Psych Chapter 1: Thinking Critically

Values in research

Affect what is studied, how it is studied, and how results are interpreted Can color "facts" Can be influenced by popular application of psychology

operational definition

Carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study

Why is Accurate statistical understanding is important?

Casual estimates often misread reality and misinform Big, round, undocumented numbers warrant caution Teaching statistical reasoning is needed Presentation of statistical information needs more transparency

Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?

Controlled, artificial environments are created in laboratory experiments to test general theoretical principles . These general principles help explain everyday behaviors.

Thinking critically

Critical thinking refers to a more careful style of forming and evaluating knowledge than simply using intuition In addition to the scientific method, critical thinking helps develop more effective and accurate ways to figure out what makes people do, think, and feel the things they do

Testing hypothesis and refining theories

Description -describe behaviors, often by using case studies, surveys, or naturalistic observations Correlation - associate different factors Causation Experiments -manipulate, or varassociate different factorsy, factors to discover their effects.

Placebo effect

Effect involves results caused by expectations alone.

Double-blind procedure

Eliminating bias Neither those in the study nor those collecting the data know which group is receiving the treatment. Treatment's actual effects can be separated from potential placebo effect.

surveys and interviews

Examines many cases in less depth Wording effect Random sampling Utilizes random sampling of population for best results

Case studies

Examines one individual in depth Provides fruitful ideas Cannot be used to generalize

Predicting Real Behavior

Experiment purpose Test theoretical principles, not recreation of exact everyday life behaviors Resulting principles Help explain everyday behavior, not specific findings Psychological science Focuses on seeking general principles that help explain many behaviors and less on particular behavior

theory

Explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events ex: sleep boosts memory a good theory: Effectively organizes a range of self-reports and observations Leads to clear predictions that anyone can use to check the theory Often stimulates research that leads to a revised theory which better organizes and predicts what we know May be replicated and supported by similar findings

Correlation

General Definition: an observation that two traits or attributes are related to each other (thus, they are "co"-related) Scientific definition: a measure of how closely two factors vary together, or how well you can predict a change in one from observing a change in the other Positive correlation (between 0 and +1.00) Indicates a direct relationship, meaning that two things increase together or decrease together Negative correlation (between 0 and −1.00) Indicates an inverse relationship: As one thing increases, the other decreases. Correlation coefficient Provides a statistical measure of how closely two things vary together and how well one predicts the other Illusory correlation Refers to the perception of a relationship between two variables when only a minor or no relationship actually exists May be fed by regression toward the mean Regression toward the mean Refers to the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average

What critical thinking is and does

IS- Analyzing, rather than simply accepting, information DOES- Determining if flaw in information collection exists - Discarding personal assumptions and biases and view the evidence - Looking for hidden bias, politics, values, or personal connections -Searching for hidden assumption and decide if you agree -Considering alternative explanations for facts or results

Curiosity

Includes a passion to explore and understand the world without misleading or being misled Questions to consider - What do you mean? - How do you know?

Experimentation Variables

Independent Variable- Factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied Confounding Variable-Factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect Dependent Variable- Factor that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

Humility

Involves awareness that mistakes are possible and willingness to be surprised One of psychology's early mottos: "The rat is always right."

Measures of central tendency include a single score that represents a set of scores.

Mode: Most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution Mean: Arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores; can be distorted by few atypical scores Median: Middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

Correlation and a causation

No matter how strong the relationship, correlation does not prove causation. Correlation indicates the possibility of a cause-effect relationship, but does not prove it.

Ethics codes of APA, Britain's BPS, and university ethics committee (studying and protecting humans)

Obtain potential participants' informed consent before the experiment Protect them from harm and discomfort Keep information about individual participants confidential Fully debrief people (explain the research afterward)

Measures of variation reveal similarity or diversity in scores.

Range: Difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution Standard deviation: Computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score. Normal curve (normal distribution): Symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes

naturalistic observations

Records behavior in natural environment Describes but does not explain behavior Can be revealing

replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

When is an observed difference reliable?

Representative samples are better than biased samples. Less-variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable. More cases are better than fewer. Generalizations based on a few unrepresentative cases are unreliable

What safeguard should protect animals in research?

Response varies by culture 98% support government regulation protecting primates, dogs, and cats 74% support protection for rats and mice.

Is it right to place the well-being of humans above that of other animals?

Response varies by culture Canada and U.S.: About 60% deemed medical testing on animals as "morally acceptable" Britain: only 37% agreed

The scientific method

Scientific method is the process of testing ideas about the world by Setting up situations that test our ideas - If the data do not fit our ideas, then ideas are modified and tested again. Making careful, organized observations Analyzing whether the data fit with our ideas

Skepticism

Supports questions about behavior and mental processes: -What do you mean? -How do you know?

hypothesis

Testable prediction, often implied by a theory ex: when sleep deprived, people remember less from the day before

Professional associations and funding agency guidelines (studying and protecting animals)

Universities: IRB ethics committees; laboratory regulation and inspection British Psychological Society (BPS): Guidelines for reasonably natural living conditions and companions for social animals American Psychological Association (APA): Guidelines for humane treatment and minimization of infection, illness, and pain European Parliament: Standards for animal care and housing

When is an observed difference significant?

When sample averages are reliable and difference between them is relatively large, the difference has statistical significance. Observed difference is probably not due to chance variation between the samples. In psychological research, proof beyond a reasonable doubt means that the odds of its occurrence by chance are less than 5 percent.

Research strategies: Experimentation

With experiments, researchers can focus on the possible effects of one or more factors in several ways. - Manipulating the factors of interest to determine their effects - Holding constant ("controlling") other factors - Experimental group and control group Double-blind procedure and Placebo effect

The Scientific attitude

curiosity skepticism humility

Comparing research methods

descriptive: Purpose: to observe and record behavior How conducted: do case studies, naturalistic observations, or surveys what is manipulated: nothing weaknesses: no control of variables; single cases may be misleading correlational: P: to detect naturally occuring relationships; to assess how well one variable predicts another HC: collect data on 2 or more variables; no manipulation WIM: nothing W: cannot specify cause and effect experimental: P: to explore cause and effect HC: manipulate one or more factors: use random assignment WIM: independent variables W: sometimes not feasible; results may not generalize to other contexts; not ethical to manipulate certain variables

The need for psychological science

humans can't rely solely on intuition and common sense Three phenomena's illustrate this: - hindsight bias - judgmental overconfidence - tendency to perceive patterns in random events Hindsight bias, overconfidence, and our tendency to perceive patterns in random events often lead us to overestimate our intuition. But scientific inquiry can help us sift reality from illusion.

Descriptive research

is a systematic, objective observation of people The goal is to provide a clear, accurate picture of people's behaviors, thoughts, and attributes includes descriptive research, case studies, naturalistic observations, surveys and interviews

three cause and effect relationships

low self esteem --> depression depression --> low self esteem distressing events or biological predisposition --> low self esteem and depression

Perceiving order in random events

people perceive patterns to make sense of their world Even in random, unrelated data people often find order, because random sequences often do not look random People trust their intuition more than they should because intuitive thinking is flawed

Overconfidence

people tend to think they know more than they do occurs in academic and social behavior knowing the answer makes us overconfident

Hindsight bias

tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we could have predicted aka the "i-knew-it-all-along" phenomenon

four parts of scientific method

theory, hypothesis, operational definition, replication