Psyc 101 Chapter 12 Terms Liberty (with page numbers)

(463) The cognitive bases of prejudice reflect tendencies to separate people into two basic categories, in-groups, and out-groups, and to attribute

more negative characteristics to out-group members and more positive characteristics to in-group members Martin Fishbein

(457) proximity

nearness of propinquity Friendships are strongly influenced by physical proximity.

(462) racism

negative bias held toward members of other racial groups

(470) John Donroe (poet)

"no man is an island, sufficient unto himself"

(473-474) Applying psychology to daily life (compliance)

1: Lowball technique 2: Bait and switch technique 3: foot in the door technique.

(452-453) Variables influencing persuasion

1: Source variables - features of the communicator who presents the message. -Communicators are usually more persuasive when they are perceived as credible, likable, and similar to the receiver in key respects. 2: Message variables -emotional appeals -presenting both sides of an argument -more often you are exposed to a message. 3: Recipient variables -Some people are easier to persuade than others. -Those of low intelligence or low self-confidence are easier to persuade. -People in a positive moos are easier to persuade.

(473) Bait-and-switch technique

A compliance technique based on "baiting" a person by making an unrealistically attractive offer and then replacing it with a less attractive offer.

(447) Social schema

A mental image or representation that we use to understand our social environment. One reason first impressions tend to be long lasting is that we filter new information about people through the earlier impressions or social schemas we have formed about them. When we form a negative first impression of someone, we are more likely to ignore or explain away positive information we later receive about that person. When we form a positive first impression of someone, we are more likely to ignore or explain away negative information we later receive about that person.

(466) Learning influences of aggressiveness

Albert Bandura highlights the role of observational learning in the development of aggressive behavior. Aggressive or violent children often come from homes in which parents and other family members modeled aggression. Reinforcement also contributes to the learning of aggressive behavior. In general, people are more likely to resort to aggressive behavior if they have failed to learn alternative ways of resolving conflicts.

(448) Self fulfilling prophecy

An expectation that helps bring about the outcome that is expected. When you form an impression of someone, you may act toward the person in a way that mirrors your impression. Self-fulfilling prophecies may lead to underperformance in school. Teachers who expect students to do poorly may convey their lower expectations to their students.

(450) Attitudes and behavior: not as strong a link as you might expect

Attitudes may not carry over into behavior. Attitudes are only modestly related to behavior. Under other factors than situational constraints, attitudes are more strongly linked to behavior - such as when the attitudes are more stable, are held with greater confidence or certainty, when they relate specifically to the behavior at hand, when the person is free to perform or not perform the behavior, and when the attitude can be more readily recalled from memory.

(449) The self-serving bias is widespread in Western cultures but virtually absent in some

Eastern cultures

(467) Emotional states influencing aggressive behavior

Frustration and and anger may trigger aggression. State of readiness. Questions remain about whether aggression is necessarily preceded by frustration.

(465-466) Biological influences of aggression

Genes are linked to violent or impulsive behavior. Neurotransmitter serotonin ("behavioral seat belt") curbs impulsive behavior. Testosterone in men clearly plays an important role in aggressive behavior in other animal species, however, high testosterone is not a direct link to aggressive behavior in humans. Evolutionary psychology points to possible ancestral roots of violence.

(464-465) contact hypothesis

Gordon Allport's belief that under certain conditions, increased intergroup contact helps reduce prejudice and intergroup tension. 1: Social and institutional support 2: Acquaintance potential 3: Equal status 4: Intergroup cooperation. **Teaching empathy may be one way to reduce prejudice. **Telling ourselves to avoid stereotypical thinking and putting forth effort to reject these thoughts can also help.

(467-468) Environmental influences of aggressive behavior

High temperatures are linked to aggressive behavior. Higher temperatures incite retaliation by leading players (baseball league study) to attribute more hostile intentions to opposing players when their teammates are hit by a pitch, and by reducing their inhibitions.

(466) Sociocultural influences of aggression

Interpersonal violence often occurs against a backdrop of social stressors such as poverty, prolonged unemployment, lack of opportunity, child abuse and neglect, family breakdown, and exposure to violence in the family and community. Abused children often display violent behavior in childhood and adulthood. Violence may also be used as a social influence tactic - a means of coercion by which individuals seek to compel others to comply to their wishes. E.g. "mob enforcer"

(456-457) Physical attractiveness

Is a major factor in determining both interpersonal and sexual attraction. Men typically place greater emphasis than do women on the physical attractiveness of potential dates and mates, whereas women tend to place more emphasis on social status than men do. Our physical appearance affect how others perceive us. "beautiful is good" stereotype. Attractive people tend to attract each other in dating and marital relationships. It pays to be tall in our society. Faces with symmetrical features and a clear complexion are universally perceived as more attractive. Perceptions of the ideal female face vary little across cultures. Matching hypothesis

(465) Aggression as instinct?

Konrad Lorenz believed that the fighting instinct is a basic survival mechanism in many animal species. Contemporary theorists believe that aggression is far too complex to be based on instinct. Theorists today believe that human aggression cannot be explained by any one cause.

(455-456) Similarity (in attraction)

Like birds of a feather, we are generally attracted to people who we share similar values and beliefs with. We also tend to like people who are similar to us in characteristics such as physical appearance, social class, race, height, musical tastes, and intelligence. People are even more likely to marry others whose first or last names resemble their own. *Most widely held view of why people like similar people is that similarity is gratifying because each person in the relationship serves to validate, reinforce, and enhance the other's self-concept. No two people are identical in all respects. The attitudes of dating partners tend to become more closely aligned over time. **Recent research suggests that when people consider the personality traits of an ideal romantic partner, they tend to be more interested in partners who have similar traits but have them in a greater degree. That is, they seek partners with similar Big Five personality traits as their own, but who are somewhat more conscientiousness, extroverted, and agreeable.

(460-461) Influences on helping

Many factors influence a person's willingness to help: 1: situational ambiguity -People are less likely to offer assistance in ambiguous situations than in situations involving a clear-cut emergency. -People are less likely to help in unfamiliar environments than people in familiar ones. 2: Perceived cost -The likelihood of helping increases as the perceived cost to ourselves declines. 3: Diffusion of responsibility - Presence of of others may diffuse the sense of individual responsibility. -If everyone believes the other guy will act than no one acts. 4: Similarity -People are more likely to help people who share a common background and beliefs. -People are more likely to help people who dress similarly to them. -People are more likely to help relatives than unrelated people. 5: Empathy 6: Facial features -People with baby-faced features are more likely to elicit help than people with more mature facial features. 7: Mood and gender -People are more likely to help others when they are in a good mood. -Women in need are more likely to receive help from strangers than men in need. 8: Attributions to the cause of need -People are more likely to help others they judge to be innocent victims than those they believe have brought their problems on themselves. 9: Social norms -prescribe behaviors that are expected of people in social situations.

(450) Sources of attitudes

Many sources in our social environment: parents, teachers, peers, personal experiences, and media sources like television, newspapers and movies. People from similar backgrounds tend to have similar attitudes. Evidence points to a genetic contribution. We can think of genetics influencing factors, such as intelligence or personality traits, that increase the likelihood of developing a particular set of attitudes. Genetic factors tend to be less important determinants of attitudes than environmental influences.

(463) Universalist orientation

People who tend to look more at similarities among people than differences.

(462-463) How does prejudice develop

Prejudice arises as an outgrowth of negative stereotypes of other groups. These stereotypes are either learned or acquired. Prejudice may also be acquired through direct experience. Universitality of prejudice points to a basic cognitive tendency to parse our social environment into two general groups: those who belong to the same groups we do (in-groups) and those who do not belong (out-group).

(449) self-serving bias

The tendency to take credit for our accomplishments and to explain away our failures or disappointments. The tendency to attribute personal success to internal or dispositional causes and personal failures to external or situational causes. Self-serving bias helps bolster self-esteem. Self-servong bias is widespread in Western cultures, but is found much less frequently in East Asian cultures like China, Japan, and Taiwan. **Unlike Americans, Japanese tend to attribute their successes to luck and their failures to lack of ability or talent.

(473) Social validation

Using the actions of others as a standard or social norm for judging the appropriateness of our own behavior.

(446-447) Personal disclosure: going beyond name, rank, and serial number

We generally form more favorable impressions of people who are willing to disclosure personal information about themselves. But revealing too much too soon can lead to a negative impression. These people tend to be perceived as less secure, less mature, and more poorly adjusted than those who are more restrained. Cultural differences also come into play in determining how much disclosure is deemed acceptable. East Asian societies tend to disclose less than people in the West. Adolescents on social media tend to disclose more about themselves and use fewer privacy settings than adults.

(473) foot-in-the door technique

a compliance technique based on securing compliance with a smaller request as a prelude to making a larger request

(474) door-in-the-face technique

a compliance technique in which refusal of a large, unreasonable request is followed by a smaller, more reasonable request Takes advantage of the psychological principle of reciprocity.

(457) matching hypothesis

a belief that people tend to pair off with others who are similar to themselves in physical attractiveness and other characteristics

(462) out-group homogeneity

a cognitive bias describing the tendency to perceive members of out-groups as more alike than members of in-groups Thinking that people of all other groups are "all alike" while members of one's own group are "different as snowflakes" One explanation is the exempler model - holds that people are likely to know more in-group members than out-group members and so can more easily recall differences among people in their own groups.

(462) out-groups negativism (out-group prejudice)

a cognitive bias involving the predisposition to attribute more negative characterisitics to members of out-groups than to those of in-groups

(462) in-group favoritism (in-group bias)

a cognitive bias involving the predisposition to attribute more positive characteristics to members of in-groups than to those of out-groups

(473) lowball technique

a compliance technique based on "baiting" a person by making an unrealistically attractive offer and then replacing it with a less attractive offer

(463) authoritarian personality

a personality type characterized by rigidity, prejudice, and excessive concerns with obedience and respect for authority Theodore Adorno

(461-462) prejudice

a preconceived opinion or attitude about an issue, person, or group Some prejudice is positive bias while it is more often than it reflects negative biases. Prejudice, like other attitudes, consists of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components. Cognitive component: set of biased beliefs and stereotypes that a person holds about other groups. Emotional component: consists of feelings of dislike that the person has toward members of these groups. Behavioral component: person's inclination to discriminate against them. Stereotypes and prejudices are generally resistant to change. Prejudice and discrimination typically increase during times of social upheaval and increased competition among groups.

(463-464) stereotype threat

a sense of threat evoked in people from stereotyped groups when they believe they may be judged or treated stereotypically E.g. "girls can't do math" The downfall is that people may tend to believe the stereotypes about themselves and view themselves as inadequate or inferior. May lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy.

(451-452) elaboration likelihood model (ELM)

a theoretical model that posits two channels by which persuasive appeals lead to attitude change: a central route and a peripheral route According to this model, people are more likely to evaluate a persuasive message when their motivational state is high and when they possess the skills or knowledge needed to evaluate the information. When evaluation likelihood is high, attitude change occurs via a central route of processing information, whereby people carefully evaluate the content of the message. When evaluation likelihood is low, attitude change occurs through a peripheral route of cognitive processing, whereby people focus on cues not centrally related to the content of the message. **Advertisers usually take advantage of the peripheral route of attitude change by using leading sports stars as commercial spokespeople.

(467) Frustration and anger are negative emotions that may serve as triggers for

aggression

(449) Emotions also include three basic components: bodily arousal, cognitions, and expressed

behaviors

(464) According to Allport, intergroup contact can help reduce prejudice, but only under conditions of social and institutional support,

acquaintance potential, equal status, and itnergroup cooperation

(471) When we conform, we behave in ways that

adhere to social norms

(459) Helping may be motivated by both

altruistic and self-centered motives

(448-449) attribution

an assumption about the causes of behavior or events Personal explanation of the causes of behavior or events we observe. We tend to explain events by attributing them to either dispositional causes or situational causes. **Social psychologists have found that attributions can be affected by certain cognitive biases, such as the fundamental attribution error, actor-observer effect, and the self-serving bias.

(466) The biological underpinnings of aggression reflect genetic, hormonal,

and neurotransmitter influences

(473) Need for consistency, social validation, reciprocity, and perceptions of

authority are important determinants of compliance

(462) Social psychologists conceptualize prejudice, as they do other types of attitudes, as consisting of cognitive, emotional, and

behavioral components

(467) High temperatures are linked to aggressive behavior, perhaps because they induce angry, hostile thoughts and feelings that

become expressed in aggressive behavior

(447) By filtering information through existing social schemas, first impressions

become lasting impressions

(467) Alcohol is linked to aggressive behavior through its effects on loosening inhibitions, impairing the ability to weigh the consequences of

behavior and interpret social cues, and reducing sensitivity to punishment-related cues

(459) prosocial behavior

behavior that benefits others C. Daniel Batson distinguished between two types of motives that underlie helping behavior. 1: Alturistic motives - pure, unselfish desire to help others without expecting anything in return. Results from the helper's identification with the plight of the victim. 2: self-centered motives - Avoiding guilt of failing to help, or only helping to make themselves look good.

(448-449) situational causes

causes relating to external or environmental events, such as the pressures or demands imposed upon the actor Saying the pizza guy is late because there were several pies in the oven invokes a situational cause.

(448-449) dispositional causes

causes relating to the internal characteristics or traits of individuals are internal factors, such as internal traits, needs, or personal choices of the person involved (the "actor") Saying the pizza guy is late because he is a loafer invokes a dispositional cause

(451) Cognitive dissonance theory holds that people are motivated to reconcile discrepancies between their behavior and their

cognitions

(449) To social psychologists, attitudes are judgments of liking or disliking that can be conceptualized in terms of three components:

cognitions, emotions, and behaviors

(449) Another type of cognitive bias, the self-serving bias, comes into play in accounting for the tendency of people to take

credit for thier successes but explain away their failures

(462) out-group

groups other than those with which one identifies

(463) Stereotyping and prejudice negatively affect stereotyped groups in a number of ways, producing lowered

expectations and internalization of negative stereotypes

(448) People tend to overemphasize internal causes and to overlook situational influences when

explaining other people's behavior

(466) Sociocultural theorists explore the social stressors that contribute to aggressive behavior, including poverty, child abuse and neglect

family breakdown, and exposure to violence

(455) Attraction

feelings of liking for others, together with having positive thoughts about them and inclinations to act toward them in positive ways NOT limited to romantic or sexual attraction. Psychologists have identified several key determinants of attraction: similarity, physical attractiveness, proximity, and reciprocity.

(450) Our social environments shape the attitudes we develop, but research points to possible

genetic influences as well

(459-460) bystander intervention

helping a stranger in distress Bibb Latane and John Darley model of five decisions 1: people must decide that a need for help exists 2: must decide that a situation is a clear emergency 3: Must decide to assume personal responsibility for providing assistance. 4: Must decide what kind of help to give 5: Must decide to implement this course of action.

(448) The actor-observer effect leads us to attribute the behavior of others to dispositional internal causes but to explain our own behavioral

in terms of the situational demands we face in the environment

(448) We tend to explain events by attributing them to either dispositional or situational causes-that is, to factors within either the

individual or the environment

(465) Like other forms of human behavior, aggression is too complex to be reduced to the level of

instinct

(471) People are more likely to conform than they might think, even to the extent of claiming that something

is true when they know to be false

(460) According to the decision-making model, bystander intervention depends on a series of decisions

leading to intervention

(467) Alcohol use is liked to

many crimes of violence such as domestic violence, homicide, and rape.

(466) Social-cognitive theorists view aggression as learned behavior that is acquired through

observational learning and reinforcement

(447) The amount of personal information we disclose affects the impressions that

other people form of us

(450) Though attitudes predispose us to act in certain ways, they are not very strong

predictors of behavior

(449-450) attitude

positive or negative evaluation of people, objects, or issues. An attitude is an evaluation or judgment of either liking or disliking a person, object, or social issue. Attitudes comprise three components: cognitions (sets of beliefs), emotions (feelings of liking or disliking), and behaviors (act positive or negative). **The importance we ascribe to attitudes is a function of their personal relevance.

(451) According to the elaboration likelihood model, attitude change occurs through either a central

processing route or a peripheral processing route

(455) Attraction is influenced by similarity, physical attractiveness,

proximity, and reciprocity

(470) Our social or group identity is an important part of our psychological identity or

self-concept

(473) Many factors influence conformity, including personal and

situational characteristics

(460) Helping behavior is influenced by situational and individual factors and by

social norms

(462) in-groups

social, religious, ethnic, racial, or national groups with which one identifies

(449) Cognitive biases can impair our ability to make rational or

sound decisions

(460) social norms

standards that define what is socially acceptable in a given situation

(457-458) reciprocity

the principle that people tend to like others who like them back as long as it isn't too much too soon.

(463) Individual differences in prejudice may be explained by learning experiences, personality traits, and the

tendency to emphasize either similarities or differences between people

(450-451) cognitive dissonance theory

the belief that people are motivated to resolve discrepancies between their behavior and their attitudes, beliefs, or perceptions Dissonance = discomfort This uncomfortable state motivates people to change their attitudes or behaviors to make them more compatible. *There are several ways people can reduce cognitive dissonance: -They can change their behavior to fit their attitudes or beliefs -Change their beliefs or attitudes to fit their behavior -attempt to explain away any inconsistencies between their behavior and their attitudes or beliefs, -ignore any discrepancies.

(453) The effectiveness of persuasive appeals is influenced by variables relating to the source

the message itself, and the recipient

(470-471) social identity

the part of our psychological identity that involves our sense of ourselves as members of particular groups. Also called group identity Converts the "I" to "we" We have a fundamental need to be members of groups - to belong. Our social identity tends to rub off on our self-esteem. Social identity is generally a more prominent part of one's psychological identity in collectivest cultures, such as those in the far East, than it is in Western societies.

(470) personal identity

the part of our psychological identity that involves our sense of ourselves as unique individuals

(473) compliance

the process of acceding to the requests or demands of others

(446) impression formation

the process of developing an opinion or impression of another person We form first impressions quickly. (Fraction of a second = blink of an eye) First impressions count so much because they tend to be long-lasting and difficult to change, even in the face of discrepant information. First impressions also affect how we relate to people who are the objects of these impressions. Influenced by: personal disclosure, social schemas, stereotyping, and self-fulfilling prophecies.

(446) social perception

the processes by which we form impressions, make judgments, and develop attitudes about the people and events that constitute our social world The process by which we come to form an understanding of our social environment based on observations of others, personal experiences, and information we receive. **Three major aspects: -forming impressions of others -making sense of the causes of our own and other people's behaviors -developing attitudes that incline us to respond to people, issues, and objects in positive or negative ways

(446) social psychology

the subfield in psychology that deals with how our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by our social interactions with others.

(471-473) conformity (bending "I" to fit the "we")

the tendency to adjust one's behavior to actual or perceived social pressures Conformity pressures may also lead us to date or even marry the kinds of people whom others deem acceptable. We conform not only to general social norms but also to group or peer norms. Solomon Asch lead us to recognize that we may conform more than we think even though he set out to study independence not conformity. 3 put of 4 students who participated in the study gave at least one incorrect answer in a series of trials. **Three explanations to Asch's results: 1: People assume the majority must be correct. 2: They are so concerned about being accepted by the group that they don't care whether their judgments were correct. 3: They feel it is easier to go along with the group rather than disagree. ****Women are more likely to conform than men, collectivist cultures tend to conform more than individualist cultures, people with low self-esteem are more likely to conform. **Conformity declines with age. **Conformity is also influenced by situational factors. Asch believed that conformity can stifle individuality and independence, but may also help a group run smoothly.

(448-449) fundamental attribution error (Fritz Heider)

the tendency to attribute behavior to internal causes without regard to situational influences that come to bear on people. People in individualistic cultures such as the U.S. or Canada are more likely to commit fundamental attribution errors than those in collectivist cultures like China, Japan or Taiwan.

(449) actor-observer effect

the tendency to attribute the causes of one's own behavior to situational factors while attributing the causes of other people's behavior to internal factors or dispositions Heider attributed the actor-observer effect to differences in perspective. As an actor you look outward to the environment, so the situation engulfs your view. But your perspective as an observer is engulfed by your view of the actor within the situation. **Recent research suggests that the actor-observer effect may be weaker than many people suspect and limited to certain situations, such as when the actor and observer know each other very well.

(447-448) stereotypes

the tendency to characterize all members of a particular group as having certain characteristics in common Sets of beliefs about the characteristics, attributes, and behaviors of members of a particular group or category. Stereotypes influence first impressions. Stereotypes may include positive or negative attributes. Stereotypes about members of other social or ethnic groups tend to be more negative than those about member's of one's own group. *Social psychologists believe that stereotyping is a normal cognitive tendency, a kind of cognitive shorthand that simplifies the process of making social judgments. Stereotypes allow us to more efficiently (but not accurately) use stored information about other groups instead of expending cognitive resources to evaluate each individual member of the groups we encounter. **Once stereotypes are formed, they tend to stick and become resistant to change even in the face of contrary information. Stereotyping can damage group relations and be used to justify social inequities.

(458-459) Sternberg's triangular model of love proposes that different types of loving relationships can be characterized by different combinations of

three basic components of love: intimacy, passion, and decision/commitment *Combination of all three = consummate love

(463) We use mental categories or concepts to group objects, events, and ideas according

to their common features

(462) discrimination

unfair or biased treatement of people based on their membership in a particular group or category E.g. denial of housing or job opportunities, exclusion from social clubs, increased scrutiny by police officers or security guards.

(462) Prejudice develops as an outgrowth of negative stereotypes and is acquired in the same

way that other attitudes are learned

(447) Our preconceived ideas influence the impressions we form of people even before

we meet them