Psych FINAL part 2

3 Models of memory Deep vs. shallow processing, Automatic vs. effortful encoding (CHAPTER 6 Memory)

3 Models of Memory - According to the information-processing model, each stage of memory has a certain type of storage with distinct capabilities: Sensory memory can hold vast amounts of sensory stimuli for a sliver of time, short-term memory can temporarily maintain and process limited information for longer periods (about 30 seconds, if there are no distractions), and long-term memory has essentially unlimited capacity and can hold onto information indefinitely. Automatic Processing (shallow) - some encoding occurs through automatic processing—that is, with little or no conscious effort or awareness. For example, if you walked into the conference room at the World Memory Championships, you might process all sorts of information without even trying—like the fact that most of the people milling around the room are men, and that some teams wear matching outfits. You would not make an effort to pick up on these details, but you remember them nevertheless. Your memory system absorbs the data automatically. Effortful Encoding (deep) - The encoding and storage of information with conscious effort, or awareness. As the name implies, effortful processing is not only intentional but also requires "cognitive effort," which broadly refers to the "degree of engagement with demanding tasks". In other words, how much you are willing to buckle down and put your mind to a task. Some types of effortful processing, such as maintenance rehearsal, are useful for extending the amount of time you can hold onto information in short-term memory. Others employ patterns and meaning to encode information for longer storage.

Adolescence Social development- Erikson's stages (birth to death) (CHAPTER 8 Development)

According to Erikson, human development is marked by eight psychosocial stages, spanning infancy to old age. Each of these stages is marked by a developmental task or an emotional crisis that must be handled successfully to allow for healthy psychological growth. The crises, according to Erikson, stem from conflicts between the needs of the individual and the expectations of society. Successful resolution of a stage enables an individual to approach the following stage with more tools. Unsuccessful resolution leads to more difficulties during the next stage. Let's take a look at the stages associated with infancy and childhood. •Trust versus mistrust (birth to 1 year): In order for an infant to learn to trust, her caregivers must attend to her needs. If caregivers are not responsive, she will develop in the direction of mistrust, always expecting the worst of people and her environment. •Autonomy versus shame and doubt (1 to 3 years): If his caregivers provide freedom to explore, a child will learn how to be autonomous and independent. If exploration is restricted and the child is punished, he will likely learn to feel shame and doubt. •Initiative versus guilt (3 to 6 years): During this time, children have more experiences that prompt them to extend themselves socially. Often they become more responsible and capable of creating and executing plans. If a child does not have responsibilities or cannot handle them, she will develop feelings of guilt and anxiety. •Industry versus inferiority (6 years to puberty): Children in this age range are generally engaged in a variety of learning tasks. When successful, they feel a sense of accomplishment and self-esteem increases. If success is not achieved, the child feels a sense of inferiority or incompetence, theoretically leading to unstable work habits or unemployment later on.

Inferential Statistics- Difference from descriptive stats, benefits. (CHAPTER 1 Science of Psych)

Allows researchers to: Determine if results/effects due to random chance Usually set to < 5% (p <0.05) Results are "statistically significant" p = probability of results due to chance Draw conclusions about the data Determine confidence in results Consider difference p=0.048 and p=0.0001 May help us detect relationships we might not notice Consider significant vs. important Popular example

Adolescence Childrearing practices- parenting styles (CHAPTER 8 Development)

Authoritarian Parenting - Parents who insist on rigid boundaries, show little warmth, and expect high control. They want things done in a certain way, no questions asked. "Because I said so" is a common justification used by such parents. Authoritarian parents are extremely strict and demonstrate poor communication skills with their children. Their kids, in turn, tend to have lower self-assurance and autonomy, and experience more problems in social settings. Researchers have found that there are exceptions to this rule, however. In situations where "societal conformance or . . . safety of the child" is vital, "authoritarian parenting is actually more adaptive" Authoritative Parenting - may sound similar to authoritarian parenting, but it is very different. Parents who practice authoritative parenting set high expectations, demonstrate a warm attitude, and are responsive to their children's needs. Being supported and respected, children of authoritative parents are quite responsive to their parents' expectations. They also tend to be self-assured, independent, responsible, and friendly (Baumrind, 1991). In one study, researchers found that the more education the parents had, the more likely they were to be authoritative in their parenting Permissive Parenting - the parent demands little of the child and imposes few limitations. These parents are very warm but often make next to no effort to control their children. Ultimately, their children tend to lack self-control, act impulsively, and show no respect for boundaries. Uninvolved Parenting - describes parents who seem indifferent to their children. Emotionally detached, these parents exhibit minimal warmth and devote little time to their children, although they do provide for their children's basic needs. Children raised by uninvolved parents tend to exhibit behavioral problems, poor academic performance, and immaturity (Baumrind, 1991).

Descriptive Methods- Case study/survey/naturalistic observations (CHAPTER 1 Science of Psych)

Case Study - A type of descriptive research that closely examines an individual or small group. Survey Method - A type of descriptive research that uses questionnaires or interviews to gather data. Naturalistic Observation - A type of descriptive research that studies participants in their natural environment through systematic observation.

Overview of central nervous system and different ways to study structure or function of the brain. (CHAPTER 2 Bio and Behavior)

Central Nervous system - The nervous system is made up of the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body.How do the brain and spinal cord, which make up the central nervous system, communicate with the rest of the body through the peripheral nervous system? In essence, there are three types of neurons participating in this back-and-forth chatter. Sensory neurons receive information about the environment from the sensory systems and convey this information to the brain for processing. Motor neurons carry information from the central nervous system to various parts of the body, causing muscles to contract and glands to release chemicals. Interneurons, which reside exclusively in the brain and spinal cord, act as bridges connecting sensory and motor neurons. By assembling and processing sensory input from multiple neurons, interneurons facilitate the nervous system's most complex operations, from solving equations to creating lifelong memories. They are also involved in a relatively simple operation, the reflex.

Adolescence Cognitive development- Kohlberg's stages of morality (CHAPTER 8 Development)

Cognitive development - Changes in memory, problem-solving abilities, decision making, language, and intelligence all fall under the umbrella of cognitive development. Like physical development, cognitive development tends to follow a universal course early in life, but there is enormous variation in the way cognitive abilities change, particularly as people get older

Correlation/causation. (CHAPTER 1 Science of Psych)

Correlation - The relationship between two or more variables. Correlation Method - A type of descriptive research that examines relationships amongst variables and assists researchers in making predictions. Correlation Coefficient - The statistical measure "r" that indicates the strength and direction of relationships between variables.

Descriptive Statistics- Measures of central tendency/variation. (CHAPTER 1 Science of Psych)

Descriptive Research - Research methods that describe and explore behaviors, but with findings that cannot definitively state cause-and-effect relationships. Measures of central tendency. Mode, mean, median. Mean family income = $70,000. How useful is this number for policy making?

Psychoanalytic perspectives: unconscious/personality structure/development/defense mechanisms (CHAPTER 11 Personality)

Ego Defense Mechanisms (Freud) -Distortions of perceptions and memories of the real world, without one's awareness, to reduce the anxiety created by the conflict among the id, ego, and superego. Imagine you are about to leave for class and you get a text from a good friend, inviting you to a movie. You are torn, because you know an exam is coming up and you should not skip today's class. Your id is demanding a movie, some popcorn, and freedom from work. Your superego demands that you go to class so that you will be fully prepared for the exam. Clearly, your ego can't satisfy both of these demands. The ego must also deal with the external world and its requirements (for example, getting points for attendance). Freud proposed that this sort of struggle is an everyday, recurring experience that is not always won by the ego. Sometimes, the id will win, and the person will act in an infantile, perhaps even destructive manner (you give in to the pressures of your friend and your id, and happily decide to skip class). Occasionally, the superego will prevail, and the person will feel a great deal of remorse or guilt for not living up to some moral ideal (you skip class, but you feel so guilty you can't enjoy the movie). Sometimes, the anxiety associated with the conflict between the id and the superego, which generally is unconscious, will surface to the conscious level. The ego will then have to deal with this anxiety and make it more bearable (perhaps by suggesting that a day off will help you study, because you haven't had any free time all semester). The ego must come up with a way to decrease the tension, but if it can't find a compromise, the anxiety may become overwhelming, and the ego will turn to defense mechanisms to reduce it.

Explicit vs. implicit memory (CHAPTER 6 Memory)

Explicit Memory - A type of memory you are aware of having and can consciously express in words or declare, including memories of facts and experiences. ex: Roses are red, guacamole is made with avocados; I wore faded jeans yesterday. Implicit Memory - A memory of something you know or know how to do, which may be automatic, unconscious, and difficult to bring to awareness and express.

Trait perspective- the big five theory, heritability (CHAPTER 11 Personality)

Five-factor model of personality AKA Big five - A trait approach to explaining personality, including dimensions of openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism; also known as "the Big Five." The five-factor model of personality, also known as the Big Five, is a current trait approach for explaining personality (McCrae, 2011; McCrae & Costa, 1987; McCrae et al., 2013). This model, developed using factor analysis, indicates there are five factors, or dimensions, to describe personality. Although there is not 100% agreement on the names of these factors, in general, trait theorists propose they are (1) openness to experience, (2) conscientiousness, (3) extraversion, (4) agreeableness, and (5) neuroticism. Openness is the degree to which someone is willing to try new experiences. Conscientiousness refers to someone's attention to detail and organizational tendencies. The extraversion and neuroticism dimensions are similar to Eysenck's dimensions noted earlier: Extraversion refers to degree of sociability and outgoingness; neuroticism, to emotional stability (the degree to which a person is calm, secure, and even tempered). Agreeableness indicates how trusting and easygoing a person is. To remember these factors, students sometimes use the mnemonic OCEAN: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism

Classical conditioning (CHAPTER 5 Learning)

Learning process in which two stimuli become associated with each other; when an originally neutral stimulus is conditioned to elicit an involuntary response. Before the experiment began, the tone was a neutral stimulus (NS)—something in the environment that does not normally cause a relevant automatic or reflexive response. In this case, that automatic, unlearned response is salivation; dogs do not normally respond to the tone of a buzzer by salivating. But through experience, they learned to link this neutral stimulus (the tone) with another stimulus (food) that normally prompts salivation. This type of learning is called classical conditioning, and it is evident when an originally neutral stimulus triggers an involuntary response, such as salivation, eye blinks, and other types of reflex reactions.

Operant conditioning (CHAPTER 5 Leaning)

Learning that occurs when voluntary actions become associated with their consequences

Techniques to retain in short-term memory (e.g., maintenance rehearsal, chunking) (CHAPTER 6 Memory)

Maintenance Rehearsal - Technique of repeating information to be remembered, increasing the length of time it can be held in short-term memory. While strolling down the street, you witness a hit-and-run accident. A truck runs a red light, smashes into a car, and then speeds away. As the truck zooms off, you manage to catch a glimpse of the license plate number, but how will you remember it long enough before reaching the 911 operator? If you're like most people, you will say the plate number to yourself over and over, either aloud or in your mind, using maintenance rehearsal. Chunking - Grouping numbers, letters, or other items into meaningful subsets as a strategy for increasing the quantity of information that can be maintained in short-term memory. Chunking a phone number.

Anatomy and function of brain structures (e.g., medulla, amygdala, cerebral cortex/lobes) (CHAPTER 2 Bio and Behavior)

Medulla - The pons sits atop the medulla, a structure that oversees some of the body's most vital functions, including breathing and heart rate maintenance Amygdala - Processes aggression and basic emotions like fear, and the memories associated with them. Forebrain - Largest part of the brain; includes the cerebral cortex and the limbic system.

Misinformation effect and false memories (CHAPTER 6 Memories)

Misinformation Effect - The tendency for new and misleading information obtained after an incident to distort one's memory of it. Studies with a variety of participants have resulted in their "remembering" a stop sign that was really a yield sign, a screwdriver that was really a hammer, and a barn that did not actually exist Rich False Memories - Recollections of an event that never occurred, which are expressed with emotions and confidence and include details.

Structures of the neuron, how neurons communicate.(CHAPTER 2 Bio and Behavior)

Neurons - Specialized cells of the nervous system that transmit electrical and chemical signals in the body; nerve cells. A typical neuron has three basic parts: a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. The cell body of a neuron contains the standard components found in most human cells, including structures that nourish the cell and a nucleus containing DNA. Extending from the cell body are many dendrites, which are tiny, branchlike fibers. Generally projecting in the opposite direction from the dendrites is a single axon, which is a long, skinny, tube-like extension of the cell body, with branches ending in terminal buds. Many axons are surrounded by a myelin sheath, a fatty substance that provides insulation for the activities occurring within. In such cases the axon is not entirely enclosed, but rather, covered in segments of myelin. The breaks between the myelin segments are called nodes of Ranvier. The synapse is the tiny gap between a terminal bud of one axon and a dendrite of a neighboring neuron. Just for perspective, the synaptic gap is only about 0.000127 millimeters wide, whereas a single sheet of printer paper is 0.1 millimeter thick (the equivalent of about 788 synaptic gaps combined). Neurons communicate with each other via chemicals called neurotransmitters. An action potential moves down the axon, eventually reaching the terminal buds. The voltage change associated with the action potential causes vesicles (small fluid-filled sacs) in the terminal buds to unload neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap. The majority of these neurotransmitters drift across the synaptic gap and come into contact with receptor sites of the receiving neuron's dendrites. Just as it takes the right key to unlock a door, the neurotransmitter must fit a corresponding receptor site to convey its message. Because there are a variety of neurotransmitters, a variety of receptor sites also exist. When the neurotransmitters latch onto the receptors of the receiving neuron's dendrites, gates in the receiving neuron's membrane fly open, ushering in positively charged particles and thus restarting the cycle of the action potential (if the threshold is met). What happens to the neurotransmitters once they have conveyed their message? Neurotransmitters that latch onto receptors may be reabsorbed by the sending terminal bud in a process known as reuptake. Those that are not reabsorbed may drift out of the synaptic gap through diffusion. This is how the synapse is cleared of neurotransmitters, in preparation for the next release of chemical messengers.

Basic principles (e.g., UCS, etc.) of Pavlov's experiments of classical conditioning (think examples) Other characteristics (e.g., acquisition, generalization, discrimination, etc.) (CHAPTER 5 Learning)

Now that you know Pavlov's basic research procedure, it is important to learn the specific terminology psychologists use to describe what is happening (Infographic 5.1). Before the experiment began, the tone was a neutral stimulus (NS)—something in the environment that does not normally cause a relevant automatic or reflexive response. In this case, that automatic, unlearned response is salivation; dogs do not normally respond to the tone of a buzzer by salivating. But through experience, they learned to link this neutral stimulus (the tone) with another stimulus (food) that normally prompts salivation. This type of learning is called classical conditioning, and it is evident when an originally neutral stimulus triggers an involuntary response, such as salivation, eye blinks, and other types of reflex reactions. At the start of a trial, before a dog was conditioned or had learned anything about the neutral stimulus, it salivated when it smelled or received food, in this case meat. The meat is considered an unconditioned stimulus (US) because it triggers an automatic response without any learning needed. The dog's salivation when exposed to food is an unconditioned response (UR) because it doesn't require any learning; the dog just does it involuntarily. Salivation (the UR) is an automatic reaction elicited by the smell or taste of meat (the US). After conditioning has occurred, the dog responds to the buzzer tone almost as if it were food. The tone, previously a neutral stimulus, has now become a conditioned stimulus (CS) because it triggers the dog's salivation. When the salivation occurs in response to the tone, it is a learned behavior; we call it a conditioned response (CR). Acquisition - The initial learning phase in both classical and operant conditioning. Stimulus Generalization - The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit the conditioned response. When Pavlov's dogs learned to salivate in response to a metronome ticking at 90 beats per minute, they also salivated when the metronome ticked a little more quickly (100 beats per minute) or slowly Stimulus Discrimination - The ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli sufficiently different from it. With enough training, Pavlov's dogs could distinguish between a metronome beating 96 times per minute and one beating 104 times per minute (Todes, 2014). Similarly, someone who's been stung by a bee might only have an involuntary fear response to the sight of bees (and not flies) because he has learned to discriminate among various flying insects. He has only been conditioned to fear bees. Spontaneous Recovery - The reappearance of a conditioned response following its extinction. The pairings of the neutral stimulus (the tone) with the unconditioned stimulus (the meat) occur during the acquisition or initial learning phase. Some points to remember: •The meat is always an unconditioned stimulus (the dog never has to learn how to respond to it). •The dog's salivating is initially an unconditioned response to the meat, but eventually becomes a conditioned response as well; it occurs when the tone is sounded (without the sight or smell of meat). •The unconditioned stimulus is always different from the conditioned stimulus; the unconditioned stimulus automatically triggers the response, while the conditioned stimulus elicits a response that has been learned by the organism.

Learning by observation (CHAPTER 5 Learning)

Observational Learning - Learning that occurs as a result of watching the behavior of others.

Experimentation- operational definitions, understanding variables, population sampling issues.(CHAPTER 1 Science of Psych)

Operational Defintion - The precise manner in which a variable of interest is defined and measured. Helps others understand how to perform an observation or take a measurement. Independent Variable - In the experimental method, the variable manipulate by the researcher to determine its effects on the dependent variable. The one variable that researchers are deliberately changing. Cofounding Variable - A type of extraneous variable that changes in sync with the independent variable, making it hard to determine which variable (cofounding or independent) is causing changes in the dependent variable. Extraneous Variable - A characteristic of participants or the environment that could unexpectedly influence the outcome of a study. When conducting experiments, researchers do their best to make sure no other variables besides the ones being measured (dependent and independently) are influencing the study. Third Variable - An unaccounted for characteristic of participants or the environment that explains changes in the variable of interest Variable- Measurable characteristics that can vary over time or across people. Dependent Variable - In the experimental method, is the characteristic or response that researchers are trying to observe or measure. It is dependent on the other variable for its changes. Experimental Method - A type of research that manipulates the independent variable to uncover cause and effect relationships. Operational Definition - The precise manner in which a variable of interest is defined and measured. Helps others understand how to perform an observation or take a measurement. Population - All members of an identical group that the researcher is interested in. Random Sampling - Any member of the designated population has an equal chance of being selected to participate in the study. Representative Sampling - A subgroup of population selected so that its members have characteristics similar to those of the population of interest. Sample - A subset of population chosen for inclusion in an experiment

Infancy and Childhood Cognitive development - Piaget's theory (e.g., object permanence, schemas, conservation, etc.) (CHAPTER 8 Development)

Piaget and Cognitive Development Stages - Piaget and Cognitive Development Stages Language is just one domain of cognitive development. How do other processes like memory and problem solving evolve through childhood? As noted earlier, psychologists do not always agree on whether development is continuous or occurs in steps. Swiss biologist and developmental psychologist Jean Piaget (pee-uh-ZHAY; 1896-1980) was among the first to suggest that infants have cognitive abilities, a notion that was not widely embraced at the time. Children do not think like adults, suggested Piaget, and their cognitive development takes place in stages. One important component of cognition, according to Piaget (1936/1952), is the schema [SKEE-muh], a collection of ideas or notions that serves as a building block of understanding. Young children create these schemas by learning about functional relationships. The schema "toy," for example, might include any object that can be played with (such as dolls, trucks, and balls). As children mature, so do their schemas, which begin to organize and structure their thinking around more abstract categories, such as "love" (romantic love, love for one's country, and so on). As they grow, children expand their schemas in response to interactions with the environment and other life experiences. Piaget (1936/1952) believed humans are biologically driven to advance intellectually, partly as a result of an innate need to maintain cognitive equilibrium, or a feeling of cognitive balance. Suppose a toddler's schema of house pets only includes small dogs like his own, which he recognizes as having fur, four legs, and a tail. When he sees a very large kitten at a neighbor's house for the first time, he looks to his mother and says "Puppy," because he notices it, too, has fur, four legs, and a tail. This is an example of assimilation; the child attempts to understand new information (the sight of an unfamiliar small animal) using his already existing knowledge base, or schema (the characteristics of small animals familiar to him). Hearing the mistake, his mother responds, "That's a kitty, and kitties say 'meow.' 'Woof' is what puppies say." This shakes up his notion of what a house pet is, causing an uncomfortable sense of disequilibrium that motivates him to restore cognitive balance. The new information about this four-legged creature is so disconcerting that it cannot be assimilated, so he must instead use accommodation, the restructuring of old notions to make a place for new information. With accommodation, we remodel old schemas or create new ones. The child had never seen a kitten before, causing him some confusion. To eliminate this, he created a new schema (Small furry animals with four legs and a tail that say "meow" are cats). Both assimilation and accommodation allow us to make great strides in cognitive growth. We assimilate information to fit new experiences into our old ways of thinking, and we accommodate our old way of thinking to understand new information. Piaget (1936/1952) also proposed that cognitive development occurs in four periods or stages, and these stages have distinct beginnings and endings. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE Object Permanence - Babies recognizing that when things disappear they aren't actually gone. when something is out of sight and a baby knows its still there. Schemas - a collection of ideas or notions that serves as a building block of understanding. Young children create these schemas by learning about functional relationships. The schema "toy," for example, might include any object that can be played with (such as dolls, trucks, and balls). As children mature, so do their schemas, which begin to organize and structure their thinking around more abstract categories, such as "love" (romantic love, love for one's country, and so on). As they grow, children expand their schemas in response to interactions with the environment and other life experiences.

Psychology's perspectives, psychology's Subfields (CHAPTER 1 Science of Psych)

Psychoanalytic Perspective - An approach developed by Freud suggesting that behavior and personality are shaped by unconscious conflicts. Behaviorism - Building on Pavlov's conditioning experiments, American psychologist John B. Watson (1878-1958) established behaviorism, which viewed psychology as the scientific study of behaviors that could be seen and/or measured. Consciousness, sensations, feelings, and the unconscious were not suitable topics of study, according to Watson. Behavioral Perspective - An approach suggesting that behavior is primarily learned through associations, reinforcers, and observation. Humanistic Psychology - The humanistic perspective suggests that human nature is essentially positive, and that people are naturally inclined to grow and change for the better Cognitive Perspective - Examines mental activities that direct behavior, focusing on processes such as thinking, memory, and language. The cognitive neuroscience perspective, in particular, explores the physiological underpinnings of mental processes, searching for connections between behavior and the human nervous system, especially the brain. Evolutionary Perspective - Behaviors and mental processes are shaped by the forces of evolution. This perspective is based on Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. Biological Perspective - An approach that uses knowledge about underlying physiology to explain behavior and mental processes. Psychologists who take this approach explore how biological factors, such as hormones, genes, and brain activities, are involved in behavior and cognition. Sociocultural Perspective - Emphasizes the importance of social interactions and culture, including the roles we play. Biopsychosocial Perspective - Examine the biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors influencing behavior

Key areas of emphasis (e.g., nature vs. nurture, etc.) (CHAPTER 8 Development)

Psychologists also debate the degree to which heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) influence behavior and development, but few would dispute the important contributions of both. Researchers can study a trait like impulsivity, which is the tendency to act before thinking, to determine the extent to which it results from hereditary factors and from the environment. In this particular case, nature and nurture appear to both play a substantial role. Later in this chapter, we will examine the balance of nature and nurture in relation to brain and language development, a longstanding, sometimes controversial debate in psychology and beyond.

Define psychology and its 4 goals (CHAPTER 1 Science of Psych)

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. 4 Goals- describe, explain, predict, control

Different types of reinforcers (CHAPTER 5 Learning)

Reinforcement - Process by which an organism learns to associate a voluntary behavior with its consequences. Through the process of reinforcement, target behaviors become more frequent. A dog praised for sitting is more likely to obey the "sit" command in the future. An Instagram user who is reinforced with a lot of "likes" is more apt to post photos and videos in the future. Reinforcers - Consequences, such as events or objects, that increase the likelihood of a behavior reoccurring. Most contemporary psychologists would call the fish in Thorndike's experiments reinforcers, because these treats increased the likelihood that the preceding behavior (escaping the cage) would occur again. Reinforcers are consequences that follow behaviors, and they are a key component of operant conditioning. Our daily lives abound with examples of reinforcers. Praise, hugs, good grades, enjoyable food, and attention can all be reinforcers that increase the probability that the behaviors they follow will be repeated. This is used to teach a pigeon how to bowl. Every time it does something good or learns something new it would get a piece of food (reinforcer) continuous reinforcement - A schedule of reinforcement in which every target behavior is reinforced. Let's say you are teaching your puppy to "sit." You begin the process by giving her a treat every time she obeys the "sit" command. Rewarding the pup in this manner is called continuous reinforcement, because the reinforcer is presented every time the desired behavior occurs. Continuous reinforcement can be used in a variety of settings: a child getting praise every time he does the dishes; a salesperson receiving a bonus every time she makes a sale. You get the commonality: reinforcement every time the behavior occurs. Partial Reinforcement - Works better for maintaining behavior but NOT establishing behavior to begin with. A schedule of reinforcement in which target behaviors are reinforced intermittently, not continuously. Returning to the examples of continuous reinforcement, we can also imagine applying partial reinforcement: The child gets praise almost every time he does the dishes; a salesperson gets a bonus for every third sale she makes. The reinforcer is not given every time the behavior is observed, only on some occasions. Positive Reinforcement - Reinforcers are presented (added) following the target behavior, and they are generally pleasant. The process by which reinforcers are added or presented following a targeted behavior, increasing the likelihood of it occurring again. By presenting positive reinforcers following a target behavior, we are increasing the chances that the target behavior will occur again. If the behavior doesn't increase after the stimulus is presented, that particular stimulus should not be considered a reinforcer. The fish treats that Thorndike's cats received immediately after escaping the puzzle box and the morsels of bird feed that Skinner's pigeons got for bowling are examples of positive reinforcement. In both cases, the reinforcers were added following the desired behavior and were pleasurable. Primary Reinforcer - A reinforcer that satisfies a biological need, such as food, water, physical contact; innate reinforcer. these are primary reinforcers because they meet essential requirements. Secondary Reinforcer (conditioned reinforcers) - Reinforcers that do not satisfy biological needs but often gain power through their association with primary reinforcers. Although money is not a primary reinforcer, we know from experience that it gives us access to primary reinforcers, such as food, a safe place to live, and perhaps even the ability to attract desirable mates. Thus, money is a secondary reinforcer. Good grades might also be considered secondary reinforcers, because doing well in school leads to job opportunities, which provide money to pay for food and other basic needs. Negative Reinforcement - The removal of an unpleasant stimulus following a target behavior, which increases the likelihood of it occurring again. We have established that behaviors can be increased or strengthened by the addition of a stimulus. But it is also possible to increase a behavior by taking something away. Behaviors increase in response to negative reinforcement, through the process of taking away (or subtracting) something unpleasant. Skinner used negative reinforcement to shape the behavior of his rats. The rats were placed in Skinner boxes with floors that delivered a continuous mild electric shock—except when they pushed on a lever. The animals would begin the experiment scampering around the floors to escape the electric current, but every once in a while, they would accidentally hit the lever and turn off the current. Eventually, they learned to associate pushing the lever with the removal of the unpleasant stimulus (the mild electric shock). After several trials, the rats would push the lever immediately, reducing their shock time. Think about some examples of negative reinforcement in your own life. If you try to drive your car without your seat belt, does your car make an annoying beeping sound? If so, the automakers have employed negative reinforcement to increase your use of seat belts. The beeping provides an annoyance (an unpleasant stimulus) that prompts most people to put on their seat belts (the desired behavior increases) to make the beeping stop, and thus remove the unpleasant stimulus. The next time you get in the car, you will more quickly put on your seat belt, because you have learned that buckling up immediately makes the annoying sound go away. Another example is putting the lid on a garbage can to cover its awful smell. Here, the desired behavior is to put the lid on the can, and the unpleasant stimulus that goes away is the bad smell. Finally, think about a dog that constantly begs for treats. The begging (an unpleasant stimulus) stops the moment the dog is given a treat, a pattern that increases your treat-giving behavior. Meanwhile, the dog's begging behavior is being strengthened through positive reinforcement; the dog has learned that the more it begs, the more treats it receives. Notice that with negative reinforcement, the desired behaviors increase in order to remove an unwanted condition. Partial Reinforcement Effect - The tendency for behaviors acquired through intermittent reinforcement to be more resistant to extinction than those acquired through continuous reinforcement.researchers observed college students playing slot machines. Some of the slot machines provided continuous reinforcement, delivering pretend coins every time students pulled their levers. Other slot machines provided partial reinforcement, dispensing coins only some of the time. After the students played eight rounds, all of the machines stopped giving coins. Without any coins to reinforce them, the students stopped pulling the levers—but not at the same time. Those who had received coins with every lever pull gave up more quickly than did those rewarded intermittently. In other words, lever-pulling behavior took longer to extinguish when established through partial reinforcement

Effects of reinforcers vs. punishers (CHAPTER 5 Learning)

Reinforcers - Consequences, such as events or objects, that increase the likelihood of a behavior reoccurring. Punishers - The application of a consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior recurring.

Retrieval- effects of cues, encoding specificity, position effects, automatic encoding (CHAPTER 6 Memory)

Retrieval - The process of accessing information encoded and stored in memory. Perhaps you still have a memory of your first-grade teacher's face, but can you remember his or her name? This process of coming up with stored information (Ms. Nautiyal! Mr. Kopitz!) is called retrieval. Retrieval Cues - Stimuli that help in the retrieval of stored information that is difficult to access. for example: hitting "password hint" to remember a password. Encoding - The process through which information enters our memory system. Think about what happens when you pay attention to an event unfolding before you; stimuli associated with that event (sights, sounds, smells) are taken in by your senses and then converted to neural activity that travels to the brain. The information is processed and takes one of two paths: Either it enters our memory system (it is encoded to be stored for a longer period of time) or it slips away. Encoding Specificity Principle -Memories are more easily recalled when the context and cues at the time of encoding are similar to those at the time of retrieval. Serial Position Effect - The ability to recall items in a list depends on where they are in the series. Primacy Effect - The tendency to remember items at the beginning of a list. Recency Effect - The tendency to remember items at the end of a list. Serial Position Effect - The ability to recall items in a list depends on where they are in the series.

Social-cognitive- Julian Rotter- locus of control, expectancies (CHAPTER 11 Personality)

Rotters emphasis on locus of control and expectancies (internal locus of control and external locus of control) - According to Rotter, a key component of personality is locus of control, a pattern of generalized beliefs about where control or responsibility for outcomes resides. If a person has an internal locus of control, she believes that the causes of her life events generally reside within her, and that she has some control over them. For example, such a person would say that her career success depends on how hard she works, not on luck. Someone with an external locus of control generally believes that causes for outcomes reside outside of him; he assigns great importance to luck, fate, and other features of the environment, over which he has little control. As this person sees it, getting a job occurs when all the circumstances are right and luck is on his side. A person's locus of control refers to beliefs about the self, not about others.

Scientific attitude/skepticism/method (CHAPTER 1 Science of Psych)

Scientific Attitude - Scientific Skepticism - Scientific Method - The process scientists use to conduct research. Which includes a continuing cycle of exploration, critical thinking, and systematic observation.

Sensory/short-term/long-term memory systems (CHAPTER 6 Memory)

Sensory Memory - A stage of memory that captures near-exact copies of vast amounts of sensory stimuli for a very brief period of time. Short Term Memory - A stage of memory that temporarily maintains and processes a limited amount of information. Long Term Memory - A stage of memory with essentially unlimited capacity that stores enduring information about facts and experiences.

Albert Bandura- reciprocal determinism, self-efficacy (CHAPTER 11 Personality)

Social cognitive perspective on personality (bandura) - Bandura also pointed to the importance of self-efficacy, which refers to beliefs about our ability and effectiveness in reaching goals (Bandura, 1977a, 2001). People who exhibit high self-efficacy often achieve greater success at work because they are more likely to be flexible and open to new ideas (Bandura, 2006). A person who demonstrates low self-efficacy generally believes he will not succeed in a particular situation, regardless of his abilities or experience. Beliefs about self-efficacy are influenced by experience and may change across situations. Generally speaking, people who believe they can change and progress are more likely to persevere in difficult situations. Beliefs play a key role in our ability to make decisions, problem-solve, and deal with life's challenges. The environment also responds to our behaviors. In essence, we have internal forces (beliefs, expectations) directing our behavior, external forces (reinforcers, punishments) responding to those behaviors, and the behaviors themselves influencing our beliefs and the environment. Beliefs, behavior, and environment form a complex system that determines our behavior patterns and personality (Infographic 11.2). Bandura (1978, 1986) refers to this multidirectional interaction as reciprocal determinism. Let's use an example to see how reciprocal determinism works. A student harbors a certain belief about herself (I am going to graduate with honors). This belief influences her behavior (she studies hard and reaches out to instructors), which affects her environment (instructors take note of her enthusiasm and offer support). Thus, you can see, personality is the result of an ongoing interaction among cognition, behaviors, and the environment. Bandura's reciprocal determinism resembles Rotter's view. Both suggest that personality is shaped by an ongoing interplay of cognitive expectancies, behaviors, and environment.

Prenatal development and the newborn Prenatal development- teratogens (CHAPTER 8 Development)

Teratogens - Environmental agents that can damage the growing zygote, embryo, or fetus. The embryo may be safely nestled in the amniotic sac, but it is not protected from all environmental dangers. Teratogens are agents that can damage a zygote, embryo, or fetus. Radiation, viruses, bacteria, chemicals, and drugs are all considered teratogens. The damage depends on the agent, as well as the timing and duration of exposure, and can result in miscarriage, decreased birth weight, heart defects, long-term behavioral problems, and other adverse outcomes. One well-known teratogen is alcohol, which can lead to fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. In particular, fetal alcohol syndrome is the result of moderate to heavy alcohol use during pregnancy, which can cause delays in normal development, a small head, lower intelligence, and distinct facial characteristics (for example, wide-spaced eyes, flattened nose). Researchers continue to debate what constitutes an acceptable amount of alcohol use during pregnancy, but they do agree that even a small amount poses risks, warning that "no amount of alcohol is safe during pregnancy". The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism is very clear in its advice to pregnant women and women trying to get pregnant: Quit drinking alcohol. The Dangers of Teratogens - From conception until birth, the developing human is nestled deep inside a woman's body, but it remains vulnerable to threats from the outside. Listed here are some common teratogens and their effects

Overview of peripheral (sympathetic vs. parasympathetic) nervous system and the endocrine system. (CHAPTER 2 Bio and Behavior)

The autonomic nervous system has two divisions, the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. In a stressful situation, the sympathetic nervous system initiates the "fight-or-flight" response. The parasympathetic nervous system calms the body when the stressful situation has subsided. Nervous system - When faced with imminent danger, the sympathetic nervous system responds almost instantaneously. Activity in the brain triggers the release of neurotransmitters that cause increases in heart rate, breathing rate, and metabolism—changes that will come in handy if you need to flee or defend yourself. But the nervous system does not act alone. The endocrine system is also hard at work, releasing stress hormones, such as cortisol, which prompt similar physiological changes. The parasympathetic nervous system, on the other hand, oversees the "rest-and-digest" process, which basically works to bring the body back to a noncrisis mode. When a crisis has ended, the parasympathetic system reverses the activity initiated by the sympathetic system (for example, by lowering heart rate and respiration, and increasing digestion). The two systems work together, balancing the activities of these primarily involuntary processes. Sometimes they even have a common goal. For example, parasympathetic stimulation increases blood flow to the penis to create an erection, but it is the sympathetic system that causes ejaculation (Reynard, Brewster, & Biers, 2013). The parasympathetic and sympathetic systems allow us to fight if we need to, flee when necessary, and calm down when danger has passed. Endocrine System - The endocrine system (EN-doe-krin) is a communication system that uses glands, rather than neurons, to send messages (FIGURE 2.6). These messages are conveyed by hormones, chemicals released into the bloodstream. There are many types of hormones; some promote aggression and mood swings; others influence growth, alertness, cognition, and appetite. Like neurotransmitters, hormones are chemical messengers that affect many processes and behaviors. In fact, some chemicals, such as norepinephrine, can act as both neurotransmitters and hormones depending on where they are released. Neurotransmitters are unloaded into the synapse, whereas hormones are secreted into the bloodstream by endocrine glands stationed around the body. These glands collectively belong to the endocrine system.

Bandura's experiments, main elements, and their everyday applications (CHAPTER 5 Learning)

The classic Bobo doll experiment by American psychologist Albert Bandura and his colleagues reveals just how fast children can adopt aggressive ways they see modeled by adults, as well as exhibit their own novel aggressive responses (Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1961). In one of Bandura's studies, 76 preschool children were placed in a room one at a time with an adult and allowed to play with stickers and prints for making pictures. During their playtime, some of the children were paired with adults who acted aggressively toward a 5-foot-tall inflatable Bobo doll—punching it in the nose, hitting its head with a mallet, kicking it around the room, and yelling phrases such as "Sock him in the nose" and "Pow!" The other children in the study were paired with adults who played with toys peacefully (Bandura et al., 1961). At the end of the experiment, all the children were allowed to play with a Bobo doll themselves. Those who had observed adults attacking and shouting were much more likely to do the same. Boys were more likely than girls to mimic physical aggression, especially if they had observed it modeled by men. And boys and girls were about equally likely to imitate verbal aggression

Humanistic- Carl Rogers- positive regard, self-concept, ideal vs. real self, congruence vs. incongruence (CHAPTER 11 Personality)

Unconditioned positive regard (rogers) (unconditional love) - according to Rogers, the total acceptance or valuing of a person, regardless of behavior. Self concept - The knowledge an individual has about his strengths, abilities, behavior patterns, and temperament. Ideal Self - The self-concept a person strives for and fervently wishes to achieve. Real self - Rogers Therapy - According to Rogers, we all have an innate urge to move toward situations and people that will help us grow and to avoid those with the potential to inhibit growth. Starting in infancy, we have an inborn tendency not only to survive but also to enhance ourselves, and this continues throughout life. He believed we should trust our ability to find happiness and mental balance, that is, to be fully functioning, and strive to really experience life, not just be passive participants. At the same time, we must also be sensitive to the needs of others. Rogers highlighted the importance of self-concept, which refers to a person's knowledge of her own strengths, abilities, behavior patterns, and temperament. Problems arise when a person's self-concept is incongruent with, or does not correspond to, her experiences in the world. If a woman believes she is kind and sociable but fails to get along with most people in her life, this incongruence will produce tension and confusion. Rogers also proposed that people often develop an ideal self, which is the self-concept a person fervently strives to achieve. Problems arise when the ideal self is unattainable or incongruent with one's self-concept

Infancy and Childhood Social development- stranger anxiety, attachment, critical period (CHAPTER 8 Development)

attachment example - when baby geese hatch, they become attached to the first "moving and sound-emitting object" they see, whether it's their mother or a nearby human (p. 269). Lorenz made sure he was the first moving creature several goslings saw, and he found that they followed him as soon as they could stand up and walk, becoming permanently attached to him because he was that first "object." But there appeared to be a limited time frame within which this imprinting occurred. Experiences during a critical period for this type of automatic response result in permanent and "irreversible changes" in brain function Critical Period (stages or continuity) - Specific time frame in which an organism is sensitive to environmental factors, and certain behaviors and abilities are readily shaped or altered by events or experiences. Unlike baby geese, humans do not exhibit dramatic behavioral changes resulting from experiences that occur during critical periods. However, some researchers hypothesize that there are critical periods for the normal development of vision, attachment, and language

Special research designs (e.g., cross-sectional, etc.) (CHAPTER 8 Development)

cross-sectional method - A research design that examines people of different ages at a single point in time. In one study, for example, researchers used the cross-sectional method to investigate developmental changes in the efficiency of memory recall (Castel et al., 2011). They divided their 320 participants into groups according to age (children, adolescents, younger adults, middle-aged adults, young-old adults, and old-old adults) and compared the scores of the different groups to see if changes occur across the life span. One advantage of the cross-sectional method is that it can provide a great deal of information quickly; by studying differences across age groups, we don't have to wait for people to get older. But a major problem with the cross-sectional method is that it doesn't tell us whether differences across age groups result from actual developmental changes or from common experiences within groups, a phenomenon known as the cohort effect. Members of each age group, or cohort, have lived through similar historical and cultural eras, and these common experiences may be responsible for some differences across groups. For example, the "old-old adults" in the memory recall study described above were not raised on cell phones, iPads, Google, or Facebook, so they probably have different perspectives than those in the younger adult group. The authors of the study were quick to point out this pitfall: "The present design was cross-sectional, whereas (in some ways) a longitudinal design would allow for stronger conclusions regarding . . . changes with age" longitudinal method - A research design that examines one sample of people over a period of time to determine age-related changes. Researchers can avoid the cohort effect by using the longitudinal method, which follows one group of individuals over a period of time. Curious to find out what "lifestyle activities" are associated with age-related cognitive decline, one team of researchers studied 952 individuals over a 12-year period (Small, Dixon, McArdle, & Grimm, 2012). Every three to four years, they administered tests to all participants, assessing, for example, cognitive abilities and health status. The more engaged and socially active the participants were, the better their long-term cognitive performance. Using the longitudinal method, we can compare the same individuals over time, identifying similarities and differences in the way they age. But these studies are difficult to conduct because they require a great deal of money, time, and participant investment. Common challenges include attrition (people dropping out of the study) and practice effects (people performing better on measures as they get more "practice"). cross-sequential method - A research design that examines groups of people of different ages, following them across time. The cross-sequential method, also used by developmental psychologists, is a mixture of the longitudinal and cross-sectional methods. You might call it the best of both worlds. Participants are divided into age groups and followed over time, so researchers can examine developmental changes within individuals and across different age groups. One team of researchers used this approach to identify the age at which cognitive decline becomes evident (Singh-Manoux et al., 2012). They recruited 10,308 participants, assigning each to a 5-year age group (45 - 49, 50 - 54, 55 - 59, 60 - 64, and 65 - 70), and then followed them for 10 years. Using this approach, they could observe changes in individuals as they aged and identify differences across age groups. Human development is very complex. Some processes are universal; others are specific to an individual, and it is this combination that makes the field so fascinating. As you learn about the development of Ericka and her family, you may be struck by the degree of similarity (or differences) in your own family.

4 ways drugs affect neurotransmitters (examples of each). (CHAPTER 2)

drugs and other substances, known as agonists and antagonists, can alter this process of communication between neurons by boosting or blocking normal neurotransmitter activity. Four ways that drugs can affect neurotransmitters: Increase or decrease NT Block reuptake Mimic NT (agonist) Block receptors (antagonist) Drugs and other substances influence behavior by interfering at the level of the synapse. Certain substances act like neurotransmitters, while others block neurotransmitter action. Agonists increase the normal activity of a neurotransmitter (whether its signal is excitatory or inhibitory) and antagonists diminish the effects of a neurotransmitter or block its release. For example, nicotine and muscarine (found in poisonous mushrooms) increase the secretion of acetylcholine, causing sweating, pupil constriction, nausea, and respiratory distress. Because these substances amplify the normal activity of acetylcholine, they are agonists. On the other hand, the popular anti-wrinkle treatment Botox is an antagonist because it blocks the release of acetylcholine, paralyzing the facial muscles so they can no longer wrinkle the overlying skin.