PSYCH 133G Final

High school: multi-ethnic sports teams (1)

What happens when Asian and Latin American immigrants interact with African Americans and European Americans whose parents and themselves have grown up in the more Gesellschaft host society and have more individualistic values? - focus on the development period of adolescence Outline of study: dynamics of interaction b/w individualistic and collectivistic players - study design and theoretical model --> setting: multiethnic high school sports teams in LA - chose this setting bc of the tracking and self segregation that are so common in high school; sports teams are one of the few settings in which high school students of diff ethnic groups work and interact together - sports made it easy to conduct participant observation - these were ideal bc they are group sports- work together as a team --> theoretical model: - ethnic background: Asian American players from mostly immigrant families; Latina players, some immigrant VS African American players from non immigrant families; European American players from mostly non immigrant families - cultural values: collectivism (sharing, self effacement) VS individualism (personal property, self enhancement) - outcome (nature of interaction): individualistic behaviour, seen through the lens of a collectivistic value system is interpreted negatively and leads to misunderstanding and social conflict (And vice versa) - cultural values and how they influence nature of interaction Method: - 8 multi ethnic sports teams - 2 high schools in LA - boys and girls teams - basketball and volleyball - player journals - researcher ethnography - qualitative data assembled on computer database programmed especially for this study - individualism-collectivism assessments - qualitative and quantitative analysis Sharing VS Personal property - ex. 1: Latina player drank from Euro-American player's water bottle --> EA thought Latina player should bring her own water --> source of conflict: the Latino player assumed the collectivistic value of sharing whereas the EA player was assuming the individualistic priority on personal property --> important aspect of culture: invisible, usually taken for granted --> therefore, the 2 players didn't realize that culture was involved --> note that a potential value conflict that was identified in the t-shirt scenario b/w parents and teachers became actual conflicts in kindergarten in the crayons example and in adolescence in the water bottle example Self Effacement VS Self Enhancement - accepting criticism: fitting in (modesty) - deflecting criticism: self enhancement - Carla does not offer excuses for her behaviour and takes the blame for her mistakes --> self deprecating behaviour: overemphasis of tendency to "miss every free throw" --> highlights her mistakes for everyone to see --> may be collectivistic attempt to highlight modesty, thus making her more acceptable to the group - teammate Elaine (more self enhancing perspective) responses to Carla's attitudes: --> Carla's modesty is detrimental to team (causes team to lose mental control of situation and reflects badly on team) --> emphasis on mistakes is a negative reflection of team --> doesn't see that Carla might be doing this with good intentions - Euro-American Arlene commonly observed to deflect criticism - teammate (more self effacing perspective) responses to Arlene's attitudes: --> Arlene's deflection is seen negatively because it is seen as "making excuses" and not being willing to change Quantitative analyses: - based on the girls' teams: 2 volleyball and 2 basketball - incidents were coded using 1-5 scale --> self effacing (uncomfy with praise or highlights faults) = 1 --> self enhancing (thrilled about praise, deflects criticism, makes excuses for mistakes) = 5 Predictions: - Euro-Americans and African Americans would be more self enhancing (more positive reactions to praise, more negative reactions to criticism) than Asian Americans and Latinas - Asian Americans and Latinas would be more self effacing (more positive reactions to criticism, more negative reactions to praise) than Euro-Americans and African Americans --> these were predicted from more recent immigration experiences and cultural roots --> we can infer that these players were exposed to 2 cultures (family/collectivism and society/individualism) --> they are expected to produce variability in reaction to praise bc of internal conflict and individual different wrt reactions to societal values of individualism Results: - found predicted links b/w ethnicity and self enhancement VS self effacement - reactions to praise: African Americans and Euro-Americans were more self enhancing than Asian Americans and Latinas - reactions to criticism: Asian Americans and Latinas were more self effacing than African Americans and Euro-Americans

Empirical Evidence: The Zinacantecs of Nabenchauk (4)

research design: a natural experiment - not a true experiment bc no random assignment (the experimental conditions are things that happen to people not things that are manipulated by researchers) - compare learning environments and development of 3 generations in Nabenchauk --> gen 1: 1969-1970 --> gen 2: 1991 & 1993 --> gen 3: 2012 - everything held constant (village, family, language) except for the passage of time and the socio-demographic changes that took place during that time --> gen 1: grew up in more Gemeinschaft environment --> gen 2: grew up in more Gesellschaft environment --> gen 3: grew up in even more Gesellschaft environment - made for a well controlled natural experiment

Bridging Cultures for Latino Immigrant Families and Schools Conclusions

- Bridging cultures applies research and theory to: --> classroom practice --> parent-teacher relations --> parenting and family relations - shows that it is possible to take a theoretical framework and basic research and make them practice in the real world

Intergenerational Change and the role of commerce and schooling in adolescent values in Zinacantan (1)

- Zinacantan is the ceremonial centre and Nabenchauk is one of the surrounding villages Sociodemographic changes (ecology) - rural --> urban - simple --> complex tech - most education at home --> more opportunities for formal education Sociodemographic changes (economy) - subsistence activities --> commerce: money accumulation of goods - poorer --> wealthier How learning environment changes when moving from Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft - facilitating family interdependence --> facilitating individual autonomy - creates change in social development How social development changes when moving from Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft - changes in beliefs in gender hierarchy --> hierarchy --> equality --> men walk in front of women --> men and women walk side by side - changes in ascribed gender roles --> ascribed --> chosen --> women make tortillas at home --> women work outside of the home - changes in family obligation --> value on family obligation --> value placed on individual independence --> stay in village near family --> leave village to pursue opportunities Adolescents then: - transition into ascribed gender roles - unmarried men and women weren't allowed to talk to each other - partnering was negotiated b/w families - entire families would attend religious festivals together - separation where males would have their ritual roles and it would be just males Adolescents now: - male and females attended school together (they're talking to each other outside of marriage) - boys and girls are socializing with each other and selecting their own romantic partners - preparing for different adult roles involving a cash economy (independent from parents) - social activities that take place outside of family sphere What facilitated these changes? (60s--> 70s) - a new high school was developed - created opportunities for first generation high school students

Going back 1: Implications for values and practices Conclusions: Social and cultural change in China since "Made in China"

- as predicted by the theory of social change and human development, individualistic values (choose, compete, get, private, autonomy, talent, innovation, fairness) became more important in Chinese culture - rising individualism is significantly related to growing urbanism, increasing wealth, and higher levels of formal education - some values adapted to Gemeinschaft social environments (communal, obedience, effort, help, sacrifice) declined, as predicted - perhaps in reaction to social change, other collectivistic words (ex. obligation, give) also increased in frequency but more slowly - however, despite changes in China over time, a direct comparison indicates that China is still much more collectivistic than the US. however, it is also catching up to the US in individualism - new research: the next generation will be even more individualistic and less collectivistic than the current generations of adults

Cognitive Development in 2 domains: the role of sociodemographic factors Conclusions

- both Piaget and Kohlberg developed stage theories of cognition - stage sequences universal in that stage reversals do not occur - but there are also differences in different environments 2 pathways to: - knowledge of physical world: --> Gemeinschaft: - New Guinea: learning practical subsistence skills - Zinacantan: learning the practical subsistence skill of weaving --> Gesellschaft: - Piaget film: cognition for its own sake - moral reasoning: --> social norms adaptive in a homogenous community --> need law or principles to resolve conflicting norms in a heterogenous society --> orientation toward social obligation in the poorer, more Gemeinschaft country of India --> abstract moral principles more important in the richer, more Gesellschaft world of the US Social change in Gesellschaft direction - participation in commerce: led to a more abstract number system in New Guinea - participation in schooling: led to a more abstract way of classifying objects in Soviet Union - across both cognitive domains (moral and physical) abstract cognition is a common feature of adaptation to Gesellschaft environments --> moral: abstract moral principles --> physical: abstract number system, abstract classification system - but losses as well: --> sense of social relationship and social responsibility becomes weaker

Social change in Mexico and Shifts in maternal socialization strategies (1)

- focusing on changes in learning environment (less socialization for individual achievement --> more socialization for individual achievement) Experiment 1: Nuevo San Vicente, Baja California, Mexico - historical comparison of mothers' rewards for their children's successes and failures in 1972 and 2015 Design: - mother-child pairs - Madsen and Kagan: first wave of data collection in 1972 in San Vicente - Garcia et al: replication of procedure in 2015 in same town - comparison of 2 waves of data 43 years apart Participants: - 1972: 12 mother-child pairs - 2015: 14 mother-child pairs - children were half boys half girls - children were 6-8yo - no gender differences Task and Procedure: - child aimed to throw beanbag at square on floor - mothers encouraged children to advance to furthest possible target - mothers were allowed to give marbles to their children after children threw (whether or not the child succeeded) Hypotheses: 1. mothers would give more overall rewards in 1972 than 2015 - mothers would be more giving in 1972 bc giving within the family is a big part of Gemeinschaft lifestyle 2. mothers would differentiate more b/w child success and failure in the way they allocated rewards in 2015, compared with 1972 - this would be done to shape their children for maximum achievement on the task - fewer rewards when child failed, more when child succeeded (2015) -- reward more selectively Results: - as predicted in Hyp 1: rewards declined across the 2 time periods --> declined in response to both failure and success - as predicted in Hyp 2: greater differentiation in 2015 --> difference b/w reward for success and reward for failure is much greater in 2015 than it was in 1972 --> greater emphasis on necessity of success in order to be rewarded in 2015 --> mothers rewarded more selectively in 2015 than in 1972 to train their children to perform better on the task (communicates to their children that successful individual achievement is required to receive rewards in life)

The 2 Pathways Clash: Cross-Cultural Value Conflict

- immigrants cultural values clash with cultural values of dominant culture - dominant cultural paradigm in US: using separation and reunion to assess attachment --> know children is attached because when parent leaves, child is unhappy, when parent returns, child is happy - a different cultural pathway for attachment: maximizing physical closeness --> when Latino immigrants tried to use childcare here, the values clash --> interdependence of Gemeinschaft environments clash with independence of Gesellschaft environments --> Latino parents: "it's hard for me to separate from my child" --> teacher response: "you should let her walk because it helps her motor dev" --> Latino mother response: "you're asking me to separate from my child? I don't care about walking because she walks fine" --> clash of values: teacher cares about independence and skill development, mother cares about closeness

Immigration and Acculturation as Social Change Processes: Cross-cultural value conflict b/w home and school, and across the generations Conclusions

- immigration often puts people from more Gemeinschaft environments into more Gesellschaft environments - they carry their values with them and enact them in their own lives and in the socialization of their children - however, culture of host environment leads both to change over time and to ethnic group differences that are particularly strong in the immigrant generation (Ex. in family obligation) - school is a major acculturating force for individualistic values. This can lead to cultural value conflicts b/w immigrant parents and schools (in elementary school) and internalized value conflicts (b/w family obligation and academic obligation) for first generation college students. These processes also lead to differences from parents and differences with parents (parent-child conflict) ex. filial piety.

Cross cultural value conflict in peer relations Conclusions

- in the ethnically and culturally diverse environments of high school and college in SoCal, multiethnic and multicultural interactions are the rule - misunderstandings can occur when participants in these interactions bring different cultural assumptions into their relationships - when different participants make different value assumptions, it seems necessary to make the differences explicit in order to resolve conflicts in a positive way

Theory of Social Change and Human Development Applied to: Media Tech and Social Development (10) Conclusions

- reading (the first medium) led to a desire for privacy - expanded use of interactive tech is associated with: --> increasing individualism on cultural level --> increasing individualism and other Gesellschaft adaptations in the personal development of children and youth - including increased narcissism - importance of fame as a life goal - decrease in sense of intimacy - declining importance of family and expanded role of unrelated peers for young people

Social Change and Gender Roles in a Mexican-American Family Conclusions

- when people immigrate from a more Gemeinschaft environment to a more Gesellschaft environment, their values shift in the direction of more individualistic values - there is an experience of conflict b/w the 2 sets of values - there is a shift from generation to generation from ancestral collectivistic and other Gemeinschaft-adapted values to the individualistic values of the host society

Socialization of Gender

- socialization: environmental differentiation of boys and girls (ages 5, 13, 25 months) --> boys and girls experience different environments details about the study - homes of babies age 5, 13, 25 months - boys had significantly more: --> sports equipment, tools, vehicles - girls had significantly more: --> dolls, fictional characters, child's furniture - parents were all middle class Caucasian French speakers - clear differentiation b/w girl and boy environment - girls wore more pink (yellow bedding) - boys wore more red, blue (blue bedding) - mothers predominant providers of toys for children --> as of 1990, girls and boys were already experiencing gender related differences in their environments Hypothesis: - differences in environment will result in differences in ability and preferences in children --> gender stereotyped marketing has become more intense

Social Change and Adolescent Development in Zinacantan and Around the World Conclusions

- societies and cultures aren't static (we have shifting pathways of human development) - sociodemographic transformations change learning environments and the individual development of cultural values and ways of knowing - increasing commercial activity, formal education, urbanization, and technological development all produce a movement of values in the direction of individual choice, equality and independence --> move sources of knowledge from tradition to school, science, and individual - social change is bidirectional: decreased wealth in the US pushed values towards greater sense of social obligation (concern for others and environmentalism) and reduced materialism - however, self satisfaction continued to rise in the recent Great Recession, perhaps driven by the continued expansion of communication technologies (materialism showed mixed results during the Great Recession)

Intergenerational change and the role of urbanization and tech in the values and ways of knowing of Arab adolescents in Israel (1)

- sociodemographic changes have universal effects on the levels of values, learning environments, and development --> all these ecological factors have the same effect on learning environments and development Education - youngest age group has highest proportion of people who have highest level of formal education - the change is particularly great for women (6% in 55-64 yrs old to 31% in 25-34 yr olds) Urbanization of Israeli Arabs - early 1980s: half of the Arab population lived in localities with fewer than 10,000 people - currently: 30% of Arab population lives in localities with fewer than 10,000 people Technology: - 1999: 45% had mobile phones - 2010: 72% of Arab households had mobile phones - increasingly Gesellschaft characteristics (education, urbanization, tech)

Interactional dynamics of the immigration experience

- up to now we have considered contact b/w members of more collectivistic and more individualistic cultures in terms of opposing forces of socialization (parents and teachers) on the developing child, as well as intergenerational dynamics - shift perspective to peer group and ask: what happens in an adolescent peer group when an individualist interacts with a collectivist?

Social Change, Socialization, and Social Development in Middle Childhood: Evidence from Mexico Conclusions

1. As Mexico transitioned to a more Gesellschaft environment, children adapted by becoming more competitive and less cooperative in several regions of the country and in both rural and urban areas 2. Rural children are consistently more cooperative, but the rural-urban difference is diminishing as the ecological differences b/w city and country diminish 3. mothers socialize their children to adapt to a Gesellschaft world - not the same Gemeinschaft world in which they were raised 4. Mothers in 2015, compared with 1972, have become more selective in allocating rewards, preferentially giving rewards when their children succeed rather than fail. In this way, they give the socialization message to their children that successful individual achievement is required to receive rewards in life 5. Millard Madsen's experiments provided sensitive instruments for detecting the effects of environmental change on children's social behaviour and mothers' socialization strategies.

Film: La Familia Intergenerational case study of a Mexican Americana Family

1. Characteristics of collectivistic (and other Gemeinschaft-adapted) values and behaviours, in gender roles and elsewhere - marriage - self-reliance - rigid gender roles - clear hierarchy (Father at top) - family business (hired family members) - emphasis on religion/the church 2. Changes over generations in gender roles - women have more opportunities, especially for careers/jobs - women have broader roles, more than mothers - women are having children later/when they are older - women moving from interdependent thinking to independent thinking - youngest generation was considering not getting married 3. Continuities over generations in gender roles - marriage was still important in later generations (for some) - some males still wanted to "provide for the family" - women are still the primary caregivers - family is still very important/central focus 4. Expressions of conflict b/w the 2 value systems - raising children: should parents, grandparents, or day care workers do it? - a fear of losing heritage/culture - younger generation questioned males/husbands more often

Film: Kids and Money

1. Examples of the wealth and money orientation of the US - people were judged by the material things they had (clothing, cars etc.) - money/wealth determines your value as a person - money/wealth determines your happiness - kids felt pressure to spend a lot of money on clothes, even if the families couldn't afford it 2. Evidence of individualism associated with wealth and money - the kids got jobs to buy their own expensive clothing - extreme concern with appearance - kids valued their status above their parents/their family's status 3. Differences in the kids concerning individualistic or collectivistic value orientations, depending on families' wealth - less wealthy kids spent their money/time more collectivistically (boy earned money for mother, spent more time with family) - less wealthy kids seemed more appreciative - wealthy kids: kids wanted their parents to be a positive reflection on themselves (wrt appearance) - wealthy kids: ignored the fact that people suffer for their clothing (ex. bought clothes made in sweatshops) - wealthy kids: no one could wear the same outfit without upsetting them - wealthy kids: need for immediate gratification

Film: Made in China

1. Points of Difference: environment/ecology - cultural revolution VS free speech - communal public spaces VS fear of public interaction in US - China is ethnically homogenous VS heterogeneity in US 2. Points of Difference: values and practice - family centre of social life in China VS friends being the centre in the US - single woman not as independent in China - focus on efficiency and improving across generations (making up for lost time) VS allowing children to choose their own paths in the US

Film: Daughter from Danang

1. What are the Gemeinschaft sociodemographic or ecological features you see in Vietnam relative to where Heidi came from in the US? - Vietnam is "third world" - many houses did not have indoor plumbing, doing dishes outside - lack of infrastructure (roads, buildings) 2. What are the collectivistic qualities of the culture Heidi meets when she reunites with her family in Vietnam? - in Vietnam, it is expected that older children take care of their parents and adults take care of multiple children (not just their own) - large families, communal meals with many family members - older siblings were the caretakers of younger siblings - there was a lot of physical contact b/w mother and daughter 3. What are the individualistic qualities of her social environment in the US? - more privacy - more independence (i.e. older children don't live with their parents, opportunity to go to college) 4. What are the conflicts Heidi experiences as she, brought up in an individualistic society from age 7, meets a collectivistic culture in her late 20s? - she was feeling smothered because she wanted more time to herself/privacy - she felt frustrated that she was expected to take care of her family back in Vietnam (i.e. send money, have her mother live with her) - she felt conflicted because she wanted some of the benefits (i.e. close maternal relationship) of a collectivistic culture but she didn't like it when she got it 5. What are the cultural conflicts experienced by her collectivistic Vietnamese family when Heidi visits? - in Vietnam, even though she was related to them, she didn't feel a bond with them - She wasn't able to fulfill the expectations of taking care of her mother - her mother/family was offended/confused when she left/walked out when they asked her for financial help 6. Do you think Heidi was adequately prepared to bridge b/w the 2 cultures? If not, what do you think should have happened? - No. she didn't understand the impact of the time she had spent apart from her mother. - she wasn't prepared for the cultural expectations of Vietnam - she was looking for love, and they were looking for/expecting money - for Vietnamese families in the US, they are expected to send money back to their family in Vietnam - in the sensitive period, she was asked to ignore her heritage

Immigration: Changing cultural pathways of gender and sexuality

2 cultural pathways of gender and sexuality (1 in Gemeinschaft and 1 in Gesellschaft) Gemeinschaft: collectivistic values - ascribed gender roles - complementary gender roles - sexual roles as obligation to family of procreation (homosexuality not accepted) - sexual socialization emphasizes procreation and family development - greater segregation of males and females in adolescence - marriage is a joining of 2 families - sex only in marriage Gesellschaft: individualistic values - chosen and achieved gender roles - egalitarian gender roles - sexual roles by choice (homosexuality more accepted) - sexual socialization emphasizes pleasure, personal responsibility, and intimacy b/w 2 individuals - adolescent males and females often together in couples and groups - marriage is a joining of 2 individuals - sexual exploration as developmental stage - these are the extremes; can be either more or less Gemein/Gesell - generally, movement is from Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft (immigration) --> this isn't an easy process, it often leads to conflict and disagreement b/w generations

Cross-cultural value differences and cross cultural conflict across generations

2 cultural pathways to adult roles: family obligation or personal freedom - socio demographics: --> immigrants from East Asia, Latin America: less wealthy --> US: more wealthy - cultural values: --> immigrants from East Asia, Latin America: collectivism --> US: individualism - learning environment: --> immigrants from East Asia, Latin America: socialization of family obligation and filial piety --> US: socialization for personal freedom, choice, and personal pleasure - social development: --> immigrants from East Asia, Latin America: emerging adult roles focus on family obligation and filial piety --> US: emerging adult roles focus on personal freedom, choice, and personal pleasure Family obligation - like immigrants from Latin America, immigrants from Asia usually are immigrating from more Gemeinschaft to more Gesellschaft environments - more collectivistic value systems - Asian and Latino families continue to emphasize familial duty and obligation of adolescents in new society - family obligation: heightened in the immigration context --> parents: limited knowledge of US society (children as translators) --> many adolescents feel indebted to their parents for sacrifices they have made by immigrating to a new society to provide more opportunities for their children - value of family obligation contrasts with US value: focus on freedom and choice Study: immigrant adolescents VS non immigrant European-American adolescents (Fuligni et al, 1999) - Asian American and Latino American adolescents from immigrant families more likely than adolescents from European non immigrant background to believe they should help their parents and siblings, currently and as adults - more likely to endorse the importance of making sacrifices for their family Vietnamese teenager: "to be an American you may be able to do whatever you want. But to be a Vietnamese, you must think if your family first" Study of filial piety: intergenerational dynamics of the immigration experience (Suzuki, 1999) - childhood sociodemographic: --> parents: more Gemeinschaft --> children: more Gesellschaft - cultural values --> parents: collectivism- respect for older generation --> children: individualism- child centred - outcome: --> parents: frustration, disappointment --> children: sense of filial piety diluted - what is filial piety? --> a form of family obligation important in East Asia --> Confucian ethic --> respect, obedience, and eventual care for parents --> traditionally, Asian children socialized to be filial children - design of study: --> focus groups --> 5-6th grade (1) --> 9-10th grade (2) --> undergraduates --> parents of 1 and 2 --> European Americans --> East Asian Americans --> Generational status varied but there were more immigrant families and participants in the East Asian than in the European American groups --> parents and children in separate focus groups - evidence for 2 pathways in child-parent relations --> Asian American participants had more positive feelings than Europeans towards care of older parents (esp. financial and physical care) --> Asian American parents had more positive feelings toward being cared for by their children as they got older --> Asian American participants valued respect for parents more --> European American participants felt more positively about nursing homes for elderly - intergenerational dynamics --> case study (From Suzuki, 1999) --> mother: immigrated from China --> daughter: born in China, came to US at age 5 --> mother: concerned about teaching her child the values of filial piety --> on the other hand, daughter is among the least interested of group (1) Asian American children with respect to certain filial issues --> tug b/w parent desires and child attitudes - one component of filial piety: assistance to parents in old age --> immigrant Chinese mother's perspective on her daughter's responsibilities: she hopes her child would care for her and her husband in their old age --> mother's perspective on her responsibilities to her own parents: mother gave parents her paycheque every month when she worked in China when she was younger. Now, she does a lot for her mother back in China (sends her money, visits every other year) and her husband's parents (bought them a condo, send money to his parents and siblings in China). She hopes for the same from her child but her child is growing up in a different culture. --> daughter's perspective on assistance to parents in old age: - help should be even (parents contribute equally to daughter) - daughter's image of family care is diff from her mother's - doesn't mention financial help but instead talks about what her mother can do to help her - in terms of helping parents with their future, daughter's responses tend to be on egocentric side because most of her answers have to do with what her parents can do for er - due to individualistic culture in the US - another component of filial piety: respect for elders --> immigrant Chinese mother's perspective: you respect people, you know they will respect you --> daughter's perspective on respect for elders: - attitude towards respect is a lot more casual than what her mother desires - most of her comments are less enthusiastic and are in direct contrast with her mother's hopes --> cross cultural/generational conflict

Going back 2: Daughter from Danang

A sensitive period for the incorporation of cultural meaning - at what age is one able to learn a new culture? at what age is the old culture stable enough to resist the new? - sensitive period: chronological age period where one is most able to acquire particular new skills --> the sensitive period for learning a language is considered to be up to puberty What is the sensitive period for acquiring cultural meaning Minoura (1992) - concerned with meaning systems having to do with interpersonal relations - Japanese meaning system: interdependence, implicit communication - US meaning system: independence, explicit communication - Japanese children who believed the American way is the only way had come to the US before the age of 9 and had resided here for at least 4 years --> for them, Japan is foreign country - Minoura inferred that Japanese meaning system had not yet been fully established when they arrived in the US before age 9 - sensitive period for cultural learning therefore seems to be b/w 9-13yo - opportunities to interact with Americans were also important Applying research on the sensitive period for cultural learning to the film: Daughter from Danang - Heidi has to leave Vietnam and her Vietnamese mother when she is 7 to go to the US where she is adopted by a Euro-American mother in the South - returns to Vietnam to be reunited with her mother in her late 20s - experiences severe negative reactions to the Vietnamese meaning systems for interpersonal relations - exemplifies Minoura's conclusion: Heidi was in the US during the sensitive period for acquiring a cultural meaning system for interpersonal relations and interacted only with Americans, therefore Vietnam is foreign to her - connection to attachment: --> before 7yo, children make personal emotional bonds (attachments) and foundation for culture --> but the culture is not yet stabilized --> personal emotional bonds (attachment) are there, but the cultural structuring of human relations in Vietnam is foreign to Heidi

Cross cultural value conflict b/w home and school: college level

At college level: - collectivistic values = family obligations - individualistic values = academic obligations Transition to college and individualism - elementary --> middle school --> high school --> college - assignments become more difficult - more difficult to fulfill both family and academic obligations - creates internal conflict that affects academic performance Vasquez-Salgado (2016) - questions: --> how do home-school conflicts play out in the transition to college? --> what are their consequences? - general overview: --> exploratory study (qualitative) - home-school conflicts --> large scale survey study (quantitative) - causal modelling, generalizability to other minorities - exploratory (qualitative) study: do Latino 1st generation college students experience home-school value conflicts during the 1st year of college? What form do these conflicts take? What are the implications of those conflicts for their well being and academic achievement? --> participant criteria: - both parents migrating from a Latin American country - first generation college student - 1st year of college --> study overview: - short open ended survey - focus group discussion: students unanimously said they experienced home-school conflicts - ex. attending family events VS doing academic work - ex. visiting family VS doing academic work - ex. providing assistance to family VS focusing on oneself - ex. allocating money for travel to see family VS educational costs - negative implications of conflicts on well being (stress, guilt, emotional, perceived impact on physical well being) - negative impact on academics (inability to concentrate/study, earn poor grades) --> summary of findings - Latino first generation college students experience home school conflicts (these conflicts vary in form) - conflicts impact both academic achievement and well being - survey (quantitative) study: predictors --> home school conflicts --> consequences --> participants: - 1st year college students - some Asian, some European American, some Latino - 35% of sample was first generation college students --> summary of findings: - Latino and other first generation college students tend to come from lower income families and therefore have strong family obligation values - these values make them susceptible to home-school conflicts during the transition to college - these conflicts imperil well being, the ability to concentrate, and therefore academic achievement - home-school value conflict is an important factor in discrepancies in academic achievement (implies that programs should not just focus on academic barriers)

Universals in the Development of Close Social Relations: Attachment

Attachment: a baby's emotional tie to a specific person or people, usually the caregivers - begins b/w 6-8 months of age - lasts until about age 3 - phylogenetically evolved adaptive system for dealing with danger - behavioural manifestation: --> proximity seeking: going to the attachment figure --> separation distress: showing distress (crying) when separated from attachment figure --> stranger anxiety: when someone the baby doesn't know comes into the baby's space --> these indicate the development of specific attachments Developmental patterns of separation distress - in widely different cultures, there's a response of crying to separation from attachment figure --> this reaches its height across 10-15 months - same pattern: rise from 5 months, peaks at 10-16 months, decline as children grow older - there is a universal pattern of development of pattern (esp. separation distress) 2 evolved maternal/caregiver mechanisms for dealing with baby's desire for proximity (closeness) - more tactile contact, less visual contact (and vice versa) --> these are both ways of achieving closeness b/w baby and attachment figure --> these seem to be substitutes for each other --> among chimpanzees, groups that have more tactile contact b/w mother and infant have less visual and vice versa

College: multi-ethnic roommates

Background: Latino students often transition from a collectivistic more Gemeinschaft environment to a more individualistic Gesellschaft environment when they attend a diverse setting such as college, and are exposed to multiethnic peers - conflict resolution styles --> individualism: - conflicts as a threat to individual freedom - assertiveness as the best method for resolving conflict --> collectivism: - conflicts as a threat to social relationships - maintenance of valued relationships more important than resolving the conflict RQs: 1. do Latino college students experience peer-peer cultural value conflicts - conflict b/w their collectivistic values and the individualistic values of peers from individualistic backgrounds? 2. do Latino college students engage in implicit and avoidant conflict resolution styles rather than explicit forms of conflict resolution? 3. how do conflict resolution styles relate to successful resolution of the conflicts? 4. do these conflicts and resolution styles entail costs to academics and peer relationships? Method - presentation of a peer-peer conflict scenario to small group - analysis of the group discussion - identify themes in the interviews that relate to psychological adaptation in response to the transition to a more Gesellschaft environment - types of conflict: --> lack of reciprocation: mutual support --> lack of reciprocation: personal items --> not thinking about the other - conflict resolution styles --> implicit: student indirectly confronts roommate --> explicit: student directly confronts roommate --> avoidant: student avoids confronting roommate - impact on relationship with roommate --> positive --> negative Results: - 2 main types of conflicts --> lack of reciprocation --> thinking about oneself/not thinking about other --> students engaged in all 3 types of resolution - explicit styles of conflict resolution led to more positive relationships with roommates than implicit or avoidant styles Conclusions: - this study demonstrates the cross-cultural value conflicts that first generation Latino college students encounter with their peers upon their transition to a more diverse and individualistic environment --> these types of collectivistic issues also occurred with other minority groups (Especially when one roommate was first generation college student and the other was not) - more positive peer relationships resulted from confrontational styles of conflict resolution rather than implicit and avoidant forms of communication. Students who utilized avoidant or implicit forms reported a lack of comfort in their rooms. This impacts academics negatively.

Theory of Social Change and Human Development Applied to: Media Tech and Social Development (3)

Changing cultural values: pre-teen TV over the decades (Uhls and Greenfield 2011) - Gesellschaft --> more Gesellschaft (less advanced --> more advanced and more widespread tech) - prediction: increasing individualism, materialism; decreasing communitarinism/familism - content analysis of the most popular TV shows with pre-teen audience in US across the decades Methods: - 50 yr period, 2 most popular TV shows for US pre-teens in every decade (1967, 77, 87, 97, 07) were used as stimuli for a survey of portrayed values - each show was rated by study participants for 17 values Results: - COMMUNITY feeling: top value for first 4 decades; near bottom in 2007 - FAME was near bottom for first 4 decades; top value in 2007 - movement from communitarian value to individualistic value - desire for FINANCIAL SUCCESS: rose significantly across the decades - thumbnails of shows reflects cultural values - family values --> peer group emphasis (boy meets world) --> emphasis on self and fame What effect did Hannah Montana have on our peers? - 2010: focus groups of pre-teen children in LA (fame as value) --> rated fame as their most important value out of 17 --> fame-seeking behaviour: almost all posted videos on Youtube - why did you list fame as something you desire in the future? --> wealth --> being known by everyone --> being liked - fame as a goal: emphasis on audience size (important value) - lack of realism - Youtube: adults socialize the value of fame --> putting performances of children they're working with on Youtube

Luria's study of the cognitive effects of social change in rural, agricultural areas after the Russian Revolution

Cognitive domain: categorization Central Asia: Uzbekistan - major change: formal education Key comparison: cognitive performance of... - peasant farmers from remote villages without any school experience - participants with 1-2 years of school Adapted methods to the culture - long conversations frequently held in groups (in line with collectivistic culture) - designed a task/procedure that the participants found meaningful (didn't just bring a procedure from the West that wouldn't be relevant for these participants) Role of qualitative and quantitative methods (mixed methods): - one qualitative method: the clinical interview to explore cultural issues (adapt questions to individuals) --> identify processes --> has to precede quantitative --> deeper with fewer number of individuals - quantitative methods: --> shallower with large number of individuals One of Luria's cognitive experiments - shown drawings of hammer, saw, log, hatchet - which ones are alike? --> we would say "log" doesn't fit because we group by categorization (tool) --> no school: grouping by use in practical context - they say all items are needed; still need wood otherwise they can't do anything --> 2 years of school: abstract classification - glass, saucepan, spectacles, bottle: which ones are alike? - is able to generate category labels (glass, saucepan, bottle = containers OR glass, spectacles, bottle = glass) - removed from practical situation Summary of Luria's results: - unschooled peasant farmers from remote villages --> 80%: grouping by use in practical context --> 4%: abstract grouping (decontextualized categorization) - young people with 1-2 years schooling: --> 0%: grouping by use in practical context --> 100%: abstract grouping (decontextualized categorization) Summary: - without school, farmers from remote villages grouped objects by their use in a practical context - with school, a Gesellschaft element, categorization became abstract, removed from a practical context

Since the film: cultural effects of market economy development in China

Collectivistic values in traditional Chinese culture - in contemporary history, the cultural revolution (1966-1976) drove Chinese people to an extremely collectivistic society - in the Chinese language, the word or concept of collectivism implies giving, contributing, donating, and even sacrificing to the group or nation Modern Chinese society in sociodemographic transition - Chinese society has undergone rapid and radical changes since the Chinese state party officially launched its economic reforms in 1978 and the Chinese economy has been growing at a fast pace - the changing nation --> urban population: 17.4% (1970) --> 51.78% (2010) --> household consumption expenditure per capita: $113.81 (1970) --> $1214.42 (2012) --> tertiary school enrolment: .13% (1970) --> 24.33% (2011) Individualistic values and modern Chinese society in transition - what happens to traditional collectivistic values in such a dramatically changing society? Are individualistic values stepping onto the stage? - collectivism (cultural revolution) --> individualism (economic reforms) - are there any conflicts or confusion in the process of values change? - how closely are the values linked to sociodemographic indicators? Sociodemographics: - Gemeinschaft --> Gesellschaft Cultural values: - community, obedience --> privacy, autonomy Method: - Google Ngram Viewer: automated content analysis - 1970 (mid cultural revolution) - 2008 (end of Google Ngram Viewer corpus) - 277,189 Chinese books in this period - words selected to represent cultural values - some words replicated a study done in US; others were selected from Chinese culture and society - explored statistical correlations b/w sociodemographic trends and trends of word frequency Word Selection - values adapted to Gesellschaft: --> economic priorities: - choose, compete --> personal possessions: - get, private --> personal development - autonomy, talent --> ideal society: - innovation, fair - values adapted to Gemeinschaft: --> economic priorities - obliged, assign --> personal possessions - give, public --> personal development - obedience, assiduous --> ideal society - help, sacrifice Personal Possessions Results: - communal word use increased during cultural revolution, decreased during economic reform - private word use increased during economic reform Correlations b/w ecological factors and frequencies of private and communal - urban population, household consumption expenditure, tertiary school enrolment --> positive correlation with Gesellschaft adapted value of private --> negative correlation with Gemeinschaft adapted value of communal Personal Development results - increased use of autonomy words as economic reform happened - decreased use of obedience, compliance across economic reform Adaptation to market economy prioritizes choice - the use of "choose" increases at a more rapid rate than the use of "obliged", but both words increase in usage China has higher frequency of the word "obliged" (collectivistic) than the US does - the US corpus is higher in frequency of the world "choose" --> but this difference is not significant - cross cultural difference is much stronger for "obliged" (US use is much less than China) --> demonstrates complexity of response to rapid social change (collectivism value is resistant to change) Grandmothers' Perception of intergenerational change in child behaviour - grandmothers saw themselves as least autonomous and grandchildren were the most autonomous --> same pattern for curiosity and self expression (individualistic behaviours) - opposite pattern for collectivistic behaviours (obedience and shyness)

Theory of Social Change and Human Development Applied to: Media Tech and Social Development (8)

College students on FB: anatomy of a friendship network (Taylor, Manago, Greenfield, 2012) - online survey of 88 UCLA undergrads - answered questions about friendship network while logged into their FB profile - size of network ranged from 29 friends to 1200 friends - distribution of types of friends --> acquaintances and activity friends were highest --> close friends: best friends, very good friends, significant others, roommates, family etc. - on avg, 20% of total network (70 close relationships) - how close can you be to 70 people? - on FB, sense of social support and well being connected to network size and audience size --> has there been a reduction in intimacy? Study of Media and sense of intimacy (Sherman et al, 2013) - female UCLA students came to lab with self selected friend - each pair communicated: --> face to face --> video chat --> audio chat (phone) --> instant message (textual communication) - video: friends, bonding, and social media --> ecological validity --> combination of certain cues are important in feelings of affection; important in close relations --> in person: highest bonding, highest number of cues associated with feelings of affiliation --> as participants got further away from in person to IM, they portrayed fewer cues --> most young people are communicating most through text, which means that relationships aren't as close now as when face to face communication dominated --> tech maintains bonds but doesn't create strong bonds - subjective sense of bonding: sense of bonding followed this order: 1. face to face 2. video chat - in terms of perceptual and audio cues, you have the same cues in video chat and face to face, but you feel closer in face to face so there must be something about face to face that creates sense of bonding and intimacy 3. audio chat 4. instant message - experience with the medium had relatively little impact on self reported bonding --> if the pair texted more frequently, that didn't make them feel either closer or less close (didn't have an impact) --> thought that maybe if you used a medium more, you might feel more bonding with a person when using it but that wasn't the case

Empirical Evidence: The Zinacantecs of Nabenchauk (3) Gemeinschaft --> Gesellschaft (1991-2012/gen 2-gen 3)

ECOLOGY - more urbanization (2 story houses, urban migration) - scale increased again (ppn 3000 to 4500) - further tech dev. (cellphones, cameras, blenders) - formal education expanded (middle school, high school) ECONOMY - commerce developed further (taxi business, stores in village) SOCIAL RELATIONS - network expansion (multiethnic friendships, unchaperoned cross-sex interaction of young women in city markets)

Empirical Evidence: The Zinacantecs of Nabenchauk (2) Gemeinschaft --> Gesellschaft (1969-1991/gen 1-gen 2)

ECOLOGY - rural --> more urban (houses closer together) - small scale --> larger scale (ppn grew: 1500 to 3000) - low tech --> higher tech (vans, trucks, electricity, TV) ECONOMY - subsistence --> commerce (produce bought and sold, textiles sold, Saturday markets) --> ex. began to buy and wear shoes (didn't used to do this because women were supposed to be closer to Earth and went barefoot) --> ex. selling textiles to outsiders --> Saturday market (1991): a new commercial venue SOCIAL RELATIONS - lifelong relations with kin --> fleeting relations with strangers (clients, store clerks)

Theory of Social Change and Human Development Applied to: Media Tech and Social Development (2)

Effects of reading on social behaviour and values Value of privacy: - prediction: increasing values of privacy - social effect of literacy on reading (Wober) --> Wober study in Nigeria in 1960s --> workers in company could choose b/w 1. suburban housing development with yards in a quiet residential neighbourhood 2. living in traditional crowded noisy sociable urban environment with lots of street life --> when workers chose the former over the latter, it was often because they wanted to be alone in peace and quiet to read --> literacy and formal schooling were just becoming widespread in Nigeria at the time --> literacy was the first communication tech to reduce face to face interaction, but not the last!

Historical change with changing sociodemographic conditions of the community and the individual

Evidence for global shifts in gender roles: the world values survey - 4 waves: 1981-2001 - 70 countries on 6 continents - gender items: 1. gender-equivalent economic and political roles 2. women's search for fulfillment outside of motherhood 3. child bearing outside of a stable family relationship b/w mother and father - these 3 items measured gender roles adapted to Gesellschaft environment Results: changes from 1981-2001 - endorsement of gender equality and independence increased - greater economic development and higher levels of schooling in the tested societies --> census data in societies as a whole - greater economic development and higher levels of schooling in the individuals who took the surveys --> findings concerning the actual individuals who took the surveys

Theory of Social Change and Human Development Applied to: Media Tech and Social Development (9)

Heightened use of tech (cellphone) --> implications for family and peer relations - cell phone weakens family relations (Ling and Yttri in Norway) - focus groups: 40 teens, 20 19-23 year olds, 20 parents --> each demographic had own groups, 10 groups in all - use of cell phone establishes generational boundaries --> can send your parents' calls right to voicemail - individualizes mediated communication --> allows teens to keep friends private from parents (privacy is really important) Heightened use of tech, especially social networking sites, cell phone, texting, video chat... - decrease in importance of family - increase importance of unrelated peers - sense of social support and well being connected to network size and audience size - decreased sense of intimacy

Social change in Mexico and shifts in children's cooperative and competitive behaviour (1)

Experiment 1: Nueva San Vicente, Baja California, Mexico - historical comparison: 1970 VS 2010 - predicted that Gemeinschaft --> Gesellschaft would lead to cooperation --> competition in social development - 1970 ecology: --> population: 800 --> community tied to the land --> large families in one house --> catholic, single ethnicity - 1970 economy: --> agricultural - 1970 tech: --> simple houses --> no modern services --> drinking water scarce --> no interior bathrooms --> no electricity - 2010 ecology: --> population: 4362 --> migration into San Vicente and out of San Vicente --> smaller families --> catholic and protestant, ethnicities from other parts of Mexico unable to cross into US - 2010 economy: commercial - 2010 tech: --> houses made with industrial materials --> satellite TV, cell phones --> drinking water sufficient --> bathrooms inside --> total community electrification Research Design - dyadic experimental task: pair of children could respond cooperatively or competitively - Madsen: first wave of data collection in 1970 in San Vicente - Garcia and Rivera: replication of procedure in 2010 in same town - comparison of 2 waves of data 40 years apart Participants: - 1970: --> 10 pairs of 7-8yo --> 10 pairs of 10-11yo - 2010: (more pairs tested here bc it reflected the increase/growth in population) --> 21 pairs of 7-8yo --> 23 pairs of 10-11yo - girl pairs and boy pairs Task and Procedure: - assessed competitive and cooperative response --> competitive: both pulled the strong, nobody got marble --> cooperative: one pulled the string, then on the next turn, the other pulls the string (each gets a marble) Hypothesis: - bc San Vicente had moved in a Gesellschaft direction, prof's theory predicted that cooperative behaviour would decrease and competitive behaviour would increase Results: - hypothesis confirmed: cooperation declined, competition increased over 40yr period - after instruction, there was more cooperative behaviour in both 1970 and 2010

Social change in Mexico and Shifts in maternal socialization strategies (2)

Experiment 2: Nuevo San Vicente, Baja California, Mexico - historical comparison of mothers' achievement goals in 1972 and 2015 - goal: focus on mothers' achievement goals for their children (more direct than first study) Design: - mother-child pairs - Madsen and Kagan: first wave of data collection in 1972 in San Vicente - Garcia et al: replication of procedure in 2015 in same town - comparison of 2 waves of data 43 years apart Participants: - 1972: 12 mother-child pairs - 2015: 18 mother-child pairs - child: half boys half girls - children 6-9yo - diff children from study 1 in San Vicente Task: - number of prizes for each success would depend on the target chosen by the mother - nearest square = 1 marble etc. - what's being measured is the goal set by the mother, not the child's behaviour Hypothesis: - mothers would select more difficult goals in 2015 compared with 1972 --> based on idea that individual achievement is more important in 2015 than in 1972 (attempt to maximize children's achievement) Results: - low achievement goals decreased in 2015, high achievement goals increased --> 1st and 2nd square considered low achievement goal --> 3rd and 4th considered high achievement goal --> from 1972-2015, achievement goals of 3rd and 4th square increased, achievement goals of 1st and 2nd square decreased Summary: - Gemeinschaft --> Gesellschaft creates changes in learning environment and social development --> learning environment: less socialization for individual achievement --> more socialization for individual achievement --> social development: cooperation --> competition

Social change in Mexico and shifts in children's cooperative and competitive behaviour (2)

Experiment 2: Vercruz, Mexico - historical comparison: 1985 VS 2005 - comparing rural and urban environments Research Design - same dyadic experimental task: pair could respond cooperatively or competitively - Garcia: first wave of data collection in 1985 - Garcia and Rivera: replication of procedure in 2005 in same town - comparison of 2 waves of data 20 yrs apart - state of Veracruz on Gulf of Mexico - similar pattern of sociodemographic shifts - urban areas: Japala and Papantla - rural areas: 15 indigenous Totonaco villages Participants: - 1985: --> 58 rural pairs --> 60 urban pairs - 2010: --> 90 rural pairs --> 99 urban pairs - all pairs were male --> experimenter was male so it would've been weird for him to test females Task and Procedure: - same as in experiment 1 except only first 10 trials, no instruction Hypotheses: 1. bc Veracruz had moved in a Gesellschaft direction, cooperative behaviour was predicted to decrease and competitive behaviour would increase 2. bc cities are more Gesellschaft environments than rural areas, it was predicted that rural children would be more cooperative, urban more competitive 3. bc social change was more drastic in the rural areas, it was predicted that behavioural change would be greater in the rural than the urban areas Results: - fewer cooperative responses in urban children than in rural children in 1985 and 2005 - but there was a bigger difference in 1985 b/w rural and urban areas than there was in 2005 between rural and urban areas --> technological gap got smaller b/w urban and rural areas so the competition-cooperation gap also got smaller

Theory of Social Change and Human Development Applied to: Media Tech and Social Development (7)

Heightened use of tech (social networking sites) --> implications for family and peer relations - social network sites --> independence from family and negative impact on family relations Rosen 2007, Rosen et al (2008): surveys of US teens and parents - 1/3 parents felt that the time their teens spent on social networking interfered with family life - more time teen spent in social networking, less support teen felt getting from parents - 38% of parents hadn't seen their child's social network profile - 62% of parents had never talked to teen about social networking - 50% of teens accessed social network profile from bedroom - strategies for using social networking sites to expand independence from family --> teens fabricate key identifying info like name, age, location to protect themselves --> while parents often encourage this deception to protect teens from strangers, many teens do this to protect themselves from parents

Development of Thinking about the Physical World: Developmental Stages

Film: Cognitive Development - cognitive development: changes in thought processes involving memory, reasoning - Piaget's theory: --> children's thought processes go through predictable stages (stage, not age) --> parallel b/w stages of embryo development and child's cognitive development --> sensory motor (birth to 2 yrs) - "sensory": children take info through senses - "motor": shows intelligence through motor actions on the world (ex. nesting cup task: child can show knowledge of relative size) - object permanence: realization that an object continues to exist even if it can't be seen (person permanence develops before object permanence) --> pre-operational (2-5/6yo) - builds on sensory motor intelligence bc it involves knowledge of objects and actions - beyond sensory motor knowledge through the use of symbols/language - can solve a problem that has to do with size ordering, but this time children will use language - limits to children's spatial reasoning - child is still limited to thinking about objects through senses - conservation: amounts do not change (once children have this, they move on to concrete operational) --> concrete operational (6-11/12yo) - child must mentally operate on objects (transform objects in the mind) - can mentally manipulate objects and explain mental transformations --> formal operational (11-adulthood) - child is able to mentally operate not just on concrete objects but on abstract verbal statements - have "rod task" except verbal (A is longer than C and B is longer than A etc.) --> critiques of Piaget - limited vocabulary could mean that they aren't able to express their ideas adequately - object permanence (when an infant made an error, infant had made a spatial approximation - this was a memory problem not a conceptualization problem) Research on cognitive development in the US (Gesellschaft) - how emotions contribute to cognitive development --> when babies form attachments to their caregivers --> attachment bonds solidify in first year Research on cognitive development in Papua New Guinea (the Oksapmin, a subsistence culture) - look at the role and activities of children in a Gemeinschaft environment - formal operational stage is most variable from culture to culture (it might not even exist in certain cultures) - what are universal structures to thinking? Provides little direction to examining cross cultural differences - Oksapmin kids spend a lot of time helping their parents with subsistence activities (hunting, farming) - their measurement systems are different (relative to body) - conservation task performance: --> consistent with Piagetian expectations --> young children: pre-operational --> older children: concrete operational

2 cultural pathways of gender and sexuality development

Gemeinschaft (collectivistic values) - ascribed gender roles - complementary gender roles - sexual roles as obligation to family procreation (homosexuality not accepted) - sexual socialization emphasizes procreation and family development - greater segregation of males and females in teen - marriage is a joining of 2 families (arranged marriages) - sex only in marriage Gesellschaft (individualistic) - chosen and achieved gender roles - egalitarian gender roles - sexual roles by choice - sexual socialization emphasizes pleasure, personal responsibility, and intimacy b/w 2 people - adolescent males and females often together in couples and groups - marriage is a joining of 2 individuals (elopement) - sexual exploration as developmental stage

Theory of Social Change and Human Development Applied to: Media Tech and Social Development (1)

Gemeinschaft --> Gesellschaft Ecology - in person communication --> mediated communication - simple or no communication tech --> more complex communication tech Cultural Values: - communitarianism/familism --> privacy, individualism, materialism Learning Environment - no interaction with communication tech --> interaction via communication tech - more time with others --> more time alone --> all interaction face to face --> less face to face communication - often intergenerational --> more often with peers - small stable interdependent community --> large impermanent networks - family as source of info --> multiple sources of info

Theory of Social Change and Human Development

Gemeinschaft --> Gesellschaft - learning environment: less socialization for individual achievement --> more socialization for individual achievement - social development: cooperation --> competition

2 Cultural Pathways of Attachment

Gemeinschaft environments: more tactile contact with babies - Keller et al: found "proximal parenting" in rural Cameroon and rural India --> mother and baby close to each other Gesellschaft environments: more visual contact with babies (contact at a distance) - Keller et al: "distal parenting" found in Germany and US Cultural socialization starts very young - tactile contact (proximal parenting): early socialization for interdependence --> there's tactile contact in all cultures --> doesn't happen as often in Gesellschaft cultures --> in Gemeinschaft cultures, there is close to no visual contact --> in Gesellschaft when babies are in tactile contact, they are also typically in visual contact --> methods to protect babies: carrying baby on back --> 2 bodies are almost like one - visual contact (distal parenting): early socialization for independence Gesellschaft: separation - crib allows safe separation from caregiver --> baby sleeps alone, early socialization for independence --> this contrasts against Gemeinschaft where children co-sleep with parents --> differences reflect differences in cultural goals (independence VS interdependence) - other technologies that enable safe separation: --> carseat --> walker/jumper: enables precocious motor development and allows child to jump independently of others --> toys: inanimate objects substitute for humans - opportunity to manipulate toys gives babies chance to practice "technological intelligence" - technological intelligence: learning to manipulate physical world (beginning of science) - to contrast technological intelligence, there is "social intelligence" - social intelligence: developed by intense bodily contact in Gemeinschaft environments Other contrasts - diaper changes: --> Gesellschaft: changing table --> Gemeinschaft: lap - doing a task: --> Gemeinschaft: holding baby sister while doing a task

2 cultural pathways of cognitive development

Gemeinschaft: - replication (of old material) - contextualized, embodied cognition Gesellschaft: - constructing novelty - more abstract cognition, detached from body and practice contexts Sociodemographic influence on these pathways: developing commerce in Papua New Guinea - effects of commerce on arithmetic operations among the Oksapmin of Papua New Guinea (Saxe, 1999) Gemeinschaft (subsistence) --> Gesellschaft (commerce) - learning environment: slash and burn agriculture, hunting with small bows and arrows --> buying and selling in trade stores - cognitive development: contextualized, embodied number system, no arithmetic --> gradual abstraction of the number system for arithmetic - learning environment affects cognitive development Oksapmin Number system - each body part is associated with a number - same word is used for the body part and for the number (contextualized) --> when i talk about the index finger, am i representing the number 2 or my finger? --> need to know context of statement to know what is meant - sometimes, different numbers refer to the same body part (7, 21, 29 all refer to fore arm) --> need to know context - didn't use this number system for social change - men went to work on plantations where there were trade stores --> came back and started trade stores in the community (sold rice and fish) --> bc of this new commercial activity, they needed to calculate --> but the body number system wasn't up to this challenge, so the number system became more detached from the body and more conducive to calculation Research Design: - 80 men who varied in participation in money economy 1. trade store owners (most participation) 2. returnees from plantation work (less participation than trade store owners but more than group 3) 3. young adults who had not been to a plantation 4. older adults with only peripheral experience with money economy - global strategy --> body part substitution strategy --> group 4 (least experience): used global strategy to calculate 5+5 but it didn't work bc it's just an estimation strategy Results: - body substitution strategy (in descending order of use): 1. trade store owners 2. returnees from planation work 3. young adults who had not been to a plantation 4. older adults with only peripheral experience with money economy (used global system) - body substitution strategy: count up to 5 twice using words but go up to where 10 is on the body --> more detached from the body because once you finish the first 5, you call your wrist your thumb etc. (number names are not the same as body part names) - the more commercial experience, the more popular the body substitution strategy was Summary of Oksapmin study: - traditional Oksapmin body part number system --> highly contextualized, tied to bodily context --> doesn't work for calculating - development of trade stores by the Oksapmin led to a need to calculate --> to make purchases --> to sell goods in the stores - experience in this commercial environment led to development of a more abstract numerical system --> abstract: detached from body --> see this in Zinacanten children too (their representation of patterns with sticks)

GG framework applied to: Weaving Generations Together (WGT)

Gemeinschaft: - SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHICS - ecology --> rural** (new from list above) --> smaller scale, simple --> less complex tech --> most education at home --> internal homogeneity --> relatively self-contained - economy: --> subsistence activities (poorer) - social relations --> most lifelong --> interdependent kin --> irreplaceable - CULTURAL VALUES --> close family --> dependence on authority --> tradition - CHILD LEARNING ENVIR. (these are related to the cultural values) --> observation in context (learning through observation) --> older generation guidance and help - COG DEVELOPMENT (these are the types of development that happen in the above child learning envir) --> replicating the traditional Gesellschaft: - SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHICS - ecology --> urban** (new from list above) --> large scale, complex --> high technology --> most education at school --> internal heterogeneity --> regular contact with outside world - economy: --> commerce: money and accumulation of goods (wealthier) - social relations --> fleeting --> independent strangers --> interchangeable - CULTURAL VALUES: --> autonomy --> innovation - CHILD LEARNING ENVIR. (these are related to the cultural values) --> independent learning --> peer generation --> trial and error - COG DEVELOPMENT (these are the types of development that happen in the above child learning envir) --> constructing novelty 2 important aspects of this social change: - ecology: most education at home --> most education at school - economy: subsistence activities (poorer) --> commerce (money and accumulation of goods - wealthier/monetary wealth)

GG framework applied to: Sound and Fury

Gemeinschaft: deaf community - SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHICS - ecology: --> smaller scale --> less complex tech: hearing aids --> less formal education: fewer opportunities --> internal homogeneity: use only one language (ASL) --> relatively self-contained: communication works much better if everyone knows ASL, so pretty contained - economy --> less wealthy: those without cochlear implants have limits on how high they can climb in jobs - social relations --> social relations: relationships are lifelong and very valued - CULTURAL VALUES --> close family --> close community --> importance of ASL (language spoken by small group) - CHILD LEARNING ENVIR. --> more family centred --> more homogenous --> fewer choices --> monolingual --> monocultural - SOCIAL & COG DEV. --> monocultural identity --> fewer skills --> ASL Gesellschaft: hearing society - SOCIO- DEMOGRAPHICS - ecology --> larger scale --> more complex tech: cochlear implants --> more formal education: opportunities --> internal heterogeneity: use of many languages --> more contact with outside world: most people in the world are hearing, easy to communicate with everyone - economy --> more wealthy - social relations --> social relations: more opportunities to have fleeting relationships - CULTURAL VALUES --> importance of individual opportunity --> importance of spoken English (language spoken by large group) - CHILD LEARNING ENVIR. --> more peer centred --> more diverse --> more choices --> bilingual (Eng and ASL) --> bicultural - SOCIAL AND COG DEV. --> bicultural identity --> more skills --> ASL and Eng - Heather is moving from Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft --> this is the dominant direction of social change in our world - changes in socio-demographic level creates changes in cultural values, child learning environment, and social cognitive development

Case studies of shifts around the world (contrast small scale qualitative methods VS large scale quantitative methods) (3)

Immigration: conflicting pathways of gender role and sexual development (Vallejo, 2012) - documents how middle class Latina business women resist family oriented cultural values - perceive how these values hinder them from advancing in their professions bc they are looked down on by mainstream Gesellschaft culture - familistic stereotypes of Latinas are perceived by Gesellschaft mainstream by also by the Latina business women as incompatible with values for personal choice and gender equality in Gesellschaft sociodemographic environment - examines tension b/w family oriented gender roles and individual achievement - documents how members of this organization find that they must shatter these stereotypes in order to be taken seriously in business community --> board members who have college educations or who are employed in corporate settings (stand more firmly in Gesellschaft world) actively distance themselves from those who have less education or those who were teen moms - a taken for granted cultural value (importance of family) is given a negative interpretation through a different cultural lens (of individualism) --> Gemeinschaft adapted values are consciously abandoned in order to move into a more Gesellschaft niche in society --> societal pressures to adapt to more Gesellschaft values --> tension b/w members of the same ethnic group with access to different levels of Gemeinschaft/Gesellschaft society (ex. tension b/w those with high VS low education)

Case studies of shifts around the world (contrast small scale qualitative methods VS large scale quantitative methods) (1)

India (Seymour, 1999) - Bhubaneswar, India - 1960s-1980s - in depth study that supports the findings from the world values survey - used an ethnography - longitudinal research of a community in India (kept returning to this community) - studied social change in girls and women - city was rapidly urbanizing during this period - 1960s: private and public spheres were gender separated --> women: private sphere (when they socialized in "public" it was only with other women in joined public courtyards) --> men: public sphere --> girls were apprentices of housework; in adolescence they were married in arranged marriage and moved into husband's home --> girl was under the control of the mother in law --> husband-wife relationship defined by pro-creation rather than emotional bond - 1980s: breakdown b/w private and public spheres --> girls in new capitol had access to institutions in public domain (school) - this meant socializing outside the home and training for paid employment which was increasingly available in urban centre - cultural continuity and change --> continuity: adaptive in Gemeinschaft environment - importance of marriage and family - customs for arranged marriage and dowry persisted - girls accompanied to school by brothers - classrooms seating was gender segregated --> change: - boys and girls engaged in similar activities in school - boys and girls working towards achieved and equivalent rather than ascribed and complementary adult and family roles - increasing cost of living among new urban middle class therefore families were beginning to see value of daughter in law who could earn money outside the home - female schooling disrupted traditional age and gender hierarchy that encouraged obedience and formed cornerstone of family stability - women with more schooling were more intellectually equal with their husbands and less subject to ascribed gender roles

Development of Reasoning about Morality: What develops in moral reasoning?

Kohlberg's levels of moral reasoning - level 1: pre-conventional (reasoning based on individual needs) - level 2: conventional (reasoning based on social norms, expectations and relationships) - level 3: post conventional (reasoning based on the law, or on abstract, self chosen universal principles) - after the first level, the levels do not follow each other as neatly as Piaget's stages do --> more cross-cultural variability after the first level --> no reversal of levels though Rearrangement of levels into cultural pathways - pathway adapted to Gemeinschaft conditions --> first stage: pre-conventional reasoning dominant (age 10) --> developmental endpoint: conventional reasoning (age 16) --> where? isolated villages, in Turkey and the Yucatan, a Maya state in Mexico - pathway adapted to Gesellschaft conditions --> first stage: pre-conventional reasoning dominant (age 10) --> developmental endpoint: post-conventional reasoning (age 16) --> were? middle class urban areas in US, Taiwan, Mexico How is each pathway adapted to a different type of sociodemographic environment? - Gemeinschaft: homogenous, only one set of norms - Gesellschaft: heterogenous, people come together from diff groups having different norms. There are 2 possible resolutions of differences: --> 1. a formal legal system that constitutes a social authority above group norms --> 2. abstract principles used by individuals to resolve conflicting input Examples of the 2 pathways: India and US - sociodemographics affect moral reasoning - india poorer --> moral reasoning based on fulfilling responsibility to another person - US richer --> moral reasoning based on principle Empirical study (Miller and Bersoff, 1992) - compared middle class urban Indians and Americans - developmental study: 3rd grade, 7th grade, adults - N=20 per age group in each country - were presented with scenarios - forced choice alternatives --> based on principles: protagonist should not take the ticket from man's coat pocket even though it means not getting to SF in time to deliver the wedding rings --> responsibility to another: ben should go to SF to deliver the wedding rings to his best friend, even though it means taking the train ticket from the other man's coat pocket Results: - at every age, from 3rd grade to adult: --> overwhelming majority of Indians prioritized the social relationship and responsibility (take the train ticket) --> the majority of US samples prioritized the principle of justice (don't take train ticket) - shows that the differentiation of 2 cultural pathways of moral reasoning starts in childhood Summary: - inspired by Piaget, Kohlberg developed stages of moral reasoning - the concept of 2 cultural pathways of moral reasoning seems more in accord with observed cross cultural variability in the development of moral reasoning, although each cultural pathway builds on a universal pre-conventional level of moral reasoning - one cultural pathway to moral development is more adapted to Gemeinschaft conditions, the other to Gesellschaft conditions - responsibility towards others and social connection are goals of moral reasoning in Gemeinschaft conditions - principled thinking is more frequently goal of moral reasoning in the Gesellschaft world - Miller and Bersoff study published in 1992. As India has developed economically since then, prof's theory would predict that moral reasoning would become more adapted to Gesellschaft conditions - principled thinking would increase - with loss of social responsibility and connection.

Sociodemographic influences on "selecting" a pathway

LEVEL OF SOCIAL UNIT (diff b/w societies) - wealth - urbanization - opportunities for formal education - mobile (VS stable) community population --> more or less movement in and out - achieved (you earn) roles relative to ascribed (you're born into) roles LEVEL OF INDIVIDUAL (individual differences within a society) - more or less wealth - urban VS rural residence - more or less formal education - more or less geographic mobility - more or less social mobility - Gesellschaft societies are split into further more specific divisions (more or less Gesellschaft) --> prediction: wealthier individuals will have more independent values --> characteristics of society lead to more independent values

Theory of Social Change and Human Development Applied to: Media Tech and Social Development (4)

Large scale survey followed up these studies of the role of media in the development of a motive to be famous (Uhls et al 2015) - 315 US children - 9-15 yo - survey taken online - assessed future aspirations (measure of individual values and development) - assessed the children's activities (measure of learning environment) - RQ: how do children's activities (including media) influence their aspirations, including desire to be famous Results: - 2 clusters of future aspirations (reflect 2 underlying variables): 1. individualistic aspirations: composed of agreement with these survey items --> you will be known by many people --> you will be admired --> you will be famous --> you'll achieve the look you want --> you'll be rich 2. collectivistic aspirations: composed of agreement with these survey items --> you'll help your family --> you'll live near your family and follow their footsteps --> you'll help others in need - connections of aspirations to activities: --> pre-teens and teens who watched more TV and were more active on social networking sites had more individualistic aspirations --> pre-teens and teens who engage in more non-tech activities had more collectivistic aspirations --> take away: mediated activities foster individualistic values (face to face social activities foster community and family values)

Money and Human Development: Important sociodemographic influence on social development

Level of social unit - country has more or less wealth - wealthier countries are more individualistic than poorer countries Level of individual - individual differences in wealth within a country - wealthier individuals within a country are more individualistic than poorer individuals within that country Research design: - 2 countries (NZ, Indonesia) --> NZ mid 1990s: avg per capita income was ~$46k --> Indonesia mid 1990s: avg per capita income was ~$1000 - 3 social classes: --> lower: garbage collectors --> middle: bus driver --> upper: senior university lecturers Individualism/collectivism questionnaire - individualistic statements: --> happiness lies in maximizing my personal pleasure --> I usually do what is best for me, no matter what others say --> I deeply resent any invasion of my personal privacy - collectivistic statements --> my first duty is to ensure the well being of my relatives --> most of my decisions are made together with relatives and friends --> it is wise to choose your friends from people with a similar social and family background to yourself Results: - in each social class, NZ participants more individualistic than Indonesian --> the richer country was more individualistic than the poorer - within each country, the lowest social class was the most collectivistic --> that is, richer individuals were more individualistic than poorer; poorer individuals were more collectivistic than richer - social class was more powerful than nationality in predicting values Take away: - greater wealth of a greater country or of an individual is associated with greater individualism

Intergenerational Change and the role of commerce and schooling in adolescent values in Zinacantan (2) Study 1

Manago Social dilemmas: 8 moral dilemmas that involve value choices 1. gender hierarchy or gender equality - men walk in front of women OR men and women walk side by side 2. ascribed/differentiated gender roles or chosen and equivalent gender roles - women make tortillas at home OR women work outside the home 3. interdependence or independence - stay in village near family OR leave village to pursue opportunities Gave these scenarios to 3 age groups - 18 high school girls --> avg age: 17 --> avg years of education: 10 - 18 mothers --> avg age: 41 --> avg years of education: 1 - 18 grandmothers --> avg age: 67 --> avg years of education: 0 - generation is a proxy or stand-in for social change (didn't study social change directly; studied 3 generations at the same time -- indirect measure of social change) Social change in Zinacantan: - 1960s: subsistence agriculture --> grandmothers in the sample were adolescents during this time - 1980s: commerce as economic foundation --> mothers in the sample were adolescents during this time - 2000s: high school came into the town --> current adolescents in the sample attended this high school - avg responses different significantly across generations --> current high school girls were more Gesellschaft --> mothers were leaning more to Gemeinschaft --> grandmothers were even more biased towards Gemeinschaft

Empirical Evidence: The Zinacantecs of Nabenchauk (1)

Methods of research - integrating methods across disciplines --> psych --> sociology --> anthropology - attn to ecological validity: going from an experiment to the real world --> multi-method makes this possible, particularly ethnography - use experiments, video analysis (dev psych), ethnography/participant observation (anthro) - intergenerational social change --> go back every 21 years to study the next generation - over time, groups move from Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft world --> bc diff qualities and relations become adaptive, this shift provides a dynamic for social and psychological change --> empirical evidence: deaf culture, the Zinacantec Maya in Chiapas (Mexico) - 1969-2003 - exploring weaving and its effects (focus on females) --> this was their form of education (wouldn't be fair to test them on things that we learn in education in Western world) --> researchers wore Z clothes to show that they were on Z's side (people who wore these clothes were typically discriminated against - shows solidarity) - important in developing good relations --> family-centred culture - researcher having children increased her prestige in the community - years of research: 1969, 1970, 1991, 2012 --> 1969 -- 1991 = gen 1 -- gen 2 --> 1991 -- 2012 = gen 2 -- gen 3 - transition from agriculture to commerce was the big transition b/w generation 1 and 2 - increase in education between generation 2 and 3

Reversing the direction of sociodemographic change: Effects of the Great Recession on Young People's values in the US

More Gesellschaft (more wealth) to less Gesellschaft (less wealth) - as a result of having less wealth, changes should occur on social development level: --> more concern for others --> more environmentalism --> less materialistic --> less focus on self worth and standing out Survey method: - Monitoring the Future survey of high school students (1976-2010) - national representative US sample - b/w 4000-15,000 respondents a year Study design: - 3 time periods: --> 1976-78: earliest data collection --> 2004-06: pre-recession --> 2008-10: recession years - from 1970s to pre-recession: --> employment rates increased --> median income adjusted for inflation increased - from pre-recession to recession: --> employment rates decreased --> median income adjusted for inflation decreased Hypothesis: - as employment rate increases, communitarian values also increase Results: - concern for others --> high from 76-78 --> decreased and hit low point during pre-recession --> increased during/after great recession (reversal of long term trends during great recession) - environmentalism --> high from 76-78 --> decreased and hit low point during pre-recession --> increased during/after great recession (reversal of long term trends during great recession) - materialism: --> low from 76-78 --> peak during pre-recession --> mixed results during recession (obviously it was important for people to get jobs and make money) - self worth and standing out --> low from 76-78 --> increased during pre-recession --> peaked during recession (continuation of long term trends*) - might be because of technology - self satisfaction/self worth kept increasing bc technology/internet/social media are very narcissistic Correlations b/w national economic indicators and values, behaviours and self assessment of US high school seniors from 1976-2010 - concern for others and environmentalism: significant NEGATIVE correlations with median income, employment rate - materialism and positive self views: significant POSITIVE correlations with median income, employment rate --> recent period during the recession was an exception --> positive self views kept increasing even though economy went down; tech might be the reason why this doesn't agree with general trends Summary: Gesellschaft --> Gemeinschaft - less concern for others --> more concern for others - less environmentalism --> more environmentalism

Intergenerational Change and the role of commerce and schooling in adolescent values in Zinacantan (3) Study 2

No high school group VS high school group - prediction: high school group would choose more equal gender roles and independence - girls with no high school had similar values to the mothers --> with introduction of commercial environment, mothers values moves in Gesellschaft direction --> adolescent girls with no HS had commerce and no high school in common so their values were very similar - girls in high school had much more Gesellschaft adapted values

High school: multi-ethnic sports teams (2)

Predicting real life conflicts from value assessments and ethnicity - scenarios identify potential conflicts - but they can also be thought of as an assessment of individualism and collectivism, and we used them as such - we also used another measure of individualism and collectivism (Singelis, Triandis et al) --> Likert scale: 1 (never) to 9 (always) --> unlike the scenarios, treats individualism and collectivism as separate dimensions and has separate items for each - ex. individualism item: i often do my own thing - ex. collectivism item: i would sacrifice an activity that I enjoy if my family didn't approve it --> question: do questionnaire measures of individualism and collectivism predict the behavioural outcome (i.e. nature of interaction) Predictions: - Asians and Latinas (more collectivistic) will take the collectivistic position in a value based conflict or misunderstanding - African Americans and Euro-Americans (more individualistic) will take the individualistic position in a value-based conflict or misunderstanding Results: - predictions confirmed - Singelis individualism scores and scenario measure allowed us to identify who would take collectivistic and who would take individualistic perspective Quantitative Analysis: - sample: raters identified incidents involving individualism/collectivism conflict - sample criteria: individualism: --> concerned with individual needs/feelings --> not taking advice from others, seeing it as butting in --> emphasize personal property - sample criteria: collectivism --> supporting team, keeping cohesiveness --> maintaining group harmony --> perceiving self centredness as mean - additional criteria --> clear conflict: at least one party felt hostility or general ill will toward second party --> only 2 people could be involved --> both had to have individualism/collectivism assessments available - Singelis collectivism scores were significantly related to conflict positions - Singelis individualism scores did not relate to positions in the value conflict - scenario assessment scores were also significantly related to value positions in real world conflicts - dyads were extremely consistent (if collectivistic in scenario A, then very likely to be collectivistic in scenario B) Ethnicity - based on prior research, we formulated the following predictive model of cross-ethnic conflict - individualistic --> collectivistic --> African American, Euro-American, Latina, Asian American - this model fit the data for 36/46 cross ethnic conflicts (highly significant) Sports Teams: socializing collectivistic values in an individualistic society. Are teams Gemeinschaft communities in a Gesellschaft society? - longitudinal analysis: gave girls basketball teams individualism-collectivism scenarios at the middle of the season and 2 weeks later - change from beginning to end of season --> on both teams, no matter what their initial value orientations, players became significantly more collectivistic in their journal entries from the beginning to the end of the season --> they also became significantly more collectivistic in their scenario responses b/w mid seasons and 2 weeks later Conclusions: - immigration often puts people from more Gemeinschaft environments into more Gesellschaft environments - they carry their collectivistic values with them and enact them in the socialization of their children - their children then bring these collectivistic values into their social interaction - non-immigrant parents generally raise their children with more individualistic values - their children then bring these individualistic values into their social interaction - when more collectivistic adolescents interact with more individualistic ones, misunderstanding and social conflict can arise - examples of issues in which there is a more collectivistic viewpoint and a more individualistic one are: --> sharing/personal property and boundaries --> praise/criticism --> self enhancement/self effacement - in these teams, the collectivistic perspective is more often held by the immigrant groups (from East Asia and Latin America) - the individualistic perspective is more often held by the non-immigrant groups (African Americans, Euro Americans) - positions in a conflict can be predicted by ethnic group membership - value differences in individualism and collectivism predict not just potential conflicts but actual conflicts - the team experience provides a place in an individualistic society where collectivistic values are functional and develops these values. In this sense, sports teams seem to provide more Gemeinschaft communities in a Gesellschaft society --> speculation: may be why sports teams have so successfully integrated ethnic minorities that come from more collectivistic cultures

Bridging cultures for Latino Immigrant Families and Schools: Professional Development/Practice

Professional development for bilingual elementary school teachers: Stages of bridging cultures training - first stage: 4 workshops - second stage: teachers became our collaborators --> recognized home culture that children were bringing with them --> began to give presentations to other teachers about bridging cultures First stage: examples for workshop 2 (teacher observations of helpfulness in the classroom) - Latino immigrant parents favour helpfulness; teachers favour independent completion - after workshop, teachers realized that they were restricting helpfulness in the classroom - ex. standard system of classroom monitors --> typically only 1 child is assigned for each job --> in these classrooms for children from Latino backgrounds, all children wanted to help for each task and this was considered a problem by the teacher (too many helpers, too much helpfulness) --> after workshop, teachers made changes regarding helpfulness after realizing that this was a cultural value for these children (each task had a pair of students) --> as teachers tried to bring more of child's home culture into classroom, they became our collaborators - helpfulness and independent completion as conflicting developmental goal --> helpfulness is seen as cheating What can be done to prevent this kind of disturbing cross cultural conflict for Latino immigrant children? - making compromise- bridging b/w 2 cultures --> help each other during learning but do tests individually Non-bridging cultures class: children were very conscious of teacher's "do it by yourself" classroom - when she was around, they showed signs of cultural conflict - but when she wasn't around, they helped each other freely Conclusions from bridging cultures teacher training - it is possible to build from strengths that children bring from a collectivistic/familistic value system, rather than treating these characteristics as educational handicaps - rather than creating divided loyalties b/w home and school, it is possible to create harmony b/w these 2 social forces - it is also possible to give back research findings to the community and let practitioners make them their own

Theory of Social Change and Human Development Applied to: Media Tech and Social Development (5)

Social networking sites (contrasted with Gemeinschaft learning environment) - interaction via communication technologies - peer oriented communication - large, impermanent networks - multiple sources of info - public communication - Facebook --> lots of photos --> personal information --> narcissism: excessive self love, vanity --> FB (and social media) encourages narcissism (it accompanies more complex tech, especially in the sphere of communications) Gesellschaft --> more Gesellschaft - on the level of cultural values, prediction was confirmed --> increasing individualism --> decreasing communitarianism/familism - learning environment --> heightened use of tech, especially social networking sites and texting with cell phone - social development: --> Twenge et al (2008): 1970s-present, university students increasingly individualistic, as measured with narcissistic personality scale, with the sharpest increase in narcissism in the 2000s (coincides with rise of social networking sites)

Cross cultural value conflict b/w collectivism and individualism: intergenerational shift

Raeff et al (2000): design of the scenario - 2x3 --> Latino immigrant school, European American school --> parents, children, teachers Method: - presented participants with scenarios that evaluated the cultural value of helpfulness Results: - kids' and teachers' dominant value: find third party to help - parents' dominant value: be helpful yourself - only the teachers emphasized personal responsibility (of the girl who was sick) --> thought girl should do her job even thought she is sick (highly individualistic response) - intergenerational change: children are less helpful than their parents, value opportunity to make choices and personal achievement Method (cont'd): - presented participants with scenarios that evaluated the cultural value of sharing Results (cont'd): - teachers and (most) children emphasize that Johnny should have the choice to either share or not because it's his personal property - parents and some children emphasize that Johnny should share - intergenerational change: children less prone to sharing than their parents --> with conflicting influences from parents and teachers, there is intergenerational change Themes: - Schooling is a force for the acculturation of Latino immigrants into the mainstream culture of individualism --> real life application: established educational practices often go against the grain of education of Latino American students - teacher trainer is imposing her value on the crayons (crayons are actually communal property but she's structuring them as individual property thus socializing the children into an individualistic society) - Under the influence of the school, children of adult immigrants acculturate to individualistic culture faster than their parents do Brother sick scenario - collectivistic: stay home and help with brother --> Latino parents highly favor this option - individualistic: stay at school --> teachers prioritize individualistic values - compromise: help with brother but take work home - teachers are most individualistic --> teachers > Euro-American parents > Latino parents --> school is therefore an important site for fostering individualistic values Importance of context: completely different results where there are no implications of the individualistic choice for valued home practices (grade scenario) - individualistic responses (praise child) - collectivistic responses (tell child to be concerned about other children in the class) - no differences b/w groups- all groups had individualistic responses Conclusions: - immigration usually moves people from more Gemeinschaft to more Gesellschaft - for children this means more collectivistic socialization at home, more individualistic socialization at school - differential rate of acculturation for parents and kids - context does make a difference

Intergenerational change and the role of urbanization and tech in the values and ways of knowing of Arab adolescents in Israel (2)

Research Design: - compared 3 generations in rural settings: grandmas, mothers, adolescent daughters --> grandmas grew up in most Gemeinschaft environment --> adolescent daughters growing up in the most Gesellschaft environment - compared rural and urban adolescents --> rural: going to school and living in village --> urban: Arab Israelis going to school in neighbouring urban city - participants: --> 40 adolescent girls (20 rural, 20 urban) --> 20 mothers of these adolescent girls --> 20 grandmothers of these adolescent girls Method and Materials - sociodemographic questionnaire - 9 dilemmas regarding points of potential conflict regarding gender roles and relationships b/w girls and boys --> men walk in front of women --> who cooks at home --> leave village for city - dilemmas coded as --> Gemeinschaft adapted --> mixed --> Gesellschaft adapted Results across generations for gender equality: - values: moved in the Gesellschaft direction from grandmothers to mothers to daughters - mobile tech: teenage daughters > mothers > grandmothers - statistical analysis: mobile tech was the causal factor driving value change --> teens had more mobile tech --> in Chiapas, involvement in commerce and formal education was driving force --> here, mobile tech is the driving force Results across urban VS rural for gender equality - urban girls had more Gesellschaft values than rural girls - mobile tech: urban girls had more mobile tech than rural - statistical analysis: mobile tech was the causal factor driving urban-rural value differences - effects of global sociodemographic trend from Gemein to Gesell is the same across the globe --> provides evidence for universality of theory of social change and human development Methods and Materials (cont'd) - 6 dilemmas regarding differences in ways of knowing (epistemology) --> home remedy (traditional VS schooling as source of knowledge) --> feeding guests (social custom and knowledge VS scientific knowledge as guide to behaviour) - serving Baklava bc traditional OR not serving bc it's unhealthy --> causes of colds (authority VS individual as source of knowledge) - coded as: --> direction of Gemeinschaft --> no clear direction --> direction of Gesellschaft Results across generations for epistemology: - epistemology moved in Gesellschaft direction from grandmothers to daughters - sociodemographic differences b/w generations --> parents' education --> smaller number of siblings --> has personal mobile tech --> non Muslim friends --> watches non Arabic TV --> travels outside village --> less religious observance Results across rural VS urban for epistemology: - no rural-urban differences in epistemology - fewer sociodemographic differences b/w rural and urban As learning environment changes from Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft, there are changes in cognitive development (in terms of sources of knowledge)

Theory of Social Change and Human Development Applied to: Media Tech and Social Development (6)

Self presentation focus: one facet of narcissism - Manago, Graham, Greenfield, Salimkhan (2008): focus groups of UCLA students discussed their experience in social networking - constructing the "fake self" - constructing the "ideal self" - exhibiting the "sexual self" --> this used to be separate from young women (limited to TV) --> but now it's common --> they usually have a mixed gender audience --> sitting in front of computer, one feels alone and it's a very disinhibiting experience (this mindset was observed in terms of racism as well) - addition of social networking sites in learning environment leads to high involvement in self presentation and exhibitionistic display of sexual self

Universals in the Development of Gender Roles and Sexuality

Sex as a primary category to which people are assigned - from birth: "it's a boy!" or "it's a girl!" - adults "need" to categorize infants: Baby X (studies and video) - environmental differentiation of boys and girls Baby X: - 3 conditions: 1 gender label in each condition --> girl condition --> boy condition --> X condition (no gender assigned) --> same baby in all 3 conditions - gender label "girl" triggers other characteristics associated with "girl" (i.e. pink outfit) - people tend to choose the doll when the baby is labeled as a "girl" in the girl condition Details about the study - participants: age 17-45 - N=60 (NY college students) Results: - participants in baby X condition invariably asked or tried to guess the baby's gender - male gender label: football as dominant toy response - female gender label: doll dominant toy response - sexual development at adolescence: majority with heterosexual development, minority with homosexual development - pregnancy and childbirth restricted to females - females provide most of care to very young and very old - women orient interests and vocation more to people, less to things - males occupy positions of power and authority

Cross-cultural value conflict b/w home and school and intergenerational change: elementary school

Sociodemographic factors influencing individualism and collectivism - socioeconomic: --> the rich -- more individualistic --> the poor -- more collectivistic - demographics: --> urban people -- more individualistic --> rural people -- more collectivistic - education --> tends to make people more individualistic and less collectivistic Immigration: Gemeinschaft --> Gesellschaft - Gemeinschaft: rural, less educational opportunities --> parent education: mean ~5th grade --> collectivistic (parents) --> parents encourage helpfulness and sharing - Gesellschaft: urban, more educational opportunities --> teacher education: mean ~college +1yr grad work --> individualistic (Teachers) --> teachers encourage children to make choices for personal achievement, respect personal property - there is intergenerational change: children less helpful and less prone to sharing than their parents

Bridging cultures for Latino Immigrant Families and Schools: Intervention (1)

Study 1: parents of elementary school children Intervention with Latino immigrant parents of elementary school children - sample characteristics: --> parents were either from Mexico (majority) or Central America --> they identified with their native country rather than as "American" --> approximately half grew up in rural areas --> parents (mainly mothers) employed in low wage sector (nannies, housekeepers, seamstresses, vendors, factory workers, or stay at home with kids) --> avg time in the US: 13.6 years --> avg level of schooling: 6.5 years (0-11 range) Sociodemographics: Gemeinschaft --> Gesellschaft - small scale, simple, poor, rural education at home, little or no formal education, culturally homogenous --> large scale, complex, rich, urban, opportunity for formal education, culturally diverse - this shift is achieved through immigration Cultural values: unitary cultural view point - one right way --> multiple perspectives Learning environment: - ex. issue of sharing: must share --> choose whether or not to share Goal: to reduce parent-school conflict, promote parent-school harmony Research method: small qualitative study utilizing discourse analysis - setting: elementary school in LA, virtually 100% Latino immigrant - random assignment to 1 of 2 intervention groups --> bridging cultures workshops --> standard workshops - 1.5 hour workshop/week for 4 weeks --> presentation of a school or home situation which affects parents and children along with either a standard or bridging cultures approach to the situation (for ex. the situation of a teacher who doesn't show respect to parent) --> parent discussion of their perception of the situation --> parent perception of the bridging cultures or standard info and how it applied to their lives Selected Results: - parents realized that multiple cultural perspectives were important in their children's education (Ex. sharing as a choice not a necessity) - parent visitation logs kept by the teachers (who were blind as to parents' group assignment) showing that bridging cultures parents increased frequency of communication with their children's teachers after the workshops --> significantly diff from group who attended standard parents education workshops --> communication with teachers became less frequent after standard workshop - as a result of bridging cultures intervention, shift in cultural values influenced learning environment (i.e. must share --> choose whether or not to share) - learning environment seems to influence development and behaviour --> once parents understand the 2 cultures, children go from experiencing home-school dissonance to home-school harmony

Bridging cultures for Latino Immigrant Families and Schools: Intervention (2)

Study 2: parents and their recently immigrated adolescent children Intervention with Latino immigrant parents of adolescent children - sample characteristics --> parents immigrated first; children were recent immigrants (3-36 months in US; mean 15 months) --> experienced long term parent-child separations in the course of the immigration process (mean = 7.8 years) --> from central america Sociodemographics: Gemeinschaft --> Gesellschaft - tied to ancestral land, lifelong social relations mostly /w kin --> geographically mobile, more discontinuous social relations Cultural Values - implicit communication --> explicit communication --> implicit communication doesn't work well when you have discontinuous social relations, you don't share the same background with the people you meet - harmony --> multiple viewpoints - authority of older generation --> egalitarianism Learning Environment - nonverbal communication, based on shared perspective --> verbal communication - taught to respect older generation --> expression of differences to anyone, including older generation - in immigration, parents and children bring their Gemeinschaft values to the new Gesellschaft environment --> bc they've grown up in this Gemeinschaft environment, they don't have experience with verbal communication, which magnifies emotional impact of the long term separation --> therefore there is typically a lot of parent-child conflict when reunions occur Goal: to reduce parent-child conflict, promote intergenerational harmony under conditions of long term parent child separation Research method: small qualitative study using discourse analysis - collaboration with emergency immigrant education program of LAUSD - random assignment to 3 groups, intervention with: --> parents and children --> children only --> no intervention - all groups had pre and post test --> pre and post test were parent-child discussion groups that were videotaped - intervention was structured group discussion with a school psychologist from EIEP, Maria Monterroza (joint planning) - everything in Spanish Symptoms: - attachment issues - difficult reunions - repeated theme: children felt abandoned bc parents had not, years before, told them in advance that they were leaving for the US and in some instances did not even say bye --> on one level: failure to use verbal tools to help with the separation (didn't have skills of explicit communication) --> negative emotional impact on children Selected Results: - workshops re-socialized parent-child communication to be more explicit - explicit communication often used to express conflicts - communication b/w generations became more egalitarian - in order to have these effects in 2-way, parent-child communication, necessary to intervene with both parents and children --> children could learn to communicate, but frustrating if parents didn't know how to respond Case study results: - father: --> explicit communication: learned to understand importance of explicit communication about reasons for leaving --> increase in egalitarianism: make sure in advance that there is agreement with the children about who will be separated - now thinks that children should have a voice - child: --> explicit verbal communication: become more vocally articulate that she had been on the pre-test Learning environment impacts development and behaviour - after intervention, children verbally express opinions and parents listened (Gesellschaft) - in a Gemeinschaft environment, children achieve harmony by not expressing opinions. Parents make decisions

Case studies of shifts around the world (contrast small scale qualitative methods VS large scale quantitative methods) (2)

United States (Ortner, 2003) - Newark, NJ - longitudinal study of class of 1958 from Weequahic High school from graduation to the 1990s - individuals were studied and the sociodemographic attributes were those of the individuals - social upward mobility --> 1950s: working and middle class --> 1990s: 60% became part of white upper class --> rose above social class origins and very few of them could be considered working class - changing gender roles from complementary to egalitarian as the class moved into increasingly Gesellschaft niches in society - baseline gender roles in HS in terms of complementary --> boy track: careers --> girl track: marriage and motherhood - 1950s: increasingly Gesellschaft conditions and continuity of cultural values from previous generations - separate gender tracks began to dissolve in 1960s-1970s --> publication in 1963: the feminine mystique --> growing independence of women in class of 1958 - seen in divorces, many of which were about liberation and autonomy - many divorce stories were preludes to successful nontraditional careers - only 12% of women in this class were homemakers 30 yrs after graduation - both divorce and work environments are signs of individual independence - homemakers had virtually no divorce - women in traditional female careers: divorce rate 36% - women in non traditional female careers: divorce rate 50% - indices of Gesellschaft (urbanisation) rose in US and women became more autonomous in careers and relationships in marriage - predicted relationship for social class --> those women who moved furthest away from traditional female gender roles were generally from families with higher social class - in multi-layered (having lots of social class differences) Gesellschaft societies, those who had more access to wealth moved farthest in Gesellschaft direction in terms of gender role values

Social change, gender, and sexuality around the world Conclusions

Universals in gender development: - one of the most important is the primacy of gender labels - but what the label means in terms of gender roles varies from culture to culture When environments change or people immigrate from a more Gemeinschaft environment to a more Gesellschaft environment, their values shift in the direction of more individualistic values and practices wrt gender and sexuality - transitions aren't easy and there can be conflicts b/w the 2 pathways when a host society puts pressure on immigrant group to change their values

Infant Care and Development: Historical change and cross-cultural value conflict in pathways to attachment and family relationships SUMMARY

Universals in the development of close social relations: attachment - infants seek proximity to specific people 2 cultural pathways of attachment: - caregivers respond in 2 different ways: --> physical contact (proximal) --> contact at a distance (face to face vocal contact; distal caregiving) - sociodemographic influences on these pathways --> wealth, urbanization, formal education lead to second pathway - historical change with changing sociodemographic conditions of the community and the individual --> Zinacanten: signs of more physical independence in infancy --> Germany: more contingency, more toys, less physical contact --> Japan: values changing more rapidly than practices --> Burma: coordinating of new values and new practices seems to take 2 generations - when immigrants move from Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft, there can be a clash b/w socialization practices used to develop the 2 different pathways

Going Back 1: Implications for Values and Practice

Visiting the ancestral culture: implications for the theoretical model - parents immigrant: Gemeinschaft --> Gesellschaft - child visits China: Gesellschaft --> Gemeinschaft - child feels conflict b/w the 2 cultures --> gets an awareness of the culture she was brought up with --> individualistic culture she was brought up in VS collectivistic culture in China The 2 pathways at adolescence/young adulthood: collision brings awareness - Made in China (1986): autobiographical account of visiting the country a young woman's parents had immigrated before she was born - in more Gesellschaft environments, this period of life is a time to explore and create one's own identity (VS ascribed identity- one you were born into in more Gemeinschaft environments) - email from Psych 133G student who went back to HK --> conflicting values: - independent VS tending to men as is traditional in Chinese culture - pursuit of career bc of passion VS bc of money

Empirical Evidence: The Zinacantecs of Nabenchauk (4)

Weaving apprenticeship 1970-1991 (gen 1 to 2) - social ecology: subsistence activities --> commerce, money - cultural values: close family, dependence on authority, tradition --> autonomy, innovation - child learning environment: observation in context, older gen, guidance, help --> independent learning, peer gen, trial and error - cognitive dev: replicating traditional --> constructing novelty CHILD LEARNING ENVIRONMENT - observation in context --> independent learning --> 1970s-1990s: decline of observation and rise of independent learning - older generation --> peer generation --> mothers involvement in commerce (i.e. selling in markets, embroidering things to sell) pushed older daughters to take over role as teacher - guidance, help --> trial and error - teacher and learner close --> teacher-learner separation --> instruction used to be very hands on, teacher and learner very physically close --> instruction became more distant, physically separated from student - mother/daughter textile commerce --> increase in learner initiative/independence --> direct relationship b/w these 2 things --> learning environment changed; lots of variability --> some families were still more involved in agriculture while others were more involved in textile commerce --> the more they were involved in textile commerce, the more the learners were taking initiative (as opposed to teachers taking initiative) and the more independently they learned Independent learning composed of 2 things - trial and error - independent weaving COGNITIVE DEV. (replicating tradition --> constructing novelty) - participants: 335 Z Maya youth (11 years old) - experiment: pattern continuation procedure - 3 novel stimulus patterns: each to be continued in the wooden frame - 3 strategies to continue it: 1. repetition 2. mirror image 3. growing - skill in representing the novel patterns increased --> difference b/w each generation was statistically significant --> in each case, the socio demographic feature that was developing most at that time drove the increase - gen 1 to 2: commercial activity was biggest change so this was the factor responsible for the change b/w 1969-1991 - gen 2 to 3: education was biggest change; greater formal education caused change b/w 1991-2012. This change was sharper than the first change - replicating tradition --> constructing novelty --> 1954 to 1962 to 1969 (agricultural period): replicating traditional patterns in boys clothing (red and white stripes) --> 1991 to 1994: constructing novelty in patterns (more embroidery that is varied, getting far away from red and white stripes, moving away from traditional Maya colour which is red) - this case with increase in commerce (commercial period) - the idea of fashion is starting to come in and fashions change, which triggers rapidly changing colours --> children's cognitive abilities also improved (indicated by changes in patterning strategies) Relationship b/w child learning environment and cognitive development - correlation b/w how independently you were learning to weave and skill with novel patterns --> more independent --> better at novel patterns

Interaction of developmental issues and cultural issues: disruption of a cultural pathway of development

Why did Heidi have such an extreme reaction? Collectivistic: filial piety builds on early closeness and interdependence b/w parent and child - reciprocate help that parents gave to you early in life - that bond b/w parent and child serves as a developmental foundation for filial piety - collectivistic bonds are typically lifelong (Esp. child-mother bond) - attachment comes into play: --> Heidi was strongly attached to her mother bc she was with her for the first few years of life (manifested in emotional reunion) --> but Heidi felt her mother abandoned her so Heidi understands at an intellectual level why her mother sent her away but as a child when it happened she felt as though she had done something wrong to make her mother send her away --> this rupture in the mother-child bond may have removed the foundation for filial piety, especially bc she didn't have a relationship with her adoptive father --> her traumatic attachment history: - raised in individualistic society with no concept of filial piety - foundations for filial piety (close parent child attachment relationship in which child is dependent on parent) had been ruptured Being raised in individualistic society + rupture of foundation for filial piety = her reaction

Historical Change in Socialization and Development with Changing Sociodemographic Conditions of the Community and the Individual

Zinacanten: - 1991: first time saw apparatus that allowed baby to be separate from caregiver (since 1970) --> signalled that change in Gesellschaft direction had started - 1991: beds appeared (replaced mats on the floor) --> beds made it safe for baby to be separate from caregiver --> this type of separation was quite common Germany: Keller and Lam (2005) - participants: German middle class mothers of 3mo first born infants --> cohort 1: 1977-78 --> cohort 2: 2000 - procedure: mothers invited to play or interact with baby as they usually would in their home - cultural and sociodemographic changes: --> sociocultural orientation toward independence from 17th century --> from mid 1980s, sociologists discussed new phase of individualization (important adaptation to Gesellschaft) - sociodemographic shifts from 1970s to 2000: going in Gesellschaft direction --> higher standard of living --> increased geographical mobility --> increased social mobility --> expansion of education --> since reunification, increased competition for jobs (competition is important in Gesellschaft environment) --> older age of first child (gives parents a longer period of independence without family responsibility) --> smaller family size (each individual child gets more attention) --> decreasing frequency of marriage and increasing divorces - psychological consequences: --> individuality as a social demand on each person --> implies self determination, autonomy, and self realization, and independence --> bc parents prep their children to adapt to future roles in society and bc of new conditions, parent-child relations should change, beginning in early infancy - infant socialization for independence: --> foster autonomous regulation (sleeping through the night) --> foster independent functioning (infants sleep in own beds or own rooms from early on) --> infants spend substantial parts of day alone and/or with toys --> much of interaction is face to face, with responses contingent on infant's behaviour (Treat infant as agent) --> distress addressed with verbal soothing and distraction, rather than breastfeeding --> this style characterizes urban educated parents - sociodemographic changes from cohort 1 to 2 in Germany: --> older mothers --> more mothers had university education or qualifications in cohort 2 - hypotheses: --> mothers in later cohort: - will display more contingent responsiveness to positive signals from baby (baby as agent) in face to face interaction (distal parenting) - will have less body contact (less proximal parenting) - will play more frequently with toys or objects with babies (socialization technological intelligence) - results: --> all hypotheses were supported by data Japan: - 1950s: no children slept alone - Japan: rapid economic growth in last 75 years, urbanization, increase in educational attainment, households became smaller - Shimizu et al. (2014): study of 51 Japanese mothers with children up to age 2 --> question: bc of these social changes in Japan, would sleeping arrangements and parental ethnotheories have become more conducive to child independence? - not in terms of sleeping habits - 72% of 2008-09 participants reported sleeping with their babies - within arms reach: 37 - beyond arms reach but in same room: 10 - beyond arms reach in diff room: 4 - Gemeinschaft society no longer existed but they still exhibited Gemeinschaft sleeping habits --> values behind choices 1. helpfulness: they feel secure being close to babies so they can immediately respond to babies' crying 2. physical closeness: they think babies feel secure by attaching their bodies to their mothers' or being close to their mothers 3. social harmony: when mothers are separated from babies, they think the babies long for them, and so they might cry. Closeness allows mothers to soothe them immediately as to not disturb husband's/neighbour's sleep - these are all interdependent values --> reasons for putting babies in a crib: 1. maternal independence: mothers are able to engage in domestic work by putting babies in crib 2. infant independence: a crib contributes to their babies' motor development 3. desire for physical separation: they do not need to worry about being kicked by their babies while sleeping --> sleeping practices: - rate of sleeping in the same room hadn't changed since studies in 1950s (more than 92% slept in same room) --> for mothers who slept apart from babies (Gesellschaft adapted), there was often a tension and conflict b/w practice and values - in 1/3rd of the cases, the mothers expressed Gesellschaft adapted values - "discourse of dissatisfaction": dissatisfaction with gender roles - males always say that they'll be disturbed by baby's crying at night - sleeping arrangements are not about the baby but more about adult gender roles - expressing desire for egalitarian gender roles -- more Gesellschaft conditions - conflict b/w the values and practices makes the practices unstable - response to rapid social change is a complex process in which values and social practices are not always in harmony Burma (Myanmar) - Thein (2013) - historical change in infant and child care in Burma (cultural values, practices, and social change) - examined feeding practices in 2 cultures with extremely different cultural values and developmental goals - Burma (Gemeinschaft) VS US (Gesellschaft) --> dependency VS independence --> adult agency VS child agency --> physical intimacy VS physical separation - meal time study --> videotaped mealtimes (including caregivers and children) --> examined nonverbal feeding/eating behaviour --> 2 independent coders coded for: - adult feeding (child dependency) - adult initiated eating/feeding (adult agency) - foodsharing (intimacy) - predicted cultural differences: --> Burma - higher rates of adult feeding, adult initiated eating, food sharing --> US - higher rates of independent eating, child initiated eating - lower rates of: food sharing - observations: --> US: facial contact but independent feeding - differences in child dependency: (not the same as adult agency, child can initiate by opening mouth, pointing to food, but is ultimately fed by adult) --> US: children under 2yo feed themselves --> Burma: large majority of children up to 5yo+ are fed by adults - differences in adult agency: --> Burma: high adult agency --> US: very low adult agency even for children 2yo (disappears at age 5+) - differences in intimacy: --> Burma: very high intimacy --> US: very low, almost nonexistent - adult feeding: more variability in Burma --> almost no individual differences across children in US (almost all children feed themselves) --> in Burma, a lot of individual differences (some feed themselves, others fed by parents- dependency varies) - adult initiated eating: more variability in Burma - variability in Burma probably bc of social change --> 1960- recently, Burma remained economically, culturally, and politically isolated - government restricted private industry, political ties with industrialized nations, foreign tourism, foreign investments, media and tech, immigration, education - but now it's the site of significant change in the Gesellschaft direction (most of this change occurred during the period of data collection) Burma: case studies highlight 3 patterns of adaptation to social change 1. shifting values, enduring practice - change in sociodemographics, change in cultural values, persisting eating practices (learning environment) - "now everyone has to work... daughter will have to take care of herself and she will need independent skills" - values are changing but mother still feeds the children 2. enduring values, shifting practice - change in sociodemographics, persisting abstract cultural values, change in eating practices (learning environments) 3. shifting values, shifting practice - change in sociodemographics, cultural values, and eating practices (learning environment) - "child does things on his own, he's very capable" -- mother seemed proud - 2 generations of this family had high levels of education, son was in Western private school Burma: summary - Burmese: more dependent, more passive, more intimate --> more variable- explained by sociodemographic changes - US: more independent, more agency, more individual/separate