Psychology of Gender - Final Exam

affirmative consent

a knowing, voluntary, and mutual decision among all participants to engage in sexual activity - continued and enthusiastic consent - cannot simply interpret a lack of explicit non-consent as consent

homosexuality versus ego dystonic

additional criteria than that of homosexuality --> someone had to have persistent lack og heterosexual arousal, which the patient experienced as interfering with initiation or maintenance of wanted heterosexual relationships. The second and new criteria was that the person must also experience persistent distress from a sustained pattern of unwanted homosexual arousal Ego dystonic homosexuality was then removed from the DSM in 1986 and there is currently no inclusion of homosexuality in the most recent version of the DSM.

Chad

alpha men that undeservingly get female attention

sexual harassment

any sort of unwanted or inappropriate sexual conduct legally, sexual harassment is only recognized within institutions such as the workplace or in an educational environment ex: someone making inappropriate sexual jokes, displaying inappropriate sexual materials, or repeatedly asking someone out despite that person showing not interest or declining the invitation

hostile environment

one form of sexual harassment that the law differentiates - refers to sustained behaviors or conduct that makes an environment difficult to work in, learning in, or otherwise be in - ex: sexual comments, jokes, ir displaying sexually inappropriate material the legal bar for something to be considered this is pretty high

Conversion therapy

paired sex stimuli, such as a picture of two men or two women kissing, with an aversive consequence, such as nausea-inducing drugs. The idea was that pairing these images with nausea would make people view them negatively. They would also pair heterosexual stimuli with (sometimes forced) orgasm for similar reasons. lobotomizing people with same sex attraction, administering electroshock therapy, and castrating men with same sex attraction. (unsuccessful!!)) still practiced today though

Normie

people who are not particularly attractive but also don't agree with the incel platform

sexual assault

refers to any sexual contact that occurs without explicit consent from the involved parties - can include attempted rape, any form of sexual touching, and non-consensual sex (thus, rape is a form of sexual assault, but sexual assault includes additional behaviors beyond rape)

Stacy

refers to attractive women who won't give INCEL members attention

heterosexism

refers to bias against individuals who have non-heterosexual identities - this is an attitude that places more value on heterosexual identities than any other

heternormativity

related but distinct from heterosexism - it's the assumption that all people are heterosexual and reinforces the belief that heterosexuality is "natural", "normal", or "morally right". ex: seeing a woman wearing an engagement ring and asking "where did your future husband buy that ring?"

disclosure dilemma

results from sexual identities being a concealable or invisible stigma --> means that sexual orientation is not necessarily something you can outwardly see when looking at someone else in the way you might be able to see their race or ethnicity - the invisible or concealable nature of sexual identities creates a dilemma in which people have to choose between keeping their identity concealed or choosing to reveal their sexual identity to others

Sexual IPV

sexual coercion and sexual violence

street harassment

similar behaviors to sexual harassment that happen in informal contexts - could happen between friends, acquaintances, or strangers - includes behaviors such as cat calling or someone making suggestive comments when you are out in public space

gender dysphoria

this diagnoses now focuses on distress the individual experiences - in addition to feeling an incompatibility between one's gender and sex, they must also experience distress that impairs their functioning in some way

people who have experienced abuse are ____________ as likely to develop a physical or mental health condition in comparison to people who haven't experienced abuse

twice

sexual misconduct

umbrella term that is used to refer to all forms of inappropriate sexual behavior - subsumes specific forms of sexual violence such as sexual harassment, street harassment, sexual assault, and rape

sexual scripts

used to capture our norms about male and female sexual behaviors and expressions - like schemas for men: that they should be sexually dominant, pursue people they are interested in, initiate and advance sexual activity, and seek sexual pleasure --> tells men that they shouldn't ask for permission and should be dominant in initiating sex for women: to be timid, to hide rather than show their sexual desire and pleasure, and to show hesitation when engaging in sexual activity even if they want to have sex --> creates culture where no may mean no, but we also are socialized to believe that no may mean yes

misgendering

where others use the wrong pronouns or gender identifiers to refer to them - this is associated with feeling increased stigma, discontinuity in one's identity, and reduced self-esteem surrounding one's appearance - psychologically harmful, even when it occurs on accident - survey found that 3 out of every 5 people surveyed intentionally misgender others as a way to show that they do not support trans*, nonbinary, and thirdgender identities

Sodomy laws

*****2003 these anti sodomy laws were repealed in US *****

Three myths of IPV

"abuse is uncommon" "men are not victims" "victims can just leave"

"men do not experience IPV": debunking this myth about sexual violence

(aka: only women experience IPV and men are primarily the perpetrators of IPV) - research on experiencing and perpetrating IPV actually challenges these notions - puts men at a disadvantage when coming forward --> ex: police are more likely to dismiss IPV reports made by men than women

the history of sexual orientation and transgender identity in psychology

(dont forget that in some cultures on every continent, there are gender identities that are recognized that fall outside of male or female, third genders were largely accepted --> similar views towards same sex attraction in human cultures) - The shift occurred in the middle ages and same sex relationships became unacceptable --> laws were implemented to formally restrict same sex relationships and the associated punishments were pretty severe in modern times, we saw an increase in crack downs on same sex relationships in the 1950s such as the UK and the US prior to the 19th century, people did not equate the ideas of love, sex and marriage --> there was no recognition thay sexual orientation was an enduring part of people's self concept 1940s --> psychologists began to reconcile ideas about love, sex and marriage, and began to define heterosexuality as "normal" "natural" and "advantageous" whereas they viewed same sex attraction as the opposite --< believed homosexuality was a phobic response to people of a different sex and reflected a maladaptive, psychologically harmful response --> originally defined homosexuality as a psychological disorder and was included in the first edition of the DSM (first published in 1952) - this decision to include homosexuality in the DSM as a disorder was not made unanimously

gender differences in the experience of sexual assault

- according to CDC, 1 in 71 men have experienced rape at some point in their lifetimes and 1 in 6 men experience sexual assault - 1 in 5 women who have experienced rape and 1 in 4 women who have experienced sexual assault

predictors of sexual violence

- alcohol consumption --> related because it was consumed by the perpetrator, the target, or both in roughly 50% of assault cases - some traits and characteristics --> negative views of women, strong beliefs in traditional gender roles, and a belief in rape myths - hypermasculinity - also evidence that perpetrators are selective in who they target and intentionally target people who are seen as vulnerable

legal definitions of consent

- ambiguous and somewhat complicated because there is a federal definition, but each state is also free to adopt a different, more stringent definition - at the federal level, the law says that a person must have knowledge that the other person is consenting, but doesn't describe how one should get that knowledge or what constitutes as sufficient evidence of consent - law does say that consent is not possible in some cases: ex: if there is force or manipulation, when the person is asleep, unconscious, or otherwise unaware of the sexual activity - legal definition also states that someone cannot consent if they are impaired

consequences of family rejection

- an increased risk of homelessness - exclusion from family can have physical health consequences --> ex: increasing levels of cortisol (stress hormone linked to the development of a number of chronic physical conditions) - risk factor for suicide

model of minority stress

- been proposed as a way to capture the unique experiences of sexual minorities

"abuse is uncommon": debunking this myth about sexual violence

- can be a harmful myth because people think only a very small number of people are in abusive relationships --> this contributes to skepticism when people come forward and reduces vigilance in looking for signs of abuse - over 38 million women have experienced physical IPV in their lifetime - nearly 5 million women in the US experience physical IPV each year - between 2001 and 2012, there were more women who were killed by a male partner than there were troops killed in Iraq ans Afghanistan - Survey data indicated that: 13-61% of women experienced physical IPV, 4-49% experienced sexual violence, and 20-75% experienced emotional IPV - college-aged people are at higher risk than other age populations for experiencing IPV - estimates suggest that ~65% of college students in US report experiencing emotional abuse from a partner

Sexual Health outcomes of IPV

- higher rates of STIs and HIV/AIDS among abuse survivors - people who experience abuse, even if its not sexual, are more likely to experience sexual dysfunction such as feeling no sexual arousal or being unable to achieve orgasm

consequences of inclusion in the DSM

- it legitimized stigma against people with same sex attraction - legitimied ideas that homosexuality was not normal or natural and that people who were in same same relationships were suffering in some way - towards end of WWII, military began discharging members known to have same sex relationships - laws that prohibited same sex relationships got stronger conversion therapy created removed from DSM in 1973

Gender differences in the experience of IPV

- men and women are similarly likely to report experiencing emotional violence from an intimate partner - differences in how many men and women report physical violence --> 28% of men versus 32% of women

Mental Health outcomes of IPV

- mental health symptoms can be comorbid with abuse - psychological disorders such as depression, anxiety, and PTSD are more common among people who have experienced abuse - sleep disorders --> can be secondary symptoms of depression, anxiety, and PTSD - elevated risk for suicide and self-harm

estimates of false or baseless rape cases

- no easy way to quantify or measure how many cases are illegitimate because of low levels of reporting and the difficulty of providing material evidence in cases of assault - study done by FBI in 2017 --> found that 5% of total cases fell into the category of cases where assault was alleged but the case was found to be "false or baseless" - meta-analysis --> found that 5.2% of alleged rape cases were false or baseless - suggests that there are some cases in which people make inaccurate claims about sexual assault and those allegations can be very damaging for the people involved - in reality, an estimated 90% of cases go unreported, therefore only 5% of the 10% of total cases that are reported are found to be false or baseless --> suggests that only .5% are false/baseless - very few cases of rape end in conviction --> only about 6 / 1,000

four myths about sexual assault

- often believe this is something that happens between strangers --> (TRUTH: the overwhelming majority of cases of sexual assault and rape occur between/among people who know each other) - people who are sexually assaulted must have done something to invite it - people falsely claim rape and therefore we can't believe people who come forward with assault allegations - men do not experience sexual assault

clothing and rape cases

- often entered as evidence in assault cases - relatively recent case in Ireland where a 27-year-old man was accused of raping a 17 year old girl. The defense attorney entered the 17 yo's underwear as evidence in the case. They showed the underwear, which was black lace thong, to the court --> argument was successful and they found the defendant not guilty (the woman who brought that case forward later died by suicide) - there is no actual evidence that clothing is actually linked to risk for sexual assault

quid pro quo

- one form of sexual harassment that the law differentiates - directly translates to mean "this for that" - involves forms of sexual harassment in which some outcome is contingent upon sexual cooperation ex: a professor telling student that they could replace a failing grade with an A if they go on a date with them

Outcomes of IPV

- outcomes for physical, mental, sexual, and reproductive health

Reproductive Health outcomes of IPV

- people in abusive relationships may not have control over the use of contraceptives to prevent pregnancies --> higher rates of unintended pregnancies - violence during pregnancy linked to higher risks for miscarriage, stillbirth, premature labor, fetal injury, and low birth weights among infants - children born to abusive relationships are significantly more likely to die before the age of 5

Gender differences in the perpetration of IPV

- research study findings have found that men and women are equally likely to say they have engaged in both physical and psychological forms of IPV - a meta-analysis in this area showed that women were slightly more likely to perpetrate IPV and to report that they engaged in those behaviors more frequently in their relationships in comparison to men - men and women have different motives for engaging: men have control motives and women have motives based in fear or self-defense - men more likely to engage in the most severe forms of psychological and physical IPV, controlling and stalking behaviors, and women are more likely to become injured as a result of IPV --> 62% of people who become injured by a partner are female

consequences of concealing one's sexual orientation or gender

- results suggest that concealing is more damaging for mental and physical well-being than revealing - more mental health symptoms - more anxiety because of the fear that people will discover their true identity or they may accidentally disclose it - increases cognitive effort because of having to monitor what they say and do - internalized homophobia as they start to internalize the negative stigma they fear from others - reduced social support because they feel disconnected from their friends and family due to hiding a part of themselves - more physical health symptoms

gender differences in the perpetration of sexual assault

- survey of people ages 14-21 found that 1 in 10 of their respondents admitted to having engaged in some form of sexual assault --> about 48% of them were women, 52% were men - men were more likely to have raped someone, attempted rape, or coerced someone into have sex with them, whereas women were more likely to have kissed or touched someone against their will

"people who experience abuse can easily leave the relationship: debunking this myth about sexual violence

- used to blame people who have experienced abuse - "things couldn't have been that bad if the person stayed in the relationship" - "or "choosing" not leave means they made the decision to accept the abuse" - abusers intentionally create situations that make it hard for abused partner to leave mostly though control and isolation --> cutting off relationships with family and friends, restrict access to financial resources - leverage threat of danger to keep partner from leaving - threaten relationships with children - abusers tend to choose people who are in vulnerable situations/populations - evidence shows that departure (or the decision to leave) is a very dangerous time in an abusive relationship --> abuser experiences a sudden loss of control and violence often escalates during this time as a result - fear that other people wont believe allegations of the abuse or that blame will be placed on them contributes to people staying in the relationships

IPV and ethnicity

- violence rates do vary across racial/ethnic groups - abuse rates are generally highest among Native American women who are vulnerable due to socio-political divides in the US that leave this community without needed protective resources - abuse rates are lowest among Asian American women (although this might be potentially due to them being unlikely to disclose abuse when it occurs)

acquaintance rape vs. stranger rape

- when it occurs between/among people who know each other --> make up roughly 85% of all rape cases (the most likely context for rape or assault to occur is in a residence such as a home or dorm) - people who have been assaulted by someone they know are less likely to define their experiences as rape - people seem to assign more blame to the person who was assaulted if they knew the perpetrator --> report believing it as more likely to be a miscommunication or that the person who was assaulted should bare some of the blame because they should have known better than to spend time with someone who was dangerous - some countries and states have allocated for lighter sentences for acquaintance rape because of the beliefs that perpetrators carry less blame in these cases

Predictors of IPV

- when people have stringer beliefs in traditional gender roles (power inequities) - when people are experiencing unemployment and financial stress (men who are unemployed feel as if they can't fulfill the expected role of being breadwinner and may feel emasculated) - when people abuse substances: some controlled substances increase anger and lower inhibitory processes - when people have low social support: having few sources of social support makes one more likely to experience violence because they are seen as targets - when people have experienced violence in their own families while growing up (due to social learning)

Physical Health outcomes of IPV

- ~42% of women who experience abuse sustain some form of injury (can include lacerations, broken bones, sprains, internal bleeding, etc.) - IPV is a chronic stressor and chronic exposure to stress can suppress the immune system and lead to chronic physical symptoms

legal protections for sexual orientation and gender identity

In fact, many laws were passed after 1969 that placed further restrictions on LGBTQIA+ rights. In 1993, Don't Ask Don't Tell was passed to restrict expression of sexual and gender identities in the military. The Defense of Marriage Act was passed a few years later in 1996 to legally define marriage as a union between one man and one woman. In wasn't until 2000 that the tides began to shift and it was in this year that the first state legalized same sex civil unions. However, civil unions do not grant the same legal rights as marriages. It also wasn't until 2003 that anti-sodomy laws were repealed in the United States. As we talked about with workplace protections, the laws are written to explicitly protect "sex" and then it is left to the interpretation of the courts to decide if that extends to gender identity and sexual orientation. Some courts have interpreted "sex" to literally mean biological sex whereas others have interpreted that to extend to all forms of discrimination that stem from sex and the associated gender norms. The supreme court is expected to make a ruling in the next season about this issue and, in the meantime, protections will remain ambiguous. There have been attempts to create explicit legal protections based on gender identity in education. In 2016, the Obama administration added language to educational protections to protect against discrimination based on gender identity in primary education and higher education. The protections included the usage of the bathroom the individual chose to use rather than the bathroom that corresponded to one's biological sex. These extensions of the law are being walked back by the current administration who has redefined "gender" to refer to biological characteristics. They have proposed that any gender-related accommodations would require chromosomal or hormonal testing to demonstrate that someone biologically possesses the identity for which they are seeking protection.

Positions/platforms within the INCEL movement

Reddit 4chan - they have dedicated forums to finding like minded people who have experienced rejection from women and are angry about those experiences - forums devoted to topics such as posting videos about their resentment for women, teaching men to seduce women by systematically reducing their self-esteem, teaching men to make any conversation sexual to pick up women, discussing mass rape fantasies, and organizing violence against women and alpha males - centers around trying to increase their chances of being sexually successful and also trying to get people to realize that society has created a sexual hierarchy based on principles of masculinity that disadvantages so-called beta males - often anti-feminism --> associated feminism with arrogance or believing they are worth more than incels view them to be - against birth control and polygamy - advocate for regulating partners to ensure that all heterosexual men are guaranteed a sexual partner

stonewll riots

One of these raids targeted the Stonewall Inn. They raided Stonewall under the pretense that they had an expired liquor license and, once in the bar, arrested a number of patrons for violations of soliciting same sex relations or violations of gender conformity laws. This certainly wasn't the first raid of it's kind but it was the first time where the people in the bar fought back against the police. They verbally harassed the police, threw bottles, resisted arrest, and ultimately started a riot in the streets outside of Stonewall that lasted for five days. Stonewall actually burnt down during the riots, but it didn't stop the protesters. More and more people joined in to keep the riots going, and the event got a lot of attention and inspired additional activism. The riots at Stonewall were also the foundation of pride. The Stonewall riots led to the creation of many organizations that began systematically fighting for legal rights for the LGBTQIA+ community. However, it took many years after Stonewall for those efforts to come to fruition. In fact, many laws were passed after 1969 that placed further restrictions on LGBTQIA+ rights. In 1993, Don't Ask Don't Tell was passed to restrict expression of sexual and gender identities in the military. The Defense of Marriage Act was passed a few years later in 1996 to legally define marriage as a union between one man and one woman.

Intimate Partner Violence (IPV)

behaviors in an intimate relationship that cause physical, psychological, or sexual harm - one of the most common forms of gendered violence - can refer to violence that occurs in marriage, a dating relationship, a casual relationship, or a close friendship - intentional behaviors

Havelock Ellis (and sexual orientation/transgender identity)

believed that the decision to include homosexuality as a disorder in the DSM was wrong - argued that sexual orientation is inborn, or a key component of one's identity that cannot be chosen or changed. - asserted that psychologists should not seek to change people's sexual orientations and must stop defining homosexuality as immoral

transphobia

bias against trans* or gender non binary people

gender identity disorder

defined as someone who strongly identifies with a gender that does not correspond to their biological sex and feels uncomfortable with their biological sex.

Sigmund Freud (and sexual orientation/transgender identity)

dissented the decision to include homosexuality as a disorder in the DSM - argued against the idea that homosexuality is immoral or a disorder - believed that all people are born "bisexual" such that every person had the capacity to have same sex or different sex attraction.... it was through the resolution of psychosexual development that one's final sexual orientation would emerge - did argue that resolving psychosexual development to be heterosexual was the best opinion (largely because of norms and childrearing) - also argued there was nothing unnatural or shameful about same sex attraction

INCEL movement

encourages gendered violence community of men who would self-describe as beta males who do not get the affection of women that they feel they deserve members of this community have difficulty finding partners and having sex they view this as a grotesque injustice because they think they are nice guys and gentleman who believe they are getting passed up by on women because of societal standards of masculinity The intense sense of injustice and self-pity has led to several acts of mass violence (mass shootings targeting attractive women, driving van into crowded street and clearly stated the movement inspired his actions, shooting at a yoga studio)

deadnaming

happens when someone changed their name to match their gender identity but others continue to call them by their originally given name rather than their chosen name - can happen when family, friends, coworkers refuse to use the person's chosen name - can also result from being unable to chnage legal documents which might lead to a supervisor, health care professional, professor, or other person to use the wrong name - can be similarly invalidating as misgendering and it is important to avoid doing this to others

Physical IPV

hitting, kicking, biting, choking - these relationships have the highest risk of physical injury and death

Psychological IPV

humiliation, belittling, name calling, intimidation - systematic behaviors that threaten, intimidate, humiliate, or belittle someone - reducing self-esteem and potentially damaging relationships with others - these relationships tend to go unnoticed as abusive by both people involved as well as the people around them

INCEL

involuntary celibate

Controlling Behavior IPV

isolation, constant checking in, jealousy - what they wear, where they go, what they say, who they interact with, what resources they have access to (ex: financial resources)

rape

legally defined as "penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ of another person, without the consent of the victim"