digital citizenship requires
High speed Internet access in the skills to use and evaluate online information
5th party system: The new deal party system: gov't helps working class
Huge party realignment Republicans In the White House when the Great Depression began 1928 Herbert Hoover Republican during Great Depression, some felt he hadn't done enough to help Americans Democrats- lifelong republicans switch allegiance to democrat (Black Americans, southern farmers, etc bcs the party for the poor etc) 1932 Franklin Delano Roosevelt Democrat, New Deal increased power of national gov't greatly Favored a larger role for federal gov't to combat the Great Depression Majority for next 36 yrs with Jewish, African American, Catholic, southern farmers, union workers, intellectuals etc. support Split in Democratic party in 1960s w Vietnam war, let GOP in under Nixon "southern strategy" Party machines go away- primaries become main way people choose their party's candidates
Regulation of the Media
In the US, print + online media are essentially free from gov't interference Broadcast media is subject to federal regulation by Federal Communications Commission (FCC) Prohibit obscenity, indecency, profanity during hours when children would see it Does not apply to cable television, the internet, or satellite radio Telecommunications Act loosened restrictions and caused mergers of providers Communications Decency Act (internet restrictions for indecent material) unconstitutional FCC regulates broadcast media through various rules
Shortcuts and cues
Individuals rely on cues from trusted party elites, interest groups, and media to aid in attitude formation People rely on shortcuts to form public opinion on politics and public policy, and this makes lower levels of political knowledge (or instability of opinions) less of a concern Polarized political environments change how citizens make decisions + form opinions Party endorsements have greater impact on public opinion than they used to Party polarization may actually reduce levels of political knowledge, negative impacts on public opinion formation
Outside lobbying
Interest groups also seek power by mobilizing public opinion: Going public Institutional advertising Protests/demonstrations Grassroots mobilization Got milk campaign
Using the courts- lobbying the courts
Interest groups sometimes pursue a legal strategy to achieve their policy aims Either as parties to legal suits, financing litigation initiated by individuals or by submitting amicus curiae briefs, interest groups seek to affect court decisions Bring suit directly on behalf of group itself Financing suits brought by individuals Filing a companion brief as an amicus curiae "friend of the court" to an existing court case Brown. V Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas + Obergefell v. Hodges Roe v. Wade + Webster v. Reproductive Health Services Litigation involving large business is common in taxation, antitrust, interstate corporation, patents, and product quality + standardization
How do political parties form and change?
Internal mobilization: political conflicts prompt officials and competing factions w/in gov't to mobilize popular support External mobilization: group of politicians outside of gov't organizes popular support to win gov't power
Concerns about online news
Loss of investigative power Journalism orgs have trouble funding investigative journalism, but internet has made it harder for news outlets to draw on advertising dollars, bcs ad firms going online to deliver targeted ads to consumers via social media and search engines (firms can now reach people without paying news orgs) May hurt investigative power More variation in the quality of news Multiple perspectives contributing to marketplace of ideas but also allows for hate speech, rumors, factual errors, etc Fake news False stories circulated to generate ad revenue or to benefit one political candidate or party over another Potential effects on knowledge and tolerance Lower tolerance for social, religious, and political diversity = more partisan polarization and societal conflict "self-selection bias" of what we want to hear, echo chambers Ppl who consume political news more are going to be more politically involved and informed, vote in elections, but consuming highly partisan news may lower political knowledge Average political knowledge has remained the same for decades, though
How to increase turnout
Make registration easier Same-day registration Some states offer the option of registering on the day of election at the polling place Require voting by law Make it a national holiday!!!!!!!! Lower costs of voting Permanent absentee ballots/ mail only ballots (voter fraud is virtually nonexistent) Some states offer the option of having a ballot sent automatically to the voter's home for each election, rather than requiring voters to request one each time Early voting (option to vote before Election Day)
Money and politics
Many nations finance elections through public money, but not so in the US The Supreme Court's rulings allow unlimited spending In Buckley v. Valeo (1976), the Court introduced the concept that money is "speech" It allowed unlimited independent PAC expenditures and unlimited spending by candidates on their own campaign In Citizens Unite v. FEC (2010), the Court ruled that independent spending by corporations is protected speech Individual contributions are limited to: $2,700 per candidate per election $5,000 per federal PAC Sources of campaign Funds: Super PACs and 501c(4) Groups Can spend unlimited amounts independent of campaigns
Responsible party government
Many political scientists believe that strong political parties are essential to the proper functioning of democracy Responsible party government: a set of principles that idealizes a strong role for parties in defining their stance on issues, mobilizing voters, and fulfilling their campaign promises once in office Every single person in the party takes on the party's position
The profit motive
Media are privately owned companies and for profit corporations Public broadcasting: Tv, radio, and digital media that receive funding from the public through license fees, subsidies, or tax dollars Plays small role in media system of the US (NPR, PBS): 2%, much lower than other countries US citizens have less political knowledge than those who consume more public broadcasting US media have fewer regulations Earn most of their revenue from advertising rather than subscriptions, but subscriptions are increasing Makes media motivated by what audiences want, bcs higher ratings = more advertising revenue Objectivity is still the goal, but American news sources focus more on "soft news" like sports and more dramatic stories
By identifying problems and proposing policies that will expand their party's base of support, party leaders can act as
Policy entrepreneurs
Decline of political parties in the US
Political parties are having a harder time: Attracting partisans (evidence of a dealignment since 1960s) More people register as independent in CO Recruiting candidates/controlling nominations They used to control candidates but they don't anymore Coordinating policy and gov't
Party affiliation
Political party membership one of most important factors in affecting political attitudes Party polarization greater issue, defining feature of Congress and many state legislatures Pop'n concentrations in cities for Dems, rural/suburban for Republicans Democrats more liberal, Republicans more conservative Two parties are becoming more polarized, wide differences in opinion on climate change, immigration, taxes, trade Despite this, most Americans hold moderate views
A familiar pulling problem is the bandwagon effect which occurs when
Polling results influence people to support the candidate marked as the probable victor in a campaign
The first party system: federalists and Jeffersonian republicans in the 1790s (voter participation during this is super limited)
Presidential candidates from either party were selected by the legislative caucus (members of Congress decided who they wanted for president, elites were choosing those who will be in office) Electors (electoral college) in the first party system could choose whoever they wanted for president Electoral college created as anti-democratic body to foster elite interests Electoral votes = house representatives + senate reps Small population states prefer the electoral college bcs they get a disproportional amount of power Every state has 2 senators- smaller states over represented in the Senate Federalists: pros strong national government and the constitution Represented New England merchants Supportive of protective tariffs Creation of national bank Jeffersonian republicans: also the anti-federalists, later known as Democrats, weaker national gov't, turned into Democratic Party (under Jackson) Represented southern framers Supported free trade Close relationship w France
Characteristics of political socialization
Primacy tendency- what you learn first (in childhood) sticks with you the most, one of most significant parts of your socialization process, informs structuring tendency Structuring tendency- early learning shapes everything you learn later in life, primacy tendency is true, what you learn first is what you learn best, and that early learning informs how you interpret events, politicians, etc Filter through what you learned in early life Some ppl do break away and change their socialization, rejecting what was learned earliest Casual in U.S.- we do not, as a country, actively try to socialize people to one party/beliefs etc China pretty much tries to make everyone Communist Cultural thinking Consensus fundamental values in American politics, unites us as individuals (regardless of political party): Equality of opportunity Liberty Democracy
When your voter decides which candidate to vote for based on imagined future performance the voter is engaged in
Prospective voting
Lobbying congress
Provide info abt policies to busy members of Congress Buy time, expertise, and influence Have close personal relationships with political figures Influence setting of legislative agenda
The natural resources defense counsel, the sierra club, the national civic league, and the common cause are all examples of
Public interest groups
Calculus of voting
R=p (B) + D - C R= expected benefit one receives from voting P= probability that your vote makes a difference (your vote is THE determining vote, is very rare, so this is usually 0) B= tangible benefit you get from getting you preferred candidate win (additional income from a tax cut if your candidate wins) b x 0 is most likely just going to be 0 D= satisfaction one gets from voting C= cost of voting (financial, time) voting pretty much comes down to d - c (for many individuals, the cost of voting is just too much bcs of childcare, work hours) Voter turnout correlates with education bcs they have better jobs It's not a national holiday in the US Elderly vote more bcs their costs are so much lower
Candidate characteristics
Race, ethnicity, religion, gender, geography, socio-economic background that help people decide who to vote for
Party-in-government
Refers to the ability of parties to structure and control the government Majority party Minority party In the US, party-in-government tends to be weak compared to that of other similar democracies Unlike parliamentary systems, in the US control of the gov't can be divided b/w the two parties, one controlling the Congress and the other the Executive In the legislative branch, our parties lack the control over the votes of their members that most parties have in parliamentary systems Both bodies of Congress: Senate and House need to pass identical bills for the president's signature We have weak parties bcs the individual members can act differently than the majority if they choose
Why is voter turnout down?
Registration requirements (states decide) When people move states, they have to re-register to vote Frequency of elections Lack of clear-cut differences between political parties on policies Dissatisfaction with the parties Our parties have become umbrella parties bcs of our two party system
Sixth party system: The contemporary American party system (1960s)
Republicans They won the support of whites southerners with Nixon's "southern strategy" Bcs kinda weird for white farmers that don't agree with Black civil rights to be in the party promoting their rights Ronald Reagan added religious conservatives and working class whites to the coalition Democrats Retained support of racial minorities, union workers, upper-middle-class professionals Democrats lost southern whites to GOP, in addition to conservatives (over the issue of segregation in the South)
4th party system: The system of 1896: populism and republican responses
Republicans- becomes more urban Strong support from busines; favored low taxes Popular in the northern and midwestern states Dominated national politics for more than three decades Democrats- more rural interests Emerged w the Populist Party Supported from small farmers and mining interests, immigrants Led by William Jennings Bryan Populist party gained support, joined with Democratic party Still had base in South and far West Republican party opposed ^ that alliance, and were nation's majority party Pro-business, low taxes, high tariffs on imports, small gov't Party machines take off Recruit people into the parties, give people food and help them find jobs, patronage in exchange for party support Progressive movement Weaken the party machines that are corrupt Increase power of the people, more transparency in government Push to directly elect senators (state legislators would vote for the senators) Constitutional amendment that allows people to directly elect their senators
Voting rights of felons
Restricted from voting 48 states + DC prohibit prison inmates who are serving felony sentence from voting 21 states: felons on probation/parole aren't permitted to vote 13 states: felons lose voting rights forever for some crimes 2.4% voting age pop'n have lost their right to vote bcs of this, disproportionately impacts minorities (1 in 8 Black men unable to vote due to a criminal record) In 48 states and the District of Columbia, prison inmates with a felony conviction are prohibited from voting
Which of the following features of the house of representatives is determined by a vote of the whole membership rather than by decisions within each party
Selection of speaker of the house
Nominating presidential candidates: party conventions
Superdelegates: party elites that don't have to answer to voting results in their state primaries, can vote as they wish (Republicans don't use these) Party convention no longer controls presidential nominations, but it still: Makes rules concerning delegate selection and future presidential primary elections draft party platform
The Congressional election system in the United States is called first past the post because
The candidate with the most votes wins even if she did not win a majority of the popular vote
Which of the following is not determined at a party's national convention
The congressional committees party representatives will be assigned to
Which of the following best describes the federal government laws regarding lobbying
The federal law requires all organizations employing lobbyists to register with Congress into disclose whom they represent, whom they lobby, what they are looking for, and how much they are paid
Which of the following is an important reason for the enormous increase in the number of groups seeking to influence the American political system
The increase in the size and activity of government during the last few decades
Money and politics
Usually the candidate with the most campaign dollars wins The courts and campaign spending US rare among democracies in allowing candidates to raise unlimited sums of money to spend on their campaigns with no time restrictions of when the money can be spent Buckley v. Valeo (1976): struck down provisions of Federal Election Campaign Act of 1974 like limits on campaign spending, use of personal funds, and independent expenditures Money as "speech" under First Amendment, candidates can spend unlimited amounts of their own money on their own campaigns, sets limits on individuals' campaign contributions Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010): gov't could not restrict independent expenditures by corporation or union in support of candidates Corporations + unions can spend unlimited sums SpeechNow v. FEC allowed wealthy individuals and orgs to form committees (Super PACs) that can raise unlimited amounts of money and run advertising for and against candidates as long as their efforts are not coordinated with those of the candidates
which organization has used the internet to anonymously release thousands of secret US government documents relating to corruption, war crimes, and torture in recent years?
Wikileaks
Which of the following statements about young peoples political attitudes is most accurate
Younger people are more supportive of funding for public education and colleges than older people
Lobbying
a strategy by which organized interests seek to influence the passage of legislation by exerting direct pressure on gov't officials More about informing public officials Some groups attain enough access to achieve actual involvement in the governmental decision-making process
Runoff election
a "second-round" election in which voters choose between the top two candidates from the first round (common in majority systems)
the main difference between a 527 committee and a 501(c)(4) committee is that
a 501(c)(4) is not legally required to disclose where it gets its money while a 527 is legally required to do so
Right of rebuttal
a Federal Communications Commission regulation giving individuals the right to have the opportunity to respond to personal attacks made on a radio or television broadcast Gives individuals the opportunity to respond to personal attacks If you're the subject of a personal attack on broadcast radio/television, you can demand the right of rebuttal and make a case against the critique (not everyone does it, it's just required) Fairness doctrine revoked Just can't stop it prior to publication Pentagon SCOTUS ruled that gov't couldn't stop the publication
one of the major differences between PACs and Super PACs is that
a PAC has a maximum contribution limit of $5,000 per candidate in each election cycle while a Super PAC cannot donate to candidates directly
Grassroots mobilization
a lobbying campaign in which a group mobilizes its membership to contact government officials in support of the group's position Have been effective in recent years Members of Congress still continue to respond to lobbyists more than public demonstrations of support of specific policy issues
Issue networks
a loose network of elected leaders, public officials, activists, and interest groups drawn together by a specific policy issue May overlap iron triangles and coexist
Open primaries
a primary election in which the voter can wait until the day of the primary to choose which party to enroll in to select candidates for the general election
Closed primary
a primary election in which voters can participate in the nomination of candidates but only of the party in which they are enrolled for a period of time prior to primary day
General election
a regularly scheduled election involving most districts in the nation or state, in which voters elect officeholders; in the US, general elections for national office and most state and local offices are held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday of November in even-numbered years (every 4 years for presidential elections)
Majority-minority districts
an electoral district, such as a congressional district, in which the majority of the constituents belong to racial or ethnic minorities Districting based on exclusively race/ethnicity is unlawful Shaw v. Reno (1993) SCOTUS has opposed efforts to force the creation of these
National convention:
convened by the Republican National Committee or the Democratic National Committee to nominate official candidates for president and vice president in the upcoming election, establish party rules, and adopt the party's platform
Which of the following states flipped from Democratic to Republican in the 2016 election
florida, ohio, and pennsylvania
The fact that Democrats discussed the patient protection and affordable care act as a matter of compassionate responsibility and good economic sense while Republicans discussed it as a matter of "healthcare rationing" is an example of
framing
Partisanship
identification with or support of a particular party or cause
"selective benefits"
informational, material, solidarity, purposive, or a combo, interest groups give individuals incentives to join the group- tools to overcome free rider problem
Which of the following are examples of going public strategy
institutional advertising, grassroots advertising, and protests and demonstrations
Simple random sample (or probability sample
method used by pollsters to select a representative sample in which every individual in the pop'n has an equal probability of being selected as respondent
Soft money
money contributed directly to political parties and other organizations for political activities, such as voter mobilization drives, that is not regulated by federal campaign spending laws Unregulated contributions to national parties
Dealignment
movement away from the major political parties; a decline in partisan attachment Those identifying as independent have grown to 40%
Citizen journalism
news reported and distributed by citizens, rather than professional journalists and for-profit news orgs Interactive, participatory No checks on mis-information, though
News reporting devoted to a targeted portion of readers based on continent or ideological presentation is called
niche journalism
527 Committee (Super PAC)
nonprofit independent political action committee that may raise unlimited sums of money from corporations, unions, and individuals but is not permitted to contribute to or coordinate directly with parties or candidates Can spend unlimited amounts- Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission Campaign activism Ballot initiatives Interest groups sponsor ballot initiates at state level More work to block bills that hurt group's goals Citizen groups and unions are the most effective at sponsoring ballot measures, whereas businesses, trade associations, and professional associations are more effective at lobbying state legislatures Direct democracy like the initiative process favor citizen interests lobbying favors economic interests
527 committees (Super PACs)
nonprofit independent political action committee that may raise unlimited sums of money from corporations, unions, and individuals, but is not permitted to contribute to or coordinate directly with parties or candidates
the digital divide means
not all citizens have equal access to the internet
protest
participation that involves assembling crowds to confront a gov't or other official organization this was the only political grievances outlet many had before their right to vote (Black and female Americans)
Third parties:
parties that organize to compete against the two major American political parties bigger parties adopt them/ their causes Proportional representation, multiple-member districts, easier ballot access laws, and instant runoff voting would increase third party influence
Platform
party document, written at a national convention, that contains party philosophy, principles, and positions on issues
Minority party
party that holds the minority of legislative seats in either the House or the Senate
The strength of traditional party machines depended most heavily on
patronage
Turnout
percentage of eligible individuals who actually vote Quite low, 32nd in comparison to other developed countries, 58% voted in 2012 and 2016 elections, declined since 64% in 1960 Local elections even lower Those who don't vote are less educated and wealthy
The process by which Americans learn political beliefs and values is called
political socialization
Two-party system:
political system in which only two parties have a realistic opportunity to compete effectively for control Despite George Washington's warnings against factions, this emerged Geographic single-member districts with winner-take-all, first-past-the-post elections= candidates w plurality win Most other countries use proportional representation system, these don't exist above the local level in the US
501(c )(4) committees (dark money)
politically active nonprofits: under federal law, these nonprofits can spend unlimited amounts on political campaigns and not disclose their donors as long as their activities are not coordinated with the candidate campaigns and political activities are not their primary purpose
Sampling error (margin of error)
polling error that arises based on the small size of the sample
Framing
power of the media to influence how events and issues are interpreted Politicians choose language that presents their ideas in the most favorable light Few citizens read legislation, so they rely on media to form opinions on policy (elected officials and other political actors frame how public interprets events and policy)
Electoral college
presidential electors from each state who meet after the general election to cast ballots for president and vice president Electors allocated by size of state's congressional delegation (larger states have more votes), electors selected by each party in the state and pledged to support that party's candidate President of US is winner of electoral college (wins at least 270 of college's 538 votes), not the candidate w most votes from the people With 2 exceptions, each state awards all of its electors to the candidate who receives the most votes in the state Presidents can win presidency w/ winning popular vote, most Americans would prefer a direct election for the president Replacing electoral college would require constitutional amendment that'd be hard to pass unless states work around it
Media
print and digital forms of communication, including television, newspapers, radio, and the internet, intended to convey information to large audiences Media are essential to democracy Role in American democracy To supply information to the citizenry A watchdog on actions of politicians/political actors Give public opportunity to evaluate issues to form reasoned opinions and actions Without media, we would have to rely entirely on info provided by the government (this isn't realistic, it's their job to govern, and they're not always the most transparent) The importance of media is evident in 1st Amendment
Political action committee (PAC):
private group that raises and distributes funds for use in election campaigns Can give more than individuals
Political action committee (PAC)
private group that raises and distributes funds for use in election campaigns Can provide more financial support ($5,000 per candidate in each election cycle) as long as it contributes to at least 5 different federal candidates each year Electoral spending by interest groups has increased rapidly Most common electoral strategy by interest groups is giving financial support to political parties + candidates running for office Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 requires each candidate/campaign committee itemize full name and address, occupation, and principal business of each person who contributes more than $100
Recall:
procedure to allow voters to remove state officials from office before their terms expire by circulating petitions to call a vote (18 states)
Nomination
process by which political parties select their candidates for election to public office
Priming
process of preparing the public to bring specific criteria to mind when evaluating a politician or issue Public is primed to use certain criteria when evaluating politician or issue and ignore other criteria Media, politicians, interest groups all do it
Redistricting
process of redrawing election districts and redistributing legislative representatives; this happens every 10 years, to reflect shifts in pop'n or in response to legal challenges in existing districts Baker v. Carr: SCOTUS ruled that federal courts can intervene on issue of drawing legislative districts "one person one vote" must be upheld with legislative districts for Congress and state legislatures with roughly equal pop'ns
Marketplace of ideas
public forum in which beliefs and ideas are exchanged and compete (to persuade as many as people as possible to accept a particular position on a particular issue)
Equal time rule
requirement that broadcasters provide candidates for the same political office equal opportunities to communicate their messages to the public Designed directly for politicians Don't have to ask for it, it's just required by law
patronage
resources available to higher officials, usually opportunities to make partisan appointments to offices and to confer grants, licenses, or special favors to supporters
Does the following is the term used in public opinion polling to denote the small group representing the opinions of the whole population
sample
Public opinion polls
scientific instruments for measuring public opinion (now prevalent in American politics) Problems with polling: poor construction and mistaken interpretations of polls can misrepresent public opinion Poor sampling Question wording and ordering (set up in a way that starts to lead people to question, uncertainty, makes it inaccurate poll) Selection bias Only calling landlines=old people Problems with polling: Us Another problem with polling is people not wanting to share their true preferences when they are contacted to participate in a survey Social desirability effect: effect that results when respondents in a survey report what they expect the interviewer (or socially acceptable) wishes to hear rather than what they believe
Straight ticket voting
selecting candidates from the same political party for all offices on the ballot Far more common than split ticket voting today
Solidarity benefits
selective benefits of group membership that emphasize friendship, networking, and consciousness-raising
Purposive benefits
selective benefits of group membership that emphasize the purpose and accomplishments of the group Advocacy, representation before gov't participation in public affairs Pursuing goals, serving a cause
Bandwagon Effect
shift in electoral support to the candidate whom public opinion polls report as the front-runner
Which of the following is not a form of traditional political participation
signing an online petition
Agents of socialization
social institutions, including families and schools, that help to shape individuals' basic political beliefs and values (social groups, religion, party affiliation, family, education) Genes may even contribute to our ideology Family, social groups, education, prevailing political conditions
Libertarians
someone who emphasizes freedom and believes in voluntary association with small government (public education exception)
Socialist
someone who generally believes in social ownership, strong government, free markets, and reducing economic inequality More gov't needed to promote justice and reduce economic and social inequality Bernie
Material benefits:
special goods, services, or money provided to members of groups to entice others to join (gifts, health and retirement insurance)
Informational benefits:
special newsletters, periodicals, training programs, conferences, and other information provided to members of groups to entice others to join
Attitude (or opinion)
specific preference on a particular issue Political attitudes are increasingly influenced by partisanship (Republican v. Democrat) and ideology (conservative v. liberal) Political attitudes rooted in rational factors like self interest as well as less rational factors like emotion
If a voter supports candidates from more than one party in the same election, she is said to be engaging in
split-ticket voting
Socioeconomic status
status in society based on level of education, income, and occupational prestige, most consistent factor in predicting who votes High income/education more likely to participate in politics
Voters who prefer a third-party candidate but vote for the major party candidate whom they regarded as the lesser of two evils are engaging in
strategic voting
Party machines
strong party organizations in the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century American cities: these machines were often led by corrupt "bosses" who controlled party nominations and patronage Reform movements (Progressive movement) reduced this corruption, ended most political machines : direct election of senators State and local parties can spend unlimited money on "party building" and often receive transfers of money from national = party integration
Retail politics
style of campaigning where candidates connect to voters at intimate gatherings and local events (NH, Iowa)
Selection bias (news)
tendency to focus news coverage on only one aspect of an event or issue, avoiding coverage of other aspects Focusing only on the most scandalous
Party organization:
the formal structure of a political party, including its leadership, election committees, active members, and paid staff (exist at virtually every level of gov't) Caucus level (caucus+ party members convene and talk about the results of the primary) State parties National parties and national convention Party platform Committee members elected in caucuses
The fact that women tend to oppose military intervention more than men do is an example of
the gender gap
Which of the following are the most important external influences on how political opinions are formed in the marketplace of ideas
the gov't, private groups, and the news media
Political socialization
the induction of individuals into the political culture; learning the underlying beliefs and values on which the political system is based Processes by which political values are formed
Media monopolies
the ownership and control of the media by a few large corporations (Disney) There is far less variation in the reporting of national news and events than there used to be as a result of media monopolies Most local newspapers are owned by large media organizations Most local Tv stations are affiliated with major networks A great deal of news is influenced by major publications like the New York Times and the Washington Post CNN, MSNBC, and Fox have considerable influence on cable television new Despite mass ownership, American news is among world's most free and diverse
Electoral realignments:
the point in history when a new party supplants the governing party, becoming in turn the dominant political force 5 throughout history, once about every 30 yrs Occur when: Issues that currently divide the parties decline in relevance New issues gain saliency and the parties reorganize around those issues A large number of voters change their party allegiance A great deal of voter participation in an election A stable change in the party controlling the government
Mobilization
the process by which large numbers of people are organized for a political activity Decline in political participation could be do to reduced mobilization People you know asking you to get involved gave the greatest influence in getting others to vote
A push poll is a poll in which
the questions are designed to shape the respondent's opinion rather than measure the respondent's opinion
Suffrage
the right to vote; also called franchise Most common way individuals interact w politics Increased efforts to expand suffrage in past 2 centuries 15th (1870) African American men got right to vote, but wasn't the reality until 1965 voting rights act 19th- women's suffrage 26th- voting age from 21 to 18
Iron triangle
the stable, cooperative relationship that often develops among a congressional committee, an administrative agency, and one or more supportive interest groups; not all of these relationships are triangular, but the iron triangle is the most typical Capture: an interest's acquisition of substantial influence over the government agency charged with regulating its activities- the interest group is exercising outside interest over how the laws are being made Number of important policy demands; environment, tax policy, and immigration policy are controlled not by highly structured and unified iron triangles but by broader:
Voter registration requirements and processes are determined and controlled by
the states
Free riders:
those who enjoy the benefits of collective goods but did not participate in acquiring or providing them Main reason why many groups don't form In area od public policy, where benefits achieved are distributed equally to those who contributed to policy formation and those who did not, individuals have incentives to free ride and let others invest time, energy, and money to getting the policy passed
Liberal
today this term refers to those who generally support social and political reform, gov't intervention in the economy, more economic equality, expansion of federal social services, and greater concern for consumers and the environment Equality is most important value, rely on government for economy + progressive taxation, health care, workers rights, financial aid for college, environmental protection, business practices that enhance race, class, and gender equality Classical liberals are more like libertarians (weary of the government and its ability to manage social + economic affairs) in comparison to today's social liberals
Conservatives
today this term refers to those who generally support the social and economic status quo and are suspicious of efforts to introduce new political formulas and economic arrangements; conservatives believe that a large and powerful gov't poses a threat to citizens' freedom Liberty is core value Oppose many efforts of gov't to interfere in private life and free markets, including gov't regulations Social/ economic problems solved by private sector, local communities, or religious orgs
Prospective voting:
voting based on the imagined future performance of a candidate/ political party
Retrospective voting:
voting based on the past performance of a candidate/ political party Look at economy, more important The economy If satisfied w state of economy, they support party in power and vise vers