Principles of Learning Final Exam (Covers all chapters)

Which of the following is not accurate?

"Do your best" goals are more effective than challenging goals.

Based on your readings and class lecture, describe two ethical issues related to using punishment.

2 ethical issues related to using punishment: Punishment can be harmful It can lead to agressive behaviorsIt can produce undesired emotions Can lead to negative escape and avoidence behacviorsIt can lead to the individual performing the punishment on other. (children imitate adults causing unwanted behviors).

What is a DRA? Give an example. (2 points).

A DRA is a differential reinforcement of an alternative behavior. It is an intervention where the reinforcer is used when the desired behavior is being observed. The goal is to increase the desired behavior while decreasing the unwanted behavior. Example: Little Timmy has trouble with manners. He wines for his mom to get him a toy at Target, and throws the toy on the floor when she says no because of the way he asked. The unwanted behavior is Timmy whining for a toy. Every time Timmy whines his mom will ignore and not give him the toy. Asking politely for a toy is the desired behavior. Every time he asks politely he will earn a toy.

What is a DRL? Give an example. (2 points).

A DRL is a differential reinforcement of lower rates of behavior. In this intervention the reinforcement is only given when the unwanted behavior happens at a lower rate. The goal is to increased the desired behavior and decreased the unwanted behavior Example: Little Timmy has trouble with manners. He wines for everything he wants instead of asking politely. Every time Timmy uses manners like "please" and "thank you" more often to get the things he wants, his mom will give him a star sticker on his good manners chart.

What is a DRO? Give an example. (2 points)

A DRO is a differential reinforcement of other behavior. This is an intervention where the reinforcer is used for the same amount of time as the unwanted behavior does not occur. The goal of this intervention is to decrease the unwanted behavior. Example: Little Timmy has a problem of lifting up his shirt in every time he is in public even when his mother tells him to stop he continues to lift his shirt (unwanted/innapropriate behavior). Every minuet little Timmy does not lift his shirt in public his mom will add a gold star on his "Did not life his shirt in public chart"

Pick a behavioral deficit from your own experiences and provide a clear operational definition Indicate a possible reinforcer that you could use to increase this behavior , identify two things you can do to rearrange your environment so that the reinforcer you identified is more likely to follow that behavior

A behavioral deficit in my own experience is a sleep and productivity. I have lack of sleep due to my sleep schedule and lack of productivity through out my day keeps me working on school work during late hours. A possible reinforcer I can use to increase this behavior is giving myself a self care day when I have been productive for the week which will result in me going to sleep at an earlier hour. For example: This Friday, Saturday, Sunday and Monday I have spend most of my days studying for quizzes and exams. To reward myself for my hard work and productivity I am having a day to relax and shop with my mom on Wednesday. Two things I can change in my environment is having a specified space to be productive. I have been doing all my class work in my room and a change of scenery can make me feel more productive. Another thing I can change is putting my phone away before sleep and starting a productive day. I realize my phone is a distraction and causes me to stay up long hours on it.

Pick a behavioral excess from your own experiences and provide a clear operational definition (0.5 point). Indicate what might be maintaining that reinforcer (0.5 point) and also identify at least two things you can do to rearrange your environment so that the reinforcer you identified no longer or is less likely to follow that behavior (1 point).

A behavioral excess from my own experience is time spent on my phone. I spend a lot of time on my phone a day and it prevents me from having productive weeks. What may be maintaining that reinforcer is social media. 2 things I can change in my environment is putting my phone away during the day and setting time limits for social media apps or apps that I use a lot through out the day.

What is an extinction burst? Give an example. (2 points).

An extinction burst is an instant increase of the frequency of the behavior after removing the reinforcement. Example: Little Timmy was whining every time he could not get something at the store. His mom continued to ignore this behavior. Timmy eventually realized his behavior was going unnoticed and stopped the behavior completely.

A "screening phase" is another name for

An intake phase

Define and give an example of avoidance conditioning.

Avoidence conditioning is where the performing the behavior prevents the aversive stimulus from occuring. An example of this would be, you are afraid of getting caught in the rain so you check the weather on your phone before going outside, or when you know it is going to rain at a certian time you stay inside during that time period. Another example would be, you are scared of dogs. your friends invite you their house where they own 3 pitbulls so you come up with an excuse not to go.

What are two myths about behavior analysis?

Behavior modifiers are cold and have no feelings and behavior modification treats symptoms and does not care for the underlying problems of behaviors.

Each time you turn on the TV, a picture appears. This is an example of:

CRF

The loud barking of a dog causes a child to experience fear. If sight of the dog now elicits fear, then the sight of the dog is called a , and the fear is called the .

CS, CR

What is contigency-shaped behavior? Give an example.

Contigency shaped behavior: is a behavior that develops because of an immediate consequence. This behavior is slowly developed through trial and error. An example would be: Touching my hair in the kitchen causing hair to fly in the food that I am cooking. When I finish the meal and serve it to my family they find hair in their food which causes them to not want to eat. This will help me learn to put my hair up in a bun before cooking dinner.

What is the difference between continuous reinforcement and intermittent reinforcement? (2 points). How does each influence resistance to extinction? (2 points).

Continuous reinforcement: an intervention where every time the wanted behavior is observed it is rewarded. Intermittent reinforcement: an intervention where everytime the wanted behavior is reinforced ocasionally instead of all the time like continous reinforcement. The main difference between the two is the frequency of which the wanted behaviors are reinforced. If the behavior is rewarded everytime the person being observed may only do the behavior to get rewarded because their is no punishment or reinforcement for the negative behavior that is trying to be extinct. If the behavior is rewarded intermittently the person being observed may not know which behavior is being rewarded and which one is not. Could cause the wrong behavior to be extinct

An individual is reinforced if a target response does not occur throughout a particular interval, and each response typically "resets" the interval back to zero. This refers to a(n) schedule.

DRO

On a(n) schedule of reinforcement, a reinforcer is presented if a specified period of time passes and a particular behavior does not occur during that time.

DRO

Based on the following graph, what is the most likely consequence maintaining probelm behavior for Curtis?

Demand

Define and give an example of escape conditioning.

Escape conditioning is an type of aversive conditioning. Using escape behaviors gets rid of the aversive stimuli. The persons response is leaving the situation rather than doing something to make the situation different. An example of escape conditioning would be running back inside when it starts raining or when a professor asks you a question and in response you turn away from the profesor or walk out of the classroom, and in return the professor moves on to the next classmate.

Which of the following is not an advantage of establishing stimulus control without errors?

Establishing a mastery criterion without errors leads to increased generalization.

The extent to which findings can be generalized to other behaviors, individuals, settings, or treatments is referred to as:

External validity

If parents reinforce their child's practicing of a musical instrument by allowing the child a certain amount of TV time following a fixed amount of practice, this is an approximation of a(n) schedule.

FD

Jack works at a job where he is paid by the hour. Jack is being reinforced on a schedule.

FD

"Reinforcement contingent on the first response occurring after a fixed period of time" is the definition of a(n) schedule.

FI

A pause after reinforcement followed by a high rate of responding until the next reinforcement is the characteristic effect of:

FR schedule

Back-up reinforcers are stimuli that are naturally reinforcing in and of themselves, such as food for someone who has not eaten for several hours.

False

In escape conditioning, the aversive stimulus is not present prior to the occurrence of the response, and the response prevents (or postpones) the aversive stimulus rather than removing it.

False

Rules that do not contain deadlines are about as effective as rules that do contain deadlines.

False

The principle of punishment states: If, in a given situation, somebody does something that is immediately followed by the withdrawal of a punisher, then that person is less likely to do the same thing again when he or she next encounters a similar situation.

False

The treatment program is referred to as the dependent variable and the behavior being treated is referred to as the independent variable

False

What is the difference between forward, backwards, and total-task chaining? Be sure to give an example that illustrates how you would teach using each strategy. (2 points).

Forward task chaining: Starts with the first step. Example: Making a peanut butter and jelly. First step would be getting the peanut butter. My little brother has sensory deficits so to teach him this we have him grab each ingredient and put it in a pile so he can then have everything he needs to move onto the next step. Backward task chaining: Starts with the last step first with an end goal. Example our end goal would be having a peanut butter and jelly to enjoy. In our list of steps the first one would be cut the peanut butter and jelly in half and enjoy. Total Task chaining: Completes the entire sequence of events. After completing the total sequence of events is when my brother will meet his goal or get the reward of his peanut butter and jelly (his favorite food)

Tom Brady (an athlete that plays american football) has a goal - he wants to be the greatest of all time. Based on what you learned in class, help Tom Brady reformulate his goal to make it more effective. That is, re-write his goal using at least four things we discussed about rules and goals in class. Be sure that you mention what it is that you are doing to make the goal more effective.

Goal: Wants to be the greatest of all time! We can make this goal more effective if: The goal is more specific: "Goal: I want to be the greatest of all time at american football!" The goal should identify the circumstances which the goal should occur: "Goal: I want to be the greatest of all time at american foot ball when I reach the world series (Is it obvious I know nothing about football?) The goal should be realistic and challenging: "Goal: I will be the ranked #1 in the superbowl next year" Make the goal public: Tom can share it to his friends on facebook "I will be the greatest of all time at american football after I win the world series next year at the superbown and I will be ranked #1 quarterback in America" (He would post this on Facebook for his friends to see making the goal public)

Which of the following is not one of the reasons for recording accurate data during the baseline and throughout a behavioral program?

It enables the behavior modifier to refer the problem to the appropriate agency.

Define negative punishment and give an example.

Negative punishment: happens when a reinforcing stimuli is removed after a particular undesired behavior is performed, causing the undesired behavior to be performed less. An example of this would be; Little Timmy does not want to put his toys away to prepare for nap time (undesired behavior) so his mom takes away his toys for the rest of the day causing him to be less likely to participate in playing with his toys even after his mother tells him to put them away. This reinforces the behavior of listening to his mother when she asks to put his toys away before nap time.

What is the difference between negative and positive reinforcement? In your answer be sure that you define both terms (1 point each) and give an example of each (1 point each).

Negative reinforcement: Strengthens a behavior by removing a aversive stimulus when the behavior occurs Example: Little Timmy is having trouble on quizzes because he does not want to study. Timmy's mom decides to take away his Nintendo so until he starts studying to do better on his quizzes in class. Positive reinforcement: Strengthens a behavior by presenting a desired stimulus after the behavior. Example: Little Timmy is doing poorly on his quizzes again because he is not studying. Timmy's mother gives him 2 pieces of candy every time he studies for 1 hour a day. The key difference between these two kinds of reinforcer's is negative reinforcement removes a stimuli and positive reinforcement presents or adds a desired stimuli.

After Susie appeared to display frequent tantrums that usually led to adult attention, the treatment program involved giving Susie adult attention once every 30 seconds regardless of Susie's behavior. This treatment program would be referred to as:

Noncontingent reinforcement

Behaviors that act on the environment to generate consequences and are in turn influenced by those consequences, are called behaviors.

Operant

Define positive punishment and give an example.

Positive punishement: is where a aversive consequence is presented after an individual performs an undesired behavior. The positive punishment allows for the undesired behavior to decrease becuase a consequence is given right after behavior is performed. An example of this would be; Little Timmy's mom does not like him to play around the stove. When Timmy continues to play around the stove his monsters inc toy falls on the hot stove and Timmy burns his hand. In response, Timmy does not want to feel the pain from the stove again so he does not play around the stove anymore, making the postive punishment effective.

Describe a problem behavior that might benefit from rearranging the environment and indicate how you might rearrange it to achieve your goal.

Problem Behavior: Not doing yoga enough during the week and feeling sore when I finally teach to my students at the end of the week. Rearranging my environment: I will lay out my mat every night before bed and leave my journal where I write the poses and my affirmations on my mat so it is the first thing I see when I make up. As a result I will have to do less to practice my yoga in the morning, making me want to participate in my problem behavior less.

A baseline phase, a treatment phase, a return to baseline phase, and a return to the treatment phase are the components of the:

Reversal-reprication (ABAB) design

What is rule-governed behavior? Give an example.

Rule governed behavior is a behavior influcenced by the statement of a rule. An example of this would be: My mom would give me a rule for in the kitchen. "Do not play with your hair when someone is cooking in the kitchen" (In fear that there would be hair in the food). So when I see my mother cooking I know that I shoud put my hair up in a bun so I do not play with it while in the kitchen.

When two people are eating dinner, the request by one person to pass the salt would be a(n) for the other person to pass the salt.

SD

What is spontaneous recovery? Give an example. (2 points).

Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after time has passed. Example: My puppy barks when the door bell rings. We have trained him to sit when the door bell rings instead of barking. Spontaneous recovery would be if my puppy barked and jumped on the house guest after we already trained him not to.

In a state where it is the law to wear seatbelts while driving, a person does not "buckle-up" when starting for work in the morning. But when that person sees a police car just ahead, the person quickly buckles up. That person's "buckling-up" behavior has been influenced by:

Suppose that a parent says to a child, "Clean your room or you can't watch go rock climbing," and the child cleans his room. This is an example of:

An "Out of Order" sign on a vending machine is a(n) for the response of putting in money.

S∆

What is a task analysis? Give an example of a 4-step task analysis. (2 points).

Task analysis is the process of breaking down a chain of steps into more comprehendable components. Backward chaining: Goal: Make a peanut butter jelly 1. Cut the sandwich in half and enjoy 2. Put the peices on top of each other 3. Put your jelly on one peice of bread and the peanut butter on the other 4. Get your ingredients

What is IOA and why is it important?

The IOA is the Inter Observer Agreement. The agreement measures the extent to which 2 observers agree on the occurance of the behaviors observed. This is important because it allows for accuracy in the behaviors observed by the behavior modifiers.

Describe the APOPO rats and how behavior analysis is used to help detect landmines.

The behavioral analysis noticed the APOPO rats had a heightened sense of smell and sent them into the mines to sniff out TNT for the safety of others.

In at least two sentences, describe the bedtime pass and indicate how it works. (2 points)

The objective of the bedtime pass was to come up with an intervention. for bedtime problems. The participants were 3 and 10 year old normally developing boys with trouble in staying in bed during bed time. The intervention happened in their home. The bedtime pass was given to the boys before bed and with the pass they would be able to have one excused departure from bed during bed time. The results of the intervention showed the bedtime pass. reduced departure from bed and crying in both of the boys. It allowed pediatricians to recommend this intervention to their clients.

Which of the following is not one of the advantages of indirect assessment procedures?

They require that observers be appropriately trained.

A conceptual limitation of the traditional view of motivation is that it involves circular reasoning.

True

A golfer often thinks negatively just before important shots. That's an example of a behavioral excess.

True

A stimulus that is paired with punishment becomes a conditioned punisher.

True

An advantage of multiple-baseline designs over the ABAB design is that the former does not require a reversal to baseline conditions.

True

Characteristics of behavior that can be measured are called dimensions of behavior.

True

In avoidance conditioning, the response prevents or postpones the aversive stimulus rather than removing it

True

It is important to consider the causes of undesirable behavior because it may lead one to appropriately conclude that other specialists should deal with the problem.

True

Motivating operations are events that temporarily alter the effects of consequences as reinforcers or punishers.

True

Public goals are more effective than private goals.

True

Response cost involves removal of a specified amount of a reinforcer contingent upon a response.

True

Stimulus generalization refers to the transfer of a particular behavior to different stimuli, whereas response generalization refers to transfer between responses in a particular setting.

True

When several neutral stimuli precede a US, the stimulus that is most consistently associated with the US is the one most likely to become a strong CS.

True

When the observational method affects the behaviors being observed, we say that the observation is obtrusive.

True

After eating a big meal, food is no longer a reinforcer. Food satiation is an example of a(n):

UMAO

Feeding a person salty food increases the reinforcing value of water for that person. Feeding someone salty food would therefore be an example of a(n):

UMEO

When reinforcement that is contingent on the first response occurs within a limited period of time following another interval of time, which varies around some mean value, a(n) schedule is in effect.

VI with LH

When Suzie plays the slot machines in Las Vegas, her gambling behavior is reinforced on a schedule.

VR

What is an extra-stimulus prompt? Give an example. (2 points).

When a stimulus is added to a behavior to help a person make a distinction. Example: Having the word emergency in a sentence or the word immediate this helps make the distinction between the stimuli given.

What is a within-stimulus prompt? Give an example. (2 points).

When the S^d is changed to help make a correct discrimination of a stimuli. Example: Changing the color of a message to make it seem more urgent. For example the color red, in an email usually means it is important or even using bold lettering.

Which of the following is an example of overt behavior?

Yelling at someone

Which of the following is most likely to be a primary reinforcer?

a candy bar

An extinction program may fail because:

a desirable alternative behavior was not appropriately strengthened

Which of the following is most likely to use an indirect assessment procedure?

a professional therapist working with a client

According to Suzie's teacher, "Suzie is a good student because she is highly motivated." This is an example of view of motivation:

a traditional

Behavior analysts are cautious about using summary labels to refer to individuals or their actions because:

all of these answers are correct

Rule-governed control over behavior is especially effective when:

all of these are correct

If a child is reinforced for swearing in front of other kids, but not for swearing in the presence of his parents, we would say that the parents are for swearing.

an S∆

Which of the following is not a strategy to be followed to influence the effectiveness of modelling?

arrange for the modelled behavior to be seen to be ineffective

Based on the graph below, what is the most likely consequence maintaining problem behavior for Jay?

attention

The characteristics of impaired communication, impaired social behavior, and repetitive self- stimulatory behaviors during the first few years after birth are shown by individuals diagnosed as:

autistic

For children who suffer from enuresis (chronic bedwetting), the pressure from a full bladder when the child is asleep is not sufficient to cause the child to awaken. An apparatus is wired to the child's bed such that when the child urinates during the night, a tone sounds to awaken the child. Eventually the child learns to awaken to pressure on the bladder, and can then urinate in the toilet. In this example, the CR is:

awakening to pressure on the bladder

The partial rule "drive slowly" identifies the:

behavior

A child does not pronounce words clearly and does not interact with other children. These are examples of:

behavioral deficits.

Escape conditioning and positive reinforcement are similar in that:

both lead to an increase in the likelihood of behavior

A stimulus which is not originally reinforcing but which acquires reinforcing power through association with a stimulus that is reinforcing is called:

conditioned reinforcer

Over several meals, Billy Joel music is played at the dinner table. Eventually, Billy Joel music is played without pairing it with food, and the person who ate at that dinner table begins salivating. In this example, the sound of Billy Joel music became a:

conditioned stimulus

A behavior that has been gradually strengthened by the direct-acting effects of reinforcement is said to be:

contingecy shaped

If a child's swearing when playing with friends in the street increases as a function of the friends' natural reactions, then swearing exemplifies:

contingency-shaped behavior

When a behavior must occur before a reinforcer will be presented, we say that the reinforcer is upon that behavior.

contingent

The counting of every instance that a person swears during a 1-hour interval is an example of a(n) recording system.

continuous

In research terminology, the measure of behavior is referred to as:

dependent variable

The amount of time that a particular behavior lasts or continues on a particular instance is called the:

duration.

Each time that training staff place demands on a nonverbal developmentally disabled child, the child throws a tantrum and the staff "back off." In this example, the child's tantruming is likely being maintained by:

escape

When teaching a child the correct position of the knife, fork, and spoon at a place setting at a dinner table, the teacher initially draws the location of the utensils on a place mat, and then fades out the drawing over trials. The drawing on the place mat is a(n):

extra-stimulus prompt

When the initial step of a sequence is taught first, then the first and second steps are taught and linked together, then the first three steps, and so on until the entire chain is acquired, this process describes:

forward chaining

Across several golf practices, a golfer is reinforced for hitting five shots, then seven shots, then ten shots, and then fifteen shots. This is an example of shaping.

frequency

Searching for variables that might be responsible for causing a problem behavior is referred to as a:

functional analysis

A dollar bill may not be reinforcing for a young child who has had no experience with money. However, after the dollar bill is paired with a variety of back-up reinforcers while making various purchases in the store, the dollar bill becomes a powerful reinforcer. This is an example of the development of a:

generalized reinforcer

The amount of agreement between independent observers on the occurrence of specific instances of a particular behavior is referred to as:

inter observer reliability

The extent to which the treatment or independent variable was in fact responsible for any observed changes in the dependent variable is referred to as:

internal validity

If, in a given situation, an individual emits a previously reinforced response that is not followed by the usual reinforcing consequence, then that person:

is less likely to do the same thing again in that situation

Behavior analysts stress the importance of defining problems in terms of specific behavioral deficits or behavioral excesses because:

it is behavior that causes concern, and there are specific procedures now available to change behavior

Shaping would not be the procedure of choice for:

linking together a series of responses

It is important to consider the setting in which extinction will be carried out in order to:

maximize the chances of the behavior modifier persisting with the program

When a teacher demonstrates a correct behavior, the teacher is using a(n):

modeling prompt

Events or conditions that temporarily alter the effectiveness of a reinforcer, and increase the frequency of behavior reinforced by that reinforcer, are called:

motivating operations

Events that temporarily alter the effectiveness of consequences as reinforcers or punishers are called:

motivating operations

After many interruptions while trying to write the a paper, a student began working in a secluded location at their house. Which category of situational inducement did they apply?

move the activity to a new location

In randomly alternating sessions, a child's swearing behavior at nursery school is either reprimanded or ignored. This is a design.

multi-element

Unprogrammed reinforcers that occur in the normal course of everyday living are called:

natural reinforcers

To increase an operant behavior, you can:

negative reinforcement

A coach of young hockey players always has a scrimmage at the end of each practice, something that the players really enjoy. This is an example of:

noncontingent reinforcement

George teaches his dog to bring him the morning newspaper by first reinforcing the dog for sniffing at the paper, then for picking it up in its mouth, then for carrying it a few steps, and finally for bringing it all the way to him. George's procedure exemplifies:

none of these

That behavior can be modified by its consequences is the basic tenet of:

operant conditioning

A developmentally disabled child frequently scratches herself when smiling, when upset, when interacting with others, when alone, and whether or not demands are placed on her. But when she is required to wear thin rubber gloves throughout the day, scratching gradually decreases to zero. The principle or procedure responsible for her improvement might best be described as:

operant extinction

Which of the following is not a potential problem of an extinction program?

other reinforced behaviors will also decrease in frequency

Presenting physical contact to guide someone through appropriate behavior is called:

physical guidance

According to the proposed guidelines for the use of instruction as indicated in your textbook, modeling, and physical guidance, what behavioral principle is used with all three procedures?

positive reinforcement

Strengthening a response by adding an event immediately following that response is referred to as:

positive reinforcement

An event which, when presented immediately following a behavior, causes the behavior to decrease in frequency, is referred to as a(n):

punisher

Behavior that extinguishes slowly is said to be:

resistant to extinction

Behaviors that are elicited by prior stimuli and are not affected by their consequences are called:

respondent behaviors

If a conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented without further pairings with the unconditioned stimulus, the CS will gradually lose its capacity to elicit the conditioned response. This is the definition of:

respondent extinction

A traffic ticket is an example of:

response cost

On Monday, a parent says to a child, "If you clean your room each Saturday morning, I'll give you two dollars." The next Saturday, the child cleans his room. This illustrates an example of:

rule-governed behavior

Which of the following is an example of an outcome of behavior?

scoring a goal in ice hockey

When the goal of a program is to develop some new behavior along some physical dimension such as force, form, or duration, one should use:

shaping

It is said that the famous writer Victor Hugo controlled his work habits in his study by having his servant take his clothes away and not bring them back until the end of the day. This is an example of:

situational inducement

Evaluating how a client feels about the treatment procedures used in a behavior modification program provides an assessment of:

social validation

In behavior analysis, the term "environment" refers to:

specific physical variables in one's immediate surroundings.

The reappearance of an extinguished behavior following a rest is called:

spontaneous recovery

The baseline phase of the reversal-replication design should continue until the pattern of performance is or until it shows a trend in the direction that predicted when treatment is introduced.

stable; opposite to

When a particular behavior is likely to occur in the presence of a particular stimulus and not others, we say that exists.

stimulus control

A child who calls all four-legged animals "dogs" is exhibiting

stimulus generalization

Shaping is referred to as the method of:

successive approximations

A behavior that is strengthened because it accidently precedes a reinforcer, even though it did not actually produce the reinforcer, is called:

superstitious behavior

The process of breaking a task down into smaller steps or component responses to facilitate training refers to:

task analysis

A behavior is likely to extinguish very slowly if:

that behavior was reinforced intermittently prior to the extinction program

Very few people follow the rule "Always wear a helmet when riding a bicycle in order to avoid brain damage from a serious accident" because:

the consequences are highly improbable

Which of the following is not one of the scientific criteria used to evaluate whether or not a treatment was responsible for producing a reliable effect on the dependent variable?

the extent to which an observed effect is socially validated

Which of the following is a stimulus that is a conditioned reinforcer (i.e., associated with more powerful reinforcers) but is not a token?

the sight of a loved one

Behavior modifiers have begun to pay more attention to issues of race, gender, ethnicity, and sexual orientation because:

these variables can influence the effectiveness of treatment

Placing a child in a relatively barren room for a brief period of time is an example of:

time-out

If a child is taught to say "dog" when viewing different dogs, then the child is likely to generalize and refer to any variety of dog as a "dog". This would be an example of:

training sufficent stimulus examplars