psychology chapter 15

Cognitive appraisal

the interpretation of an event that helps determine its stress impact. For example, suppose you have a huge exam scheduled for next week. The way you appraise- or evaluate- the situation will determine the level of stress you feel. If you appraise the situation as a challenge that you can meet, you have positive feelings and your stress level is reduced. If you think of the situation as a threat, however, your negative feelings will increase your stress level.

Physical/emotional reactions to stress

- Short-term psychological stress reactions may be either emotional or cognitive. The most common response to a sudden and powerful stressor is anxiety, which is a feeling of an imminent but unclear threat. Short-term feelings of extreme anxiety can occur if a person feels trapped in a situation he or she cannot control. -Another common reaction is anger, which is likely to result from frustration. -Fear is usually the reaction when a stressor involves real danger-a fire for example. Fear directs the individual to withdraw or flee, but in severe cases he or she may panic and be unable to act. -Common examples of short-term emotional stress reactions are overreacting to minor irritations, getting no joy from daily pleasures, and doubting one's own abilities, while feeling tense, short-tempered, and more anxious. -Cognitive reactions to stress include difficulty in concentrating or thinking clearly, recurring thoughts, confusion, and poor decision making. A student who must give an oral presentation may worry about the upcoming ordeal but find himself unable to prepare for it. -another type of stress reaction is unjustified suspicion or distrust of others. PHYSICAL REACTIONS -your thoughts and emotions can produce physiological changes in your body. Some people develop psychosomatic symptoms as a result of stress. These are physical symptoms caused by stress or tension such as headaches, stomachaches, and muscle pains. -fight-or-flight response is the body's immediate reaction to stress. -There are many short-term behavioral changes that result from stress. A person may develop nervous habits, such as pacing, gulp meals, or feel tired for no reason. That person may develop a shaky voice, tremors, strained expressions, or a hunched posture. He or she may temporarily lose interest in eating, grooming, and bathing. Some react to stress by behaving aggressively toward their family members or strangers. -Some behavioral reactions are positive.

Environmental stressors/overcrowding

-Environmental conditions such as noise may cause stress on the job, and these factors can have similar effects on the public at large. Surveys have shown that Americans regard noise as one of the foremost irritants in their lives. Noise is particularly aggravating when it is loud, irregular, or uncontrollable. -odors may also trigger stress in people. Some people tend to cope with the stressors better than others. -temperature can also cause stress. Environments that are too hot or too cold increase demands on the body. -Elevated humidity and lack of air movement can also have an effect on the body's ability to cope. OVERCROWDING -Most people dislike certain high-density situations and can feel stress when other people get too close. Studies on crowding have found a relationship between high rise apartments with many crowded people and aggression. -Crowding itself, however, is not the problem. The problems occur not when you are crowded but when you feel crowded. Example: a crowded subway car could make one person feel crowded or even claustrophobic, while another person in the same subway car could fall asleep. - Jonathan Freedman concluded that the effects of crowding depend on the situation. If the situation is pleasant, crowding makes people feel better; if the situation is unpleasant, crowding makes them feel worse. In other words, being packed together intensifies people's reactions, but it does not create them. -Crowding is a great concern in prisons. Overcrowded prisons have higher levels of stress and that the rate of both violent and nonviolent deaths is higher there than in less crowded prisons.

Type A personality

-Some psychologists have suggested that people who exhibit a behavior pattern they call type A are very likely to have coronary artery disease, often followed by heart attacks, in their 30's and 40's. According to one study, those who do not have this pattern (Type B people) almost never have heart attacks before the age of 70. -Whereas Type B people are generally relaxed, patient, and do not become angry easily, the type A person's body is in a chronic state of stress with an almost constant flow of adrenaline into the bloodstream. This adrenaline apparently interacts with cholesterol or other chemical agents to block the coronary arteries that lead to the heart. It may be that high levels of adrenaline prevent the normal chemical breakdown of cholesterol in the blood. -Type A people are always prepared for fight or flight. They have a great deal of free-floating hostility, or anger that has no real focus. They are extremely irritable, and one thing that irritates Type A people the most is delay of any kind. They become impatient waiting in line, tend to move and eat rapidly, often try to do two or three things at once (such as reading while eating), and feel guilty when they are not actively doing something. They are extremely competitive. -In short, type A people are always struggling with time, other people, or both. -Most people respond to the world with Type A behavior at different times, but they are not in a constant state of stress. -Dr. Meyer Friedman and Dr. Ray H. Rosenman, first came up with the concept of a type A personality. The also studied how this personality type might be linked to an increased risk of coronary heart disease. -Some research suggests that people who neither express nor admit to strong feelings of despair, depression, and anger are more likely to develop cancer than those who can give vent to their emotions.

Definition of stress

-a person's reaction to his or her inability to cope with a certain tense event or situation. -Stress is the anxious or threatening feeling resulting from our appraisal of a situation and our reaction to demands placed upon us.

Intellectualization

-is a coping mechanism in which the person analyzes a situation from an emotionally detached viewpoint. -Intellectualization, in which the person watches and analyzes the situation from an emotionally detached standpoint. -Both denial and intellectualization can prevent physical reactions to stress. In one study, three groups of participants viewed a film that showed gruesome accidents at a sawmill. One group was told that the injuries were not real but were staged by the actors (Denial). A second group was advised that they were seeing an educational film about the importance of safety measures (intellectualization). The third group was told nothing. The levels of physical reaction were lower in the first two groups than in the third. Thus, if a person does not evaluate an event or situation as stressful, a stress reaction will not occur. Yet that is really failing to deal with what could be a legitimate stressor.

hassles and uplifts

-more common stressors are called hassles. Examples of hassles include losing your car keys, being caught in a crowded elevator, getting in a minor argument with someone in your family, or being late for work or school because you were stuck in traffic. Research has found a connection between these daily problems and health issues. It may be that these common stressors gradually weaken the body's defense system, making it harder to fight off potential health problems. -It has also been suggested that small, positive events, called uplifts, can protect against stress. Uplifts are things that make a person feel good, such as winning a tough chess match, going out to lunch with a good friend, or doing well on a semester exam. Some psychologists claim that uplifts can have the opposite effect of hassles; they can reduce stress and protect a person's health.

distress and eustress

Canadian researcher Hans Selye distinguished between two different types of stress. -Negative stress or DISTRESS, stems from acute anxiety or pressure and can take a harsh toll on the mind and body. -Positive stress or EUSTRESS, results from the strivings and challenges that are the spice of life.

General Adaptation Syndrome

Hans selye identified 3 stages in the body's stress reaction: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. Selye called these short-term and long-term reactions to stressors. -Alarm stage: the body reacts to a stressor by mobilizing its fight-or-flight defenses. The heartbeat and breathing quicken, muscles tense, the pupils dilate, and hormones that sustain these reactions are secreted. The person becomes exceptionally alert and sensitive to stimuli in the environment and tries to keep a firm grip on his or her emotions. -Resistance stage: the person often finds means to cope with the stressor and to ward off, superficially at least, adverse reactions. Blood pressure remains high and the body continues to secrete stress fighting hormones. If this stress response continues, the body is thrown off-balance. This person is likely to have problems concentrating and may become irritable. -Exhaustion: at this point the adrenal and other glands involved in the fight or flight response have been taxed to their limits and become unable to secrete hormones. The individual may develop delusions of persecution for example in an effort to retain some type of coping strategy.

Hardiness to stress-level of control, challenge and commitment

Hardiness refers to the combined personality traits of control, commitment, and challenge that help us reduce the stress we feel. Control involves the feeling that we have the ability to affect the outcome of the situation. Commitment refers to establishing and pursuing our goals. Challenge means that we actively confront and solve problems instead of feeling threatened and powerless because of them. Example: when you are confronted with the assignment of giving a speech in public, you approach the assignment as a positive experience(Challenge) believe that you can prepare and give a good speech (Control) and then prepare for and practice your speech before delivering it in public (commitment)

Fight or flight response

Regardless of the stressor, the body reacts with immediate arousal. The adrenal glands are stimulated to produce: (a). hormones that increase the amount of blood sugar for extra energy; and (b) adrenaline, which causes rapid heartbeat and breathing and enables the body to use energy more quickly. These responses are designed to prepare a person for self-defense and are often called the fight-or-flight response. Wild animals experience the fight-or-flight response in reaction to attacks. This response is needed for survival. Although you do not need to fight wild animals, the fight-or-flight response prepares you in the same way to face potentially dangerous situation. However, if stress persists for a long time, the body's resources are used up. The person becomes exhausted and, in extreme cases, dies. -The Hans Selye identified three stages in the body's stress reaction: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. - In the alarm stage, the body reacts to a stressor by mobilizing its fight-or-flight defenses. The heartbeat and breathing quicken, muscles tense, the pupils dilate, and hormones that sustain these reactions are secreted. The person becomes exceptionally alert and sensitive to stimuli in the environment and tries to keep a firm grip on his or her emotions.

spirituality

Studies have shown that people with strong spiritual beliefs often have less stress than others. Spirituality can be defined in many ways. Some people think it means believing in a power greater than themselves. Some find comfort in religious observance, prayer, or meditation. Others think it refers to having a sense of purpose in life, an idea that life has meaning. Releasing responsibility for uncontrollable events in life is a great stress reliever. Recognizing that there is more to life than just the here and now relieves stress in some people. -Another way spiritual beliefs reduce stress is by decreasing negative behaviors. For example the Seventh DAy Adventists are not supposed to smoke tobacco or drink alcohol. these live 8.9 years longer than the national average. -Many spiritual disciplines encourage forgiveness, which can help people to live in the present and not dwell on past hurts. -Religious groups often provide strong social support. For example, they may help families going through serious health problems by providing transportation to doctors' appointments, meal, counseling, or child care. -religious leaders may offer counseling from a spiritual perspective to people experiencing stress over various life changes such as divorce or death.

psychosomatic symptoms

Your thoughts and emotions can produce physiological changes in your body. For example, some people develop psychosomatic symptoms as a result of stress. Psychosomatic symptoms are real, physical symptoms caused by stress or tension such as headaches, stomachaches, and muscle pains.

Denial

is a common defense mechanism, in which a person decides that the event is not really a stressor.

post-traumatic stress disorder

is a condition in which a person who has experienced a traumatic event feels severe and long lasting after effects. This disorder is common among veterans of military combat and survivors of acts of terrorism, natural disasters such as floods and tornadoes, other catastrophes such as plane crashes, and acts of human aggression such as rape and assault. The event that triggers the disorder overwhelms a person's normal sense of reality and ability to cope. The high stress levels associated with this disorder could result in a range of psychosomatic symptoms, such as insomnia, high blood pressure, chest pain, and stomach problems.

biofeedback

is a technique for bringing specific body processes, such as blood pressure and muscle tension, under a person's conscious control. the participant is hooked up to an electronic device that measures the process he or she wants to regulate and plays that process back in the form of either sounds or visual patterns. This feedback enables many, although not all, people to learn to control various bodily responses. Biofeedback has been used most successfully to train people to relax and can be used to manage pain.

Methods of stress relief-coping strategies

mental: -Hardiness refers to the combined personality traits of control, commitment, and challenge that help us reduce the stress we feel. Control involves the feeling that we have the ability to affect the outcome of the situation. Commitment refers to establishing and pursuing our goals. Challenge means that we actively confront and solve problems instead of feeling threatened and powerless because of them. -Controlling stressful situations: When avoiding an event is not practical, controlling its timing may be helpful; you can try to space our stress-producing events. -Problem solving: Problem solving or confronting the matter head-on can be the best way to cope. Regarding frustrations or conflicts as problems to be solved means the situation becomes a positive challenge. -Explanatory style: Be optimistic not pessimistic -Humor: Laughing actually releases the tension of pent-up feelings and can help you keep a proper perspective of the situation. Physical: -Relaxation -biofeedback -Exercise -support groups and professional help -training -improving interpersonal skills

Primary appraisal

refers to our immediate evaluation of a situation. For instance, can we meet the demands of this situation? Does this situation present us with more challenges than we think we can handle? -There are three ways you can appraise a situation: irrelevant, positive, or negative. For example, if your teacher suddenly announces a pop quiz, you may feel okay about the situation. You think you know the material, and you teacher does not give difficult quizzes. You may look forward to pop quizzes and feel positive about the situation because you know the material on the quiz and are assured of a good grade. You may also evaluate the situation as a negative one if you have not looked at your notes for days.