Psychology 2 - Final Exam
Seeking Social Support
-social support: can be thought of as the soothing impact of friends, family, and acquaintances -can be very comforting when we are faced with a wide range of life stressors (also helpful in our efforts to manage these challenges) -help and guidance -emotional support -affirmation of worth -tangible aid (e.g., money)
Empathy
-the capacity to understand another person's perspective, to feel what he or she feels -some suggest that altruism operates on empathy -an empathetic person makes an emotional connection with others and feels compelled to help -others argue that altruism is a form of selfless helping that is NOT motivated by benefits or feeling good about onself
Conformity
-the change in a person's behavior to go along with the group, even if he does not agree with the group
Obedience
-the change of an individual's behavior to comply with a demand by an authority figure -people often comply with the request because they are concerned about a consequence if they do not comply
Social Loafing
-the exertion of less effort by a person working together with a group -occurs when an individual performance cannot be evaluated separately front he group group performance declines on easy tasks as a result
Psychoneuroimmunology
-the field that studies how psychological factors such as stress influence the immune system and immune functioning -there is a tangible physiological connection between the brain and the immune system
Transactional Leadership
-the focus is on supervision and organization goals, which are achieved through a system of rewards and punishments (i.e., transactions) -transactional leaders maintain the status quo
Optimal Level of Stress (Bell Curve)
-the highest point of the curve -performance reaches its peak -fully energized, focuses, and can work with minimal effort and maximum efficiency
Hawthorne Effect
-the increase in performance of individuals who are noticed, watched, and paid attention to by researchers or supervisors
Asch Effect
-the influence of the group majority on an individual's judgment
Experiment with Rats
-the left and middle rats received shocks -the rat on the left was about to turn off the shock for both rats -which rat had the worst stress and health problems? -only the middle, subordinate rate had increased ulcers -it is not the level of shock, but the level of CONTROL over the shock, which created stress
Daily Hassels
-the minor irritations and annoyances that are part of our everyday lives ex) rush hour traffic, lost keys, obnoxious coworkers
Variability of Stress
-variability in stressful events as well as variability in how you perceive these events ex) the death of your mother who provided for the whole family is more stressful than the death of a mother who was never there for you to begin with
Cost-Benefit Analysis (Altruism/Fairness)
-we are more inclined to help others when it will help us as well -we wight others' needs with our own -if helping "costs" too much, we won't help ex) if you are late for a test and you know your grade will suffer, you are less likely to help someone on your way to your test
Sympathetic Nervous System
-when a person perceives something as stressful, this system triggers arousal via the release of adrenaline from the adrenal glans -release of these hormones activates the fight-or-flight response to stress
Immunosuppression
-when the immune system breaks down and is unable to do its job -decreased effectiveness of the immune system
Lymphocytes
-white blood cells that circulate the body's fluids that are important in the immune response
Women vs.Men: Leadership Roles
-women tend to practice an interpersonal style of leadership (i.e., focuses on the morale and welfare of the employees) -men practice a task-oriented style (i.e., focuses on accomplishing tasks) -women tended to exhibit the characteristics of transformational leaders -men were more likely to be transactional leaders
Curiosity
-young humans and other animals are fascinated by the unfamiliar -NOT a physiological need -optimal level of arousal -can occur even if it does not seem to fill any immediate physiological need -information seems to be just as rewarding as actual rewards ex) the older you get, your level of arousal for curiosity goes down, but babies still explore even after their needs are met
Coping with Stress (Ways to Reduce Stress)
-address the stressors -soothe emotions/relaxation/meditation -increase sense of control over stressors (even if you cannot increase control, you can increase your sense of control) -exchange optimism for pessimism -aerobic exercise -laughing -social support -participation in communities of faith
Collectivistic Culture
-relationship oriented -focus on group autonomy -situational perspective -interdependent -holistic thinking style -less likely to commit fundamental attribution error -countries: Guatemala, Ecuador, Panama, Venezuela, Indonesia, South Korea, Taiwan
Drive-Reduction Theory/Drive Theory
-response to inner pushes -physiological need creates an aroused tension state ( a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy that need -deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs -results in psychological drive states that direct behavior to meet the need, ultimately bring the system back to homeostasis -homeostasis: the tendency to maintain a balance or optimal level, within a biological system (via reducing needs) -drives: eating, sleeping, happiness -situational and cognitive factors of eating -take into account levels of arousal as potential motivators
Arousal Theory
-right levels of stimulation (optimal levels of arousal) -underaroused: we become bored and will seek out some sort of stimulation -overaroused: we will engage in behaviors to reduce our arousal -humans are motivated to engage in behaviors that either increase or decrease arousal levels -high arousal levels: motivate engagement in behaviors that will lower these levels (has to do with homeostasis - returning to baseline) -low arousal levels: motivate activities that can increase arousal -- often through curiosity (has to do with homeostasis - returning to baseline) -less difficult task =need more arousal (to achieve optimal level of arousal) -more difficult task = need less arousal (to achieve optimal level of arousal) ex) people who perform on stage -if they know what they are doing, a little stress is better than no stress -if they do not know what they are doing, no stress is better ex) if you studied for a test, your arousal level is low -curiosity
Group/Family Therapy
-save time/money -exploration of social behaviors and development of social skills -share problems with others in similar situations -feedback from peers and therapist -family as a system/support -downsides: conformity issues; might not be as open because you don't want to be judged; not as individualized
Cognitive Processes Affecting Performance (Human Factors)
-short-term memory -long-term memory -learning -problem solving -decision making -attention and scope of concern -search and scanning -time perception
Error-Likely Situations
-situation where the operator is predisposed to making an error due to the design -not enough room to perform -poor training, lack of knowledge -lack of resources -lack of communication -lack of teamwork ex) the professor did not teach
Hypertension
-high blood pressure
Reciprocity Norm (Altruism/Fairness)
- we help others who have helped us
Stereotypes and Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
- we hold stereotypes about a person and tend to treat that person according to our expectations -this treatment can influence the person to act according to our stereotypical expectations, this confirming our stereotypical beliefs -we tend to live up to these stereotypes ex) asian girls - math problems -stereotype: asians are good at math -girls of other ethnic groups might they they are not as good at math as the asian girls -because they think that, they actually do not perform as well as the asian girls on the math test
Fixed Mindset
-"Either I'm good at it or I'm not" ex) failed a test -"I guess I'm stupid, so there is no point in my trying anymore."
Physiological Mechanisms of Stress
-2 systems 1. HPA axis 2. sympathetic nervous system
Transformational Leadership
-4 attributes 1. charismatic (highly liked role models) 2. inspirational (optimistic about goal attainment) 3. intellectually stimulating (encourage critical thinking and problem solving) 4. considerate
Altruistic Personality
-5 traits that correlate with prosocial behavior: 1. empathy 2. internal locus of control 3. belief in a just world 4. a sense of social responsibility 5. low egocentrism
Hazing
-55% of college students involved in clubs, teams, and organizations experience hazing -95% of cases did NOT report their hazing experiences to campus officials -36% of students wouldn't report having primarily because "there is no one to tell," and 27% feel that adults won't handle it right
Types of Disorders
-American Psychiatric Association (APA) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition (DSM-5) -anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD -mood disorders: depressive disorders and bipolar disorders -schizophrenia -dissociative, personality, and eating disorders
Possible to Pass on Affects of Stress to Children
-DNA replication is effected by stress -pass on behaviors
Strengths-Based Management
-Donald Clifton -how an organization can best used an individual's strengths -strength: a particular enduring talent possessed by an individual that allows him to provide consistent, near-perfect performance in tasks involving that talent
Biofeedback
-Gary Schwartz -a technique that uses electronic equipment to accurately measure a person's neuromuscular and autonomic activity -feedback is provided in the form of visual or auditory signals -assumption: providing someone biofeedback will enable the individual to develop strategies that help gain some level of voluntary control over what are normally involuntary bodily processes
Yerkes-Dodson Law
-There is an "optimal" amount of stress a person needs -too little stress = sleepy/lazy -too much stress = disorganized/cannot function -levels (high to low): sleep, alertness, OPTIMAL, anxiety, disorganization
Flight-or-Fight Response
-Walter Cannon (psychologist at Harvard Medical School) -physiological reaction that occurs when a person experiences very strong emotions, especially those associated with a perceived -during this, the body is rapidly aroused by activation of both the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system -this arousal helps prepare the person to either fight or flee from a perceived threat -built-in mechanism that assists in maintaining homeostatis
Industrial and Organizational (I-O) Psychology
-a branch of psychology that studies how human behavior and psychology affect work and how they are affected by work -I-O psychologists work in 4 main contexts: academia, government, consulting firms, business -divided into 3 broad areas: industrial, organizational, human factors
Rite of Passage
-a ceremony and marks the transition from one phase of life to another -key reasons for having these ceremonies: deep and profound sense of belonging and sift from "child-psychology" to "adult-psychology (change of mindset)
Asthma
-a chronic and serious disease in which the airways of the respiratory system becomes obstructed, leading to great difficulty expelling air from the lungs
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
-a chronic condition including attention difficulty, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness -not diagnosed until around 4 years of age (when you start school), because that is when you expect kids to sit still and pay attention -11% of Americans 4-17 years old receive this diagnosis after displaying key symptoms (2.5% have ADHD symptoms) -key symptoms: extreme, inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity -symptoms can be treated with medication and other therapies -comorbidity -is high energy a psychiatric disorder? (it does not need to be treated with medication) -costs of long-term drug use in treating ADHD
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
-a chronic stress reaction characterized by experiences and behaviors that may include intrusive and painful memories of the stressor event, jumpiness, persistent negative emotional states, detachment from others, angry outbursts, and avoidance of reminders of the event -behavioral: agitation, irritability, hostility, hyper-vigilance, self-destructive behavior, or social isolation -psychological: flashback, fear, severe anxiety, or mistrust -mood: inability to feel pleasure, guilt, or loneliness -sleep: insomnia or nightmares -also common: emotional detachment or unwanted thoughts
Psychological Disorder
-a condition characterized by abnormal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
Organizational Psychology
-a discipline interested in how the relationships among employees affect those employees and the performance of a business -worker well-being relationships -employee relationships on employee well-being (satisfaction, motivation, and commitment) and work performance, management, leadership, and organizational culture (structure, management, leadership), harassment -includes studying worker satisfaction, motivation, commitment -also studies management, leadership, and organizational culture, as well as how an organization's structures, management and leadership styles, social norms, and role expectations affect individual behavior -also considers the subjects of harassment, including sexual harassment, and workplace violence
Job Burnout (3 Dimensions)
-a general sense of emotional exhaustion and cynicism in relation to one's job -1st Dimension: exhaustion - a sense that one's emotional resources are drained or that one is at the end of her rope and has nothing more to give at a psychological level -2nd Dimension: characterized by depersonalization - a sense of emotional detachment between the worker and the recipients of his services, often resulting in callous, cynical, or indifferent attitudes toward these individuals 3rd Dimension: characterized by diminished personal accomplishment - the tendency to evaluate one's work negatively
Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders
-a group of overlapping disorders that generally involve intrusive, unpleasant thoughts and repetitive behaviors -elevate the unwanted thoughts and repetitive behaviors to a status so intense that these cognition and activities disrupt our daily lives
Social Norm
-a group's expectation of what is appropriate and acceptable behavior for its members (how they are supposed to behave and think)
Stereotype
-a negative belief about individuals based solely on their membership in a group, regardless of their individual characteristics -over-generalization about a certain group
Habit
-a pattern of behavior in which we regularly engage
Social Role
-a pattern of behavior that is expected of a person in a given setting or group
Hallucination
-a perceptual experience that occurs in the absence of external stimulation
Panic Attack
-a period of extreme fear or discomfort that develops abruptly and reaches a peak within 10 minutes -sometimes they are expected, occurring in response to specific environmental triggers, and sometimes they are unexpected (random)
Confederate
-a person who is aware of the experiment and works for the researcher -used to manipulate social situations as part of the research design, and the true, naive participants believe that the confederates are, like them, uniformed participants in the experiment
Script
-a person's knowledge about the sequence of events expected in a specific setting
Mania
-a state of extreme elation and agitation
Health Psychology
-a subfield of psychology devoted to understanding the importance of psychological influences on health, illness, and how people respond when they become ill
Emotion
-a subjective state of being that we often describe as our feelings
Scientific Management
-a theory of management that analyzes and synthesizes workflows with the main objective of improving economic efficiency, especially labor productivity -a significant portion of I-O research focuses on management and human relations -Douglas McGregor -2 different styles: Theory X and Theory Y
Dream Analysis
-a therapist interprets the underlying meaning of dreams
Job Strain
-a work situation that combines excessive job demands and workload with little discretion in decision making or job control
Risk Factors (Disorders)
-academic failure -birth complications -caring for those who are chronically ill or who have a neurological disorder -child abuse/neglect ex) feral children -chronic insomnia (toxins are removed from your brain while you sleep, so if you do not get enough sleep, the toxins build up, or you could stay up thinking and worrying yourself too much, and this could have an affect on eating habits) -chronic pain -family disorganization or conflict -low birth weight (indicative of low immune system, etc. and means you are not ready to come out yet) -low socioeconomic status (may live in an area with poor health care or bad schools) -medical illness -neurochemical imbalance -parental mental illness (genetic) parental substance abuse (especially while pregnant) -personal loss and bereavement -poor work skills and habits -reading disabilities -sensory disabilities -social incompetence -stressful life events -substance abuse -trauma experiences
Individualistic Culture
-achievement oriented -focus on autonomy -dispositional perspective -independent -analytic thinking style -more likely to commit fundamental attribution error -countries: US, Australia, Great Britain, Canada, Netherlands
Protective Factors (Disorders)
-aerobic exercise -community offering empowerment, opportunity, and security (sense of social security) -economic independence -effective parenting -feelings of mastery and control -feeling of security (attachment) -literacy (reading can be a destressor) -positive attachment and early bonding -positive parent-child relationships -problem-solving skills -resilient coping with stress and adversity -self-esteem -social work skills -social support from family and friends
Plastic/Malleable Individual
-affected by the environment -positive experiences = better -negative experiences = worse
Resilience (Disorders)
-always easier to prevent something than it is to treat it later -high resilience: people who are able to come out of a stressful situation and grow from it -have a disorder: you don't want to return to baseline (hedonic adaptation); you want to grow/learn/ from it (improve/get better) -preventing psych disorders by changing environment and building "reserve" and personal strength -can be seen in New Yorkers after 9/11, spinal cord injury patients, Holocaust survivors, and others
Human Error
-an action is taken that was not intended by the actor, not desired by a set of rules or an external observer, or that led the system outside its acceptable limits -poor design -main thing people try to avoid wit human factors research -sources of error: stress, distraction, wrong information, overconfidence, not reading the manual carefully
Internal Factor
-an attribute of a person and includes personality traits and temperment
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
-an expectation held by a person that alters his or her behavior in a way that tends to make it true -pygmalion effect: our beliefs (about ourselves) influence our actions (towards others), which impact others' beliefs (about us) and cause others' actions (towards us) ex) randomly select students and randomly put them into groups (late-bloomers and advanced) -whatever group they were put into, that what they become
Self-efficacy
-an individual's belief in her own capability to complete a task, which may include a previous successful completion of the exact task or a similar task -Albert Bandura theorized that an individual's sense of self-efficacy plays a pivotal tole in motivating behavior ex) if you have a sincere belief in your ability to achieve at the highest level, you are more likely to take on challenging tasks and to not let setbacks dissuade you from seeing the task through to the end
Achievement Motivation/GRIT
-an individual's passion to achieve a long-term goal -desire for significant accomplishment: mastery of skills or ideas, control, attaining a high standard -involves much more than raw ability/"talent"
Homeostatis
-an internal environment in which physiological variables such as blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and temperature are stabilized at levels optimal for survival
Extrinsic Motivation
-arising from external factors -from outside -compensation, punishment, reward -motivated by receiving something from others ex) money, peers (peer pressure), finding a secure job ex) going to college because you want a degree to make yourself more marketable for a high-paying career or because your parents want you to
Intrinsic Motivation
-arising from internal factors -from within -autonomy, mastery, purpose -motivated by the sense of personal satisfaction -non-tangible rewards, like praise, tend to increase intrinsic motivation ex) love, passion, (really wanting to do something), values (honesty, religion, etc.), biological needs (hunger, etc.) ex) going to college because you enjoy learning and want to pursue an education to make yourself a more well-rounded individual
Factors Affection Perceptual, Cognitive, and Motor Performance (Human Factors)
-arousal and vigilance -fatigue -perceptual (mental) load -knowledge of results -monotony and boredom -sensory deprivation -sleep deprivation -anxiety and fear -isolation -aging -drugs and alcohol
Systematic Desensitization
-associates a pleasant, relaxed state with gradually increasing, anxiety-triggering stimuli
Areas of Study in Human Factors Psychology
-attention -cognitive engineering -task analysis -cognitive task analysis
Individual Differences
-attributes of the user that affect error (attitude, aptitude, psychological/cognitive factors) -stress and fatigue -complacency (e.g., you think you know everything already do you do not study) -lack of assertiveness -lack of awareness ex) some people are good at multiple choice exams and others are good at essay exams
Operant Conditioning Therapy
-behavior strongly influenced by their consequences
Finding Personal Meaning in Catastrophic Events Can Lessen Effects of Stress
-belief that events were due to God's punishment, demonic forces, etc., result in more stress
Grandiose Delusions
-belief that one holds special power, unique knowledge, or is extremely important
Delusions
-beliefs that are contrary to reality and are firmly held even in the face of contradictory evidence
Fixed Individual
-believe in similar outcomes no matter what the situation is
Cognitive Task Analysis
-breaking down the elements of a cognitive task -how are decisions made?
Task Analysis
-breaking down the elements of a task ("manual tasks") -how can a task be performed more efficiently? -how can a task be performed more safely?
Acute Stressor
-brief focal events that sometimes continue to be experienced as overwhelming well after the event as ended ex) falling and breaking your leg
Altruism/Fairness
-but we can help others even when there are great costs to the helper -some argue that there is no "true" self-less god deed, while others contend that this can occur
Two Kinds of Psychophysiological Disorders
-cardiovascular disorders -asthma
Diathesis-Stress Model
-certain people are more likely to develop psychopathology: natural vulnerability, life circumstances/stress
Stimulus-Based Definition of Stress
-characterize stress as a stimulus that causes certain reactions -a demanding or threatening situation or event ex) high-stress, job, overcrowding, long commutes to work -stimulus-based definitions of stress are problematic because they fail to recognize that people differ in how they view and react to challenging life events and situations ex) a conscientious student who has studied diligently all semester would likely experience less stress during a final exams week than a less responsible and unprepared student would
Anxiety Disorders
-characterized by excessive and persistent fear and anxiety and by related disturbances in behavior -constantly in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal and/or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety -panic disorder -phobias -obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) -post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Mood Disorders
-characterized by severe disturbances in mood and emotions -most often depression, but also mania and elation
Behavior Therapy
-classical conditioning techniques -counterconditioning -exposure therapies -systematic desenitization -virtual reality therapy -aversion therapy -operant conditioning therapy -behavior modification -token economy
Relaxation Response Technique
-combines relaxation with transcendental meditation -4 components: 1. sitting upright on a comfortable chair with feet on the ground and body in a relaxed position 2. a quiet environment with eyes closed 3. repeating a word or a phrase 4. passively allowing the mind to focus on pleasant thoughts, such as nature or the warmth of your blood nourishing your body
Industrial Psychology
-concerned with describing job requirements and assessing individuals for their ability to meet those requirements -develops ways to train, evaluate, and respond to those evaluations
Emotion-Focused Coping
-consists of efforts to change or reduce the negative emotions associated with stress -includes avoiding, minimizing, or distancing oneself from the problem, or positive comparisons with others ("I'm not as bad off as she is"), or seeking something positive in a negative event ("Now that I've been fired, I can sleep in for a few days") -more likely to occur when we face stressors that we believe we are powerless to change ex) Brad is failing his statistics class -he watches a comedy movie or plays video games to take his mind off the situation -treating the symptoms rather than the actual cause -positive reinterpretation -acceptance -denial -repression -escape-avoidance -wishful thinking -controlling feeling
Stressor Examples (Life Events)
-death of a close family member -personal injury or illness -dismissal from work -change in financial state -change to different line of work -outstanding personal achievement -beginning or ending school
Catatonic Behaviors
-decreased reactivity to the environment, such as posturing, in which the person maintains a rigid and bizarre posture for long periods of time, or catatonic stupor, a complete lack of movement and verbal behavior.
Stressors
-demanding or threatening events -can be chronic or acute -a stressor would likely be appraised as a THREAT if one anticipates that it could lead to some kind of harm, loss, or other negative consequence ex) employee viewing a promotion as a threat because it would lead to excessive work demands -a stressor could be appraised as a CHALLENGE if one believes that it carries the potential for gain or personal growth ex) employee viewing a promotion as an opportunity to gain new skills and grow professionally
Stanford-Prison Experiment
-demonstrated the power of social roles, social norms, and scripts in affecting human behavior -prisoners vs. guards -prison guards torture and abuse prisoners (students abuse their peers/classmates) -stopped after 6 days -shows how ordinary people could inflict extraordinary pain -like in Milgram's experiment, except in a prison setting rather than an obedient setting -prison guards wore masks (when people hide their face/identity, they tend to do things they wouldn't normally do -prisoners in the beginning rebel and resist the authority of the guards -the guards fought back -the way they tortured and abused the prisoners was their choice (not like Milgram's experiment where someone would tell the prison guard how and how much to torture the prisoners) -observed how human nature changed in this setting
Alarm Reaction
-describes the body's immediate reaction upon facing a threatening situation or emergency -roughly analogous to the flight-or-fight response -during an alarm reaction, you are alerted to a stressor, and your body alarms you with a cascade of physiological reactions that provide you with the energy to manage the situation ex) a person wakes up in the middle of the night to discover his house is on fire
Human Factors: Cascading Effects
-design and manufacturing factors -environmental factors -human factors
Behavior Moditication
-desired behavior reinforced; undesired behavior not reinforced, sometimes punished
How to Develop GRIT
-develop a growth mindset -set priorities (what's important and what isn't) -work toward your goals (in the right way) -work on weaknesses until they become strengths and then move on -"smart" practice -keep showing up -JUST DO IT
Cognitive Effects of Stress
-difficulty concentrating -difficulty making decisions -learned helplessness (related to defense mechanism: reaction formation--telling yourself "it's not that bad"
Coping with Stress
-disclosing trauma can induce immune system functioning, lower stress, reduce depression, and help the individual cope with stress more effectively -"bottling up" feelings can have a negative impact on health
Disorganized Thinking
-disjoint and incoherent thought processes, usually detected by what a person says ex) thinking job TRAINING and ride a TRAIN are basically the same thing -"How was your job training?" -"I once rode a train."
Cardiovascular Disorders
-disorders that involve the cardiovascular system (heart and blood circulation)
Disorder
-disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regular, or behavior that INTERFERES WITH DAILY LIFE
Coping
-refers to mental and behavioral efforts that we use to deal with problems relating to stress, including its presumed cause and the unpleasant feelings and emotions it produces
Learned Helplessness and Stress Experiment
-dogs were placed in a chamber where they receive electric shocks from which they could not escape -later, when these dogs were given the opportunity to escape the shocks by jumping across a partition, most failed to even try -they seemed to just give up and passively accept any shocks (learned helplessness) -learned helplessness might be an important cause of depression in humans -humans who experience negative life events that they believe they are unable to control may become helpless, and as a result they give up trying to control or change the situation -in comparison, dogs who were previously allowed to escape the shocks tended to jump the partition and escape the pain
Behavioral Effects of Stress
-drinking alcohol -smoking -unhealthy eating habits -taking actions directed at eliminating the cause of the stress
Social Bonds/Cooperation
-evolved to be social begins - for survivability -the need to belong affects thoughts, emotions, and behaviors -feelings of love activate brain reward and safety systems -social isolation increases risk for mental decline and poor health -similar neural areas are activated for real pain and pain experienced during social isolation
Social Psychology
-examines how people affect one another, and looks at the power of the situation -an individual's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are very much influenced by social situations -essentially, people will change their behavior to align with the social situation at hand -if we are in anew situation or are unsure how to behave, we will take our cues from other individuals
Specific Phobia
-excessive, distressing and persistent fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation -typically, the fear and anxiety a phobia stimulus elicits is disruptive to the person's life ex) a man with a fear of lying (aerophobia) might refuse to accept a job that requires frequent air travel, thus negatively affecting his career -phobias can be acquired through classical conditioning, modeling, and verbal transmission or information
Stage of Exhaustion
-exposure to a stressor continues over a longer period of time -the person is no longer able to adapt to the stressor -the body's ability to resist becomes depleted as physical wear takes its toll on the body's tissues and organs -result: illness, disease, and other permanent damage to the body, sometimes even death ex) after 3 months of a child being missing, the situation may cause the parent to faint with exhaustion
Stage of Resistance
-exposure to a stressor is prolonged -the initial shock of alarm reaction has worn off and the body has adapted to the stressor -the body also remains on alert and is prepared to respond as it did during the alarm reaction, although with less intensity ex) if a child goes missing for 72 hours, the parents still remain extremely disturbed, but the magnitude of physiological reaction would have diminished
Foot-In-The-Door Technique
-following up a smaller request with an even bigger one such that the subject complies on the grounds of the bond created -the persuader gets a person to agree to bestow a small favor or to buy a small item, only to later request a larger favor or purchase of a bigger item -ask a little bit at a time, so it is more likely that someone will say yes -then you ask for another related favor, and they are more likely to agree to that too ex) "Will you help me shop for cake ingredients?" -"Sure!" "Will you help me bake the cake?" -"Yeah, okay."
Door-In-The-Face Technique
-following up an extravagant request with a reasonable one such that the (guilty) subject complies ex) "Mom, may I sleep over at my friend's house?" -"No." "Then can I at least go out with them?" -"Okay..." ex) "Can I borrow $100?" -"No "Can I borrow $10?" -"Yeah, sure."
Prisoner's Dilema
-game theory -rational agent: if they know for sure the other person will cooperate, they will too (learning from previous experience to make a rational decision) -both prisoners will benefit from cooperating (1 year in jail each - 2 years total) -however, individually, it is more beneficial for they to defect if they do not know what the other person is going to do
Psychophysiological Disorders (Examples)
-gastrointestinal problems (e.g., irritable bowel syndrome) -perspiration begins (sweat) -cardiovascular (e.g., hypertension, coronary heart disease) -respiratory problems (e.g., asthma, allergy) -musculoskeletal (e.g., lower back pain, tension headaches) -skin (e.g., acne, eczema, psoriasis)
Psychoanalysis
-goal: to bring patients' repressed feelings to conscious awareness; to help patients release energy devoted to id-ego-superego conflicts so they may achieve healthier, less anxious lives -techniques: historical reconstruction, such as through hypnosis, free association, transference, and interpretation of dreams
Compliance
-going along with a request or demand, even if you do not agree with the request -can be a form of conformity -in Asch's study, the participants complied by giving the wrong answers, but privately did not accept that the obvious wrong answers were correct
Human Factors: Helios Flight 522: August 14, 2005
-ground engineer performed pre-flight pressurization leak check - switch pressurization from auto to manual and did not reset it when he finished -the flight crew overlooked the pressurization system state on 3 separate occasions: during the pre-flight procedure, the after-start check, and the after take-off check -the flight took off -as the plane climbed to the expected cruising altitude, pressure in the cabin dropped gradually -a warning in the cockpit sounded to indicate the aircraft should not continue climbing -the crew misidentified the signal as a take-off configuration warning -as more caution lights and signals came online, the flight crew became more confused as started experiencing oxygen deprivation -Helios operations center tried to help, the the captain ignored the critical question by the ground engineer ("Can you confirm the pressurization panel is set to AUTO?") -the captain kept concentrating on the equipment cooling circuit breakers, because that's where he thought the problem was -then, communication with the cockpit was lost
Depressive Disorders
-group of disorders in which depression is the main feature
Bipolar and Related Disorders
-group of disorders in which mania is the defining feature
Dementia
-group of symptoms seen in various diseases (including Alzheimer's disease) characterized by impairment of at least two brain functions, such as memory loss and judgment
Stanley Milgram's Experiment
-how the Nazis could treat the Jews so inhumanely? ("just following orders") -why a normal person could administer such horrible things to people? -task: have a "student" (confederate) in electric chair answer questions asked by a "teacher" -if they get answer wrong, they get shocked (or the teacher believes the student is getting shocked), and the shocks increase in intensity -measure how many people would be willing to continuously shock the student, just because the researcher told them to keep going -65% of people went up to 450 volts because someone of authority told them to do so (blind-obedience to authority) -conclusion: anyone can administer these types of shocks (it does not take a monster)
Bystander Effect
-if there are other people around to help, we usually "freeze" and do NOT help -sometimes people don't know how to react/help/handle the situation, so they don't do anything then make up excuses for not helping to make themselves feel better -sometimes people think someone else will help so they don't have to -in the presence of other people, we do not feel obligated to help -we feel more obligated to help and are more quick to help if we are alone ex) Wang Yue -2 year old Chinese girl was ran over by a van twice, and 18 people walked by and ignored her, walking around the blood -the effect of PASSIVE bystanders, people are LESS LIKELY to help -the effect of one or more ACTIVE bystanders, people are MORE LIKELY to help (if one person helps, others will follow) -if you are in a situation where you need help, try to get the attention of ONE person
Initiation Effects
-if you are forced to do something difficult to get into a group, the more likely you are to like the group or want to be a part of it -if the tasks are less difficult or there are none, you a re less likely to like/want to be part of that group
Social Facilitation
-improved performance when an audience is watching versus when the individual performs the behavior alone ex) skilled basketball players will be more likely to make a free throw basket when surrounded by a cheering audience than when playing alone in the gym ex) a less skilled or nervous basketball player may have a harder time making free throws if people are watching
Chronic Stressors
-include events that persist over an extended period of time ex) caring for a parent with dementia
Cognitive Engineering
-includes human software interactions in complex automated systems, especially the decision-making processes of workers as they are supported by the software system -how do workers use and obtain information provided by software? ex) medical records
Attention
-includes vigilance and monitoring, recognizing signals in noise, mental resources, and divided attention -how is attention maintained? -what about tasks maintains attention? -how to design systems to support attention? -jobs that require attention: surgeon, anesthesiologist (have to give patient the right amount of anesthesia to put them out but not kill them)
Benefits of Human Factors
-increased user satisfaction -increased user productivity -increased product salves -decreased customer support costs -decreased development costs -decreased employee turnover/sick leave -decreased training costs -decreased maintenance costs
How Does Stress Relate to Aging
-increases aging process (e.g., gray hair) -how to help stressed adults: take them out of the stressful environment, encourage them to exercise, encourage optimism, show them support
Cultural Differences
-individualistic cultures -collectivistic cultures
Physical Exercise
-insomnia -aging -side effects -mood disorders -recovery time
Instinct Theory (Evolutionary Perspective)
-instinct: a species-specific pattern of behavior that is not learned -genetically predisposed behaviors for survival ex) gorillas taking care of their young -instinctual factors for survival: reproducing, migration, hunting, etc.
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy
-integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior) -aims to alter the way they act AND think -helps people learn to make more realistic appraisals
Overjustification Effect
-intrinsic motivation is diminished when extrinsic motivation is given
Paranoid Delusions
-involve the (false) belief that other people or agencies are plotting to hard the peron
Primary Appraisal
-involves judgment about the degree of potential hard or threat to well-being that a stressor might entail -challenge or threat? -threat goes to secondary appraisal ex) Breast Cancer - A woman feels a lump on her breast and and views it as a potential threat, for it could be breast cancer
Biomedical Therapy
-involves medication and.or medical procedures to treat psychological disorders -psychopharmacology: drug effects on mind and behavior -clinical trials involve placebo and double-blind techniques -relatively "fast" effects, but typically includes side effects and builds dependency -common drug treatments: antipsychotic, anti-anxiety, antidepressent, mood-stablizing, attention deficit
Psychotherapy
-involves psychological techniques, e.g., trained therapist talking through problems with client to overcome difficulties and/or achieve personal growth -a psychological treatment that employs various methods to help someone overcome personal problems, or to attain personal growth
Experiencing Exemplary Achievement
-is it motivating to see the exemplary achievements of others? -variables: final course grade, course completion -subjects: 5,000 students (massive open online course) -procedure: each student assessed on the essays of 3 other students -if assessed higher-quality essays, less likely to complete the course and had lower final grades compared to students who assessed lower-quality essays (in addition to feeling less able to write, lowering motivation) <----- fixed mindset
Altruism
-people's desire to help others, even if the costs outweigh the benefits of helping ex) going back into a burning building to help others when you know there is a chance you will not make it out if you go back in
Theory X Approach to Management
-managers assume that most people dislike work and are not innately self-driven -perceives employees as people who prefer to be led and told which tasks to perform and when -people dislike work and avoid it -people avoid responsibilities -people want to be told what to do -goals are achieved through rules and punishments -supervisors do not listen to employee suggestions -supervisors blame efficiency failures on individual employees rather than the systems or policies in place -managerial goals are achieved through a system of punishments and threats rather than enticements and rewards -used in the US
Theory Y Approach to Management
-managers assume that most people seek inner satisfaction and fulfillment from their work -supervisors encourage employee input/participation -employees participate in decisions about prioritizing tasks -people enjoy work and find it natural -people are more satisfied when given responsibility -people want to take part in setting their own work goals -goals are achieved through enticements and rewards ex) the policy of Toyota production lines that allows any employee to stop the entire line if a defect or issue appear so that the defect can be fixed and its cause remedied
Bipolar Disorder
-mood states that vacillate between depression and mania -a person's mood is said to alternate from one emotional extreme to the other
Social Media
-more or less socially isolated? -healthy self disclosure? -accurate personality reflections in profiles and posts? -promotion of narcissism?
Type B Individiual
-more relaxed and laid-back -"go with the flow"
Growth Mindset
-more resilient/more perseverance -tend to be more successful -"I can learn anything I want to" ex) failed a test -"I will study harder for the next test!"
Body Language
-non-verbal body language can affect our mental state -when we feel powerful, we open ourselves up and make ourselves bigger ex) when you win at a race, you raise your arms up and lift your chin up -when we feel powerless, we close up and make ourselves smaller ex) cross your arms, slouch, put your head down -power poses: you can feel more powerful just based on how you pose
Motivation to Conform (2 Types)
-normative social influences -informational social influence
Human Factors: Three Mile Island
-nuclear accident lead to Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) requirements for additional instrumentation in nuclear facilities to provide operators with more critical information and increased operator training -operators did not correctly diagnose a stuck valve for several hours -light on control panel indicated power, not position of the valve (poor design of indicator light) -confusion based on the assumption of a shut valve, even though pressure, temperature, an coolant levels all indicated the valve was open -poor training of operators on ambiguous nature of indicators -indicators were on the back of the control desk ( hard to see them) - a new shift of operators arriving on the scene after several hours broke this assumption (correctly diagnosed problem)
Social Influence - To React To Something
-obedience -conformity -groupthink -bystander effect -cultural differences -cognitive dissonance -self-fulfilling prophecy -stereotypes
Problem-Focused Coping
-one attempts to manage or alter the problem that is causing one to experience stress -actively try to do things to address the problem -similar to strategies used in everyday problem-solving -involves identifying the problem, considering possible solutions, weighing the costs and benefits of these solutions, and then selecting an alternative -planning -active coping and problem solving -suppressing competing activities -exercising restraint -assertive confrontation -more likely to occur when encountering stressors that we perceive as controllable ex) Brad is failing his statistics class. -He is proactive in trying to alleviate the source of the stress -he contacts his professor to discuss what he must do to raise his grade -he also decides to set aside 2 hours a day to study statistics -seeks tutoring help
Hypothalamus
-one of the limbic structures in the brain -in response to stress, it releases the corticotrophin-releasing factor, a hormone that causes the pituitary gland to release ACTH -ACTH activates the adrnal glans to secrete a number of hormones into the bloodstream (an important one is cortisol)
Optimism and Positive Attitudes
-optimists are at lower risks for anxiety, depression, many illnesses -optimists believe problems are temporary, controllable, and specific to one situation
Disposition
-our behavior is determined by internal factors
Perceived Control
-our beliefs about our personal capacity to exert influence over and shape outcomes -has major implications for our health and happiness -handle stress better if you feel like you have CONTROL over the situation
Locus Coeruleus
-part of the brain that plays a role in panic disorder -located in the brainstem -the brain's major source of norepinephrine, a neurotransmitter that triggers the body's fight-or-flight response
Token Economy
-people can earn a token for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for privileges or treats ex) in kindergarten - teacher would give us fake money when we exemplified good behavior which we could exchange for prizes at the end of the week
Informational Social Influence
-people conform because they believe the group is competent and has the correct information, particularly when the task or situation is ambiguous ex) what to do in an emergency situation: see smoke in a movie theater and don't know if it is a fire or a special effect for the movie -uncertain what to do, so you tend to look at the behavior of others in the theather
Normative Social Influence
-people conform to the group norm to fin in, to feel good, and to be accepted by the group
The Adult Learner
-people think "an old dog cannot learn new tricks," but they CAN -ex) adults who were bad at drawing were able to draw really well after months/years of practice (LIKE DR. WU) ex) women learns how to play the violin -makes videos of her progress over 2 years
Several Symptoms of Groupthink
-perceiving the group as invulnerable or invincible (believing it can do no wrong) -believing the group is morally correct -self-censorship by group members, such as withholding information to avoid disrupting the group consensus -the quashing of dissenting group members' opinions -the shielding of the group leader from dissenting views -perceiving an illusion of unanimity among group members -holding stereotypes or negative attitudes toward the out-group of others' with differing viewpoints
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
-persistent and repetitive thoughts (obsessions), actions (compulsions), or both -people wit OCD experience thoughts and urges that are intrusive and unwanted (obsessions) and/or the need to engage in repetitive behaviors or mental acts (compulsions) ex) spend hours each day washing your hands ex) constantly checking and rechecking to make sure that a stove or light has been turned off -orbitofrontal cortex region of the brain plays a role in OCD (the area of the frontal lobe involved in learning and decision-making)
Phobia
-persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation
Psychophysiological Disorders
-physical disorders or disease whose symptoms are brought about or worsened by stress and emotional factors
Response-Based Definition of Stress
-physiological responses or reactions that occur when faced with demanding or threatening situations ex) increased arousal, accelerated heart rate (these could also occur as a result of non-stressful situations, such as unanticipated good news) -describe stress as a response to environmental conditions -stress: "response of the body to any demand, whether it is caused by, or results in, pleasant or unpleasant conditions" - Hans Selye (endocrinoloigist)
Ultimatum Game
-player 1 has $10 and can give player 2 however much of the $10 he wants -dictator game, except player 2 can accept or reject player 1's offer -if player 2 accepts player 1's offer, they end up with that amount of money -if player 2 rejects player 1's offer, neither of them get any money -in this scenario, people are more likely to split the money evenly -people also rather reject free money if they feel the amount is unfair (revenge)
Dictator Game
-player 1 has $10 and can give player 2 however much of the $10 he wants -player 1 usually gives himself more money than he gives player 2
ALtruism: Coin Game
-player 1's chips worth are 30 cents -player 2's chips are worth 10 cents -player 1 = player 2 if player 2 does NOT know player 1's exchange rate -people usually give the other player less 30 cents chips than they give themselves -shows we are innately a little selfish and don't really have any reason to show altruistic behavior -others/environment round us make us altruistic
Human Factors: Miss Universe 2015
-poor design and human error -Steve Harvey reads the card wrong -better design of card: 1. MISS UNIVERSE 2. 1st Runner Up 3. 2nd Runner up
Prosocial Behavior
-positive social actions intended to help others -voluntary behavior with the intent to help other people -egoistic model: when behaviors are done for selfish reasons ex) Donald Trump donates to charity to get publicity, not because he cares about the cause -altruistic model: when behaviors are done for selfless reasons
Altruism/Fairness - When Do We Help?
-pressure from society and its members -cultural norms -attractiveness (more likely to help someone if they are attractive -our mood (more likely to help someone if we are in a good mood than if we are in a bad mood) -similarity -modeling (imitation of a person of authority) -media -history -if we think a victim is to blame for their situation, however, we won't help (e.g., homeless people, drug/alcohol abusers, rape victims)
Hypothalamic-Pitutary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis
-primarily endocrine in nature -a set of structures found in both the limbic system (hypothalamus) and the endocrine system (pituitary gland and adrenal glands) that regulate many of the body's physiological reactions to stress through the release of hormones -becomes active when the sympathetic nervous system releases adrenaline -works much more slowly than the sympathetic nervous system
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
-priority of some needs over others -hierarchy of needs: spans spectrum of motives ranging from biological to the individual to the social -base of pyramid: all the physiological needs that are necessary for survival -top tier need (self-actualization) can only realized when needs lower on the pyramid have been met -satisfy lower-level needs before addressing those needs that occur higher in the pyramid -PYRAMID: 1. Self-actualization: inner fulfillment (achieving one's full potential) 2. Esteem: self-worth, accomplishment, confidence 3. Social: family, friendship, intimacy, belonging 4. Security: safety, employment, assets 5. Physiological: food, water, shelter, warmth -Harlow would argue the 3rd tier is just as or even more important than the first tier
Coping with Stress (Strategies)
-problem-focused coping -emotion-focused coping -seeking social support
Differences Between Psychoanalytic and Psychodynamic Approaches
-psychodynamic therapy: influenced by traditional psychoanalysis but differs from it in many ways -differences: lack of belief in id, ego, and superego; briefer, less expensive, and more focused on helping the client find relief from current symptoms -similarity: helps clients understand how past relationships create themes that ma be acted out in present relationships interpersonal therapy: brief 12 to 16 session form of psychodynamic therapy that has been effective in treating depression
Schizophrenia
-psychological disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speed, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression -devastating psychological disorder that is characterized by major disturbances in thought, perception, emotion, and behvaior -symptoms: disturbed perceptions, disorganized thinking and speech, inappropriate and emotions and actions ex) believing your mom is plotting with the FBI to kill you
Human Factors - Who Are Involved?
-psychologists -graphic designers -technical writers -engineers -anthropologists -sociologists
Physiological Effect of Stress
-pupils dilate -heart rate increases -muscles tense and may tremble -respiration quickness; bronchial tubes dilate
Stress and Personality
-someone who is more introverted may find it harder to seek help when stressed -optimistic people may see stress as a way of becoming stronger by overcoming adversity -if someone is in a stressful environment for a long time, it can change their personality (external environment impacts personality) ex) if you tend to be optimistic, but you lose your job, you might start being pssimistic -coping self-efficacy: belief that we can perform the behaviors necessary to cope successfully
GRIT
-strength of character -perseverance/passion/motivation -not giving up -having long term goals and working hard everyday to achieve these goals -have a growth mindset to increase GRIT ex) Wayne Gretzy -highest scoring hockey player -no other player has ever scored nearly as high as him -"You miss 100% of the shots you don't take" (the more shots you attempt, the more chances you have at scoring)
Group Polarization
-strengthening of the original group attitude after discussing views within a group ex) group's discussion of how attractive someone is -does your opinion change if you find someone attractive but your friends do not agree? if your friends vociferously agree, might you then find this person eve more attractive?
Eustress (Good Stress)
-stress can motivate us to do things in our best interests ex) study for exams, visit the doctor regularly, exercise, perform to the best of our ability at work -kind of stress associated with positive feelings, optimal health, and performance -moderate amount of stress can be beneficial in challenging situations ex) having a little bit of stress before an exam may motivate you to study harder and perform better -as stress increases, so do performance and general well-being
Distress
-stress exceeds the optimal level -becomes excessive and debilitating -feeling burned out, fatigued, exhausted, performance begins to decline -excessive stress is bad for your health
Cortisol
-stress hormone that provides a boost of energy to help our bodies respond to brief stress -chronically high cortisol levels damage the body (weaken immune system, lead to depression, etc.) -can pass this hormone down to babies (too stressed while pregnant)
Panic Disorder
-sudden episode of intense dread and often lives in fear of when the next attack might strike again -people with panic disorder experience recurrent (more than one) and unexpected panic attacks, along with at least one month of persistent concern about additional panic attacks, worry over the consequences of the attacks, or self-defeating change sin behavior related to the attacks -characterized as fear of fear -many people with panic disorder develop agoraphobia (fear of places and situations that might cause panic, helplessness, or embarrassment) -cognitive factors may play a role
Psychodynamic Therapy
-talk therapy based on belief that the unconscious and childhood conflicts impact behavior -goal: to help people understand current symptoms by exploring and gaining perspectives on thoughts, feelings, and behaviors based on drives and motivation -techniques: client-centered face-to-face meetings; exploration of past relationship troubles to understand origins of current difficulties ex) patient talks about his past
Sources of Error Cont.
-task complexity -error-likely situations -individual differences
Conformity Experiment (Solomon Asch)
-task: which line is the same as the original -the confederates identified a line segment that was obviously shorter than the target line ( a wrong answer) -the naive participant then had to identify aloud the line segment that best matched the target line segment -63.2% correct -36.8% conformed to incorrect -75% of participants -at least 1 incorrect answer out of 12 trials
Task Complexity
-tasks that exceed human capacities -many distractions -excessive pressure -taxing working memory/attention capacity ex) the professor made the test too hard, so no one could do it
Cognitive Therapy
-teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions (e.g., reduce rumination) ex) lost job -> internal beliefs: I'm worthless. It's hopeless -> depression ex) lost job -> internal beliefs: My boss is a jerk. I deserve something better -> no depression
Situation and Cognitive Factors of Eating
-temping situation ex) if you walk by a bakery everyday, you are more likely to want to eat a baked good ex) friends and food -presence of others may amplify eating tendencies (social facilitation) ex) serving size -if there is more food in front of you, you are more likely to eat more (portion control) -food variety promotes eating -lower inhibition, higher hunger, lower restraint -depression -better to eat when you're hungry than to eat when the clock says to -conditioned response ex) your body tricks you into thinking you are hungry if you walk by a bakery and smell cookies and begin to salivate -stress (causes some people to over-eat and some to under-eat)
Type A Individual
-tend to be intensively driven workaholics who are preoccupied with deadlines and always seem to be in a rush -chronic struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time -impatient, verbally aggressive, time urgency, and always pushing themselves and others -type A individuals who tend to live under great pressure and demand much of themselves and others -competitiveness, ambition, aggressiveness, and hostility -double the risk for coronary heart disease -negative emotions and overraction
Resilience
-the ability to tolerate and thrive in highly stressful circumstances -protective factors: resources that create resilience and help people cope more effectively
Somatic Delusion
-the belief that something highly abnormal is happening to one's body ex) you think your kidney's are being eaten by cockroaches
General Adaptation Syndrome
-the body's nonspecific physiological response to stress -Hans Selye -three stages: 1. alarm reaction 2. stage of resistance 3. stage of exhaustion
Immune System
-the body's surveillance system -consists of a variety of structures, cells, and mechanisms that serve to protect the body from invading toxins and microorganisms that can harm or damage the body's tissues and organs
Groupthink
-the modification of the opinions of members of a group to align with that they believe is the group consensus -we are often influenced by the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors around us -conforming to the way the group thinks -the group often takes action that individuals would not perform outside the group setting because groups make more extreme decisions that individuals do -why it happens: people don't want to feel wrong/left out -can hinder opposing trains of thought -if one person does something, others will follow -not always bad (can be both good and bad)
Free Association
-the patient relaxes and then says whatever come to mind at the moment -however, Freud felt that the ego would at times try to block, or repress, unacceptable urges or painful conflicts during free association
Transference
-the patient transfers all the positive or negative emotions associated with the patient's other relationships to the psychoanalyst ex) Crystal sees her therapist as a father figure and transfers her feelings about her father onto her therapist, perhaps in an effort to gain the love and attentions he did not receive from her own father
Comorbidity
-the simultaneous presence of two chronic diseases or conditions in a patient
Factors that Make a Person More Likely to Yield to Group Pressure
-the size of the majority: the greater the number of people in the majority, the more likely an individual will conform (up to 7) -the presence of another dissenter: if there is at least one dissenter, conformity rates drop to near zero -the public or private nature of the responses: when responses are made publicly, conformity is more likely; when responses are made privately, conformity is less likely
Cognitive Dissonance
-the state of having inconsistent thoughts, beliefs, or attitudes -attitude does NOT match behavior ex) smoking - you know its bad for you but you still do it -remove dissonance tension by quitting or telling yourself smoking is not bad for you
Human Factors Psychology/Ergonomics
-the study of how workers interact with the tools of work and how to design those tools to optimize workers' productivity, safety, and health -concerned with the integration of the human-machine interface in the workplace, through design, and specifically with researching and designing machines that fit human requirements -focuses on the individual worker's interaction with a machine, work station, information displays, and the local environment -in the US, it has origins in both psychology and engineering ex) the fit of a desk, chair and computer, for a worker who works at this desk all day ex) examination of how humans interact with complex displays and their ability to interpret them accurately and quickly\ -ergonomics = what this field is referred to in Europe
Psychopathology
-the study of psychological disordersm including their symptoms, etiology (causes), and treatment
Diffusion of Responsibility
-the tendency for no one in a group to help because the responsibility to help is spread throughout the group
Fundamental Attribution Error
-the tendency to overemphasize internal factors as attributions for behavior and underestimate the power of the situation
Disorganized or Abnormal Motor Behavior
-the unusual behaviors and movements: becoming unusually active, exhibiting silly child-like behaviors, engaging in repeated and purposeless movements, or displaying odd facial expressions and gestures
Situationism
-the view that our behavior and actions are determined by our immediate environment and surroundings
Motivation
-the wants or needs that direct behavior toward a goal -need or desire that energizes and directs behavior -will to put forth effort -drive to do something -NOT innate -external factors can motivate you (others can motivate you) -motivation can also come from within -motivation (animals): instincts ex) instinct for birds to build nests
Work-Life Balance Video
-there are not enough women at the top of the work force/profession 1. sit at the table 2. make your partner a real partner 3. don't leave before you leave -women systematically underestimate their own abilities -women do not negotiate for themselves in the workforce -women attribute their success to others -men attribute their success to themselves -success if positively correlated with men and negatively correlated with women -there is more societal pressure for men to succeed than women to succeed (a stay-home mom is much more common than a stay-home dad)
Negative Symptoms
-those that reflect noticeable decreases and absences in certain behaviors, emotions, or drives
Stress
-to be worried about a particular matter (short-term or long-term) Stimulus-based + Response-based = A process whereby an individual perceives and responds to events that he/she appraises (judges) as overwhelming or threatening to his/her well-being -these judgments/appraisals influence our react to such events -different factors affect stress: sex, age, race, education, employment, income
Aversion Therapy
-training negative responses to unwanted behavior ex) if you want to stop drinking alcohol, you can add something super bitter to your drink, so that everything you think about alcohol, you associate it with that bitter taste you do not like
Exposure Therapies
-treat anxieties by exposing people (via imagination or actual situations) to things they fear and avoid (e.g., flooding)
Virtual Reality Therapy
-treats anxiety by creative electronic simulations in which people can safely face their greatest fears, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking
Secondary Appraisal
-triggered by perception of threat -judgment of the options available to cope with a stressor, as well as perception of how effective such options will be -potential options and how effective are they? -effective options: low threat -ineffective or no options: high threat -a threat tends to be viewed as less catastrophic if one believes something can be done about it ex) Breast Cancer - Two Views: 1. "Oh my God, this is horrible...I can't deal with it!" 2. "I need to have it checked out first to before I start worrying, and if it is breast cancer, there are doctors who can take care of it, and I will be just fine."
Countercounditioning
-uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors
Workstation Egonomics
ex) working at a desk and using a computer -certain way to position yourself while working to avoid back, wrist, neck, elbow, etc. problems -viewing distance from computer screen: 19-24 inches away -viewing angle -wrist straight -lumbar support for lower back -adjustable seat height -seat back angle 90 degrees -knee angle 90 degrees -feet on floor; footrest for shorter people
