Psychology Chapter 2

inductive reasoning

. For instance, you may notice that your favorite fruits—apples, bananas, and oranges—all grow on trees; therefore, you assume that all fruit must grow on trees.

Operational defintion

A description of how we will measure our variables, and it is important in allowing others understand exactly how and what a researcher measures in a particular experiment.

Longitudinal research Extra info: Longitudinal research is a powerful approach because the same individuals are involved in the research project over time, which means that the researchers need to be less concerned with differences among cohorts affecting the results of their study.

A research design in which data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time.

Cross-sectional research

A researcher compares multiple segments of the population at the same time.

It is capable or being shown to be incorrect.

A scientific theory is considered falsifiable, what does that mean?

Scientific Method (In this sense, the scientific process is circular. (Pg. 38)

Basically, ideas (in the form of theories and hypotheses) are tested against the real world (in the form of empirical observations), and those empirical observations lead to more ideas that are tested against the real world, and so on.

- Fact: observable realities - Opinions: Personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate.

Define the book definition of fact and opinion?

Generally, people who act as observers are closely involved in the research project and may unconsciously skew their observations to fit their research goals or expectations.

Describe Observer's bias.

It is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing.

Describe why scientific knowledge is empirical.

Illusory Correlations (ie humans act differently on a full moon)

False correlations, occur when people believe that relationships exist between two things when no relationship exists.

The Cancer Prevention Study-3 (CPS-3) is one of a series of longitudinal studies sponsored by the American Cancer Society - Big life changes happen like moving, marriages, illness, money. Long term research is hard.

Give the example in the book of a longitudinal research and the problem these researches face?

Deductive reasoning starts with a generalization that is tested against real-world observations; however, inductive reasoning moves in the opposite direction.

How does deductive reasoning start?

Inductive reasoning uses empirical observations to construct broad generalizations. ---- Conclusions drawn from inductive reasoning may not be correct

How does inductive reasoning construct broad generalizations?

A specific hypothesis to be tested.

In order to conduct an experiment, a researcher must have...

deductive reasoning begins with a generalization—one hypothesis—that is then used to reach logical conclusions about the real world. If the hypothesis is correct, then the logical conclusions reached through deductive reasoning should also be correct.

In the scientific context, how does deductive reasoning begin?

Correlation coefficient - The letter r

Is a number from -1 to +1 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between variables. - What is it usually represented by?

statistical analysis -A statistical analysis determines how likely any difference found is due to chance

Is conducted to find out if there are meaningful differences between the two groups.

Deductive

Is this an example of deductive or inductive reasoning? All living things require energy to survive (this would be your hypothesis). Ducks are living things. Therefore, ducks require energy to survive (logical conclusion).

Surveys

Lists of questions to be answered by research participants, and can be delivered as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally.

Correlation

Means there is a relationship between two or more variables (ie. ice cream and crime), but this relationship does not necessarily imply cause and effect.

Naturalistic Observation Ex. Observing animals from far away, so they don't know you are there. Study animal hierarchy.

Observing behavior in its natural setting. People might change their behavior if they feel like they are being watched. Key is to blend in.

Attrition rates - Problem in longitudinal research.

Reduction in the number of research participants due to dropouts, in longitudinal studies are quite high and increases over the course of a project.

Generalizing

Refers to the ability to apply the findings of a particular research project to larger segments of society.

Reliability

Refers to the ability to consistently produce a given result.

Population

The overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in.

-Given the greater number of people involved, we are not able to collect the same depth of information on each person that would be collected in a case study. -People don't always give accurate responses.

What are potential weaknesses of surveys?

Psychologists focus their attention on understanding behavior, as well as the cognitive (mental) and physiological (body) processes that underlie behavior.

What do psychologist focus their attention on?

The strength of the relationship. -The closer the number is to 1 (be it negative or positive), the more strongly related the variables are, and the more predictable changes in one variable will be as the other variable changes. - The closer the number is to zero, the weaker the relationship, and the less predictable the relationships between the variables becomes.

What does the number portion of the correlation coefficient indicate?

An IACUC consists of institutional administrators, scientists, veterinarians, and community members. This committee is charged with ensuring that all experimental proposals require the humane treatment of animal research subjects. It also conducts semi-annual inspections of all animal facilities to ensure that the research protocols are being followed. No animal research project can proceed without the committee's approval.

What is Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)?

Researchers gain access to large amounts of data without interacting with a single research participant. Instead, they use existing records to answer various research questions.

What is archival research?

A measure of reliability that assesses the consistency of observations by different observers.

What is inter-rater reliability and why is it important to prevent observer's bias?

The Strange Situation is a procedure used to evaluate attachment styles that exist between an infant and caregiver. (Mary Ainsworth example of structured observation)

What is strange situation?

-A positive correlation means that the variables move in the same direction. (one variable increases so does the other and same thing with decreasing) -- ice cream and crime or weight and height - A negative correlation means that the variables move in opposite directions. (amount of sleep and tiredness)

What is the difference between positive correlation and negative correlation?

Correlation research can find a relationship between two variables, but the only way a researcher can claim that the relationship between the variables is cause and effect is to perform an experiment.

What is the importance of correlation research?

IRB is a committee of individuals often made up of members of the institution's administration, scientists, and community members (Figure 2.20). The purpose of the IRB is to review proposals for research that involves human participants. The IRB reviews these proposals with the principles mentioned above in mind, and generally, approval from the IRB is required in order for the experiment to proceed.

What is the institutional review board and its purpose?

They are often difficult to set up and control.

What is the major downside of naturalistic observation?

Conduct a scientific experiment

What is the only way to establish that there is a cause-and-effect relationship between two variable?

- Has the inability to establish causality. (the relationship between cause and effect ie. people who eat cereal are more likely to lose weight).

What is the problem with correlation research?

studies that rely primarily on observation produce incredible amounts of information, but the ability to apply this information to the larger population is somewhat limited because of small sample sizes.

What is the problem with studies that primarily rely on observation?

Researchers using this approach have no control on how or what kind of data was collected.

What is the problem with studies that primarily rely on researchers that conduct research by using existing records?

Allows for results to be generalized to the larger population more easily, the information that can be collected on any given survey is somewhat limited and subject to problems associated with any type of self-reported data.

What is the problem with studies that primarily rely on surveys?

His ideas are not falsifiable; for example, it is impossible to imagine empirical observations that would disprove the existence of the id, the ego, and the superego—the three elements of personality described in Freud's theories.

What was a major criticism of Freud's experiment?

Confounding variable ( In the ice cream/crime rate example mentioned earlier, temperature is a confounding variable that could account for the relationship between the two variables.)

When a factor is actually causing the systematic movement in our variables of interest.

Clinical or case study. Ex. Two conjoined twins with their head connected at the thalamus. Problem:Again, case studies provide enormous amounts of information, but since the cases are so specific, the potential to apply what's learned to the average person may be very limited.

When scientists focus on one person or just a few individuals. Give the example mentioned in the book and the problem with it.

The American Psychological Association (APA)

Who publishes a manual detailing how to write a paper for submission to scientific journals?

Scientists use inductive reasoning to formulate theories, which in turn generate hypotheses that are tested with deductive reasoning. In the end, science involves both deductive and inductive processes.

Why do scientists use inductive reasoning?

Sample

a subset of individuals selected from a population

Confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Hypothesis

a testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct, and it is often worded as an if-then statement (e.g., if I study all night, I will get a passing grade on the test).

Theory

a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena.

random assignment

all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group.

peer-reviewed journal articles

article read by several other scientists (usually anonymously) with expertise in the subject matter, who provide feedback regarding the quality of the manuscript before it is accepted for publication

double-blind study

both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments.

Inductive reasoning

empirical observations lead to new ideas

informed consent

form provides a written description of what participants can expect during the experiment, including potential risks and implications of the research

Deductive reasoning

ideas are tested against the empirical world

Deception

involves purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment, but not to the point where the deception could be considered harmful.

quasi-experimental

lacks one of the components of experimental design, i.e., randomization, control group, or manipulation of one or more variables

Single-Blind study

meaning that one of the groups (participants) are unaware as to which group they are in (experiment or control group) while the researcher who developed the experiment knows which participants are in each group.

placebo effect

occurs when people's expectations or beliefs influence or determine their experience in a given situation.

Validity

refers to the extent to which a given instrument or tool accurately measures what it's supposed to measure.

Experimenter bias

refers to the possibility that a researcher's expectations might skew the results of the study.

random sample

subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Participants

the subjects of psychological research, and as the name implies, individuals who are involved in psychological research actively participate in the process.

debriefing

upon conclusion of the study—complete, honest information about the purpose of the experiment, how the data collected will be used, the reasons why deception was necessary, and information about how to obtain additional information about the study.