Psychology Studies - ALL

Milner et al (1968)

...

Biopsychosocial

1. Holistic - looks at all leveles of explanation 2. Multi-factor causes - diseases and symptoms can be explained by a combination of physcial, social, cultural and psychological factors 3. No distinction between mind and body - looks at interaction between mental events and biological changes 4. Illness and health - is concerned as much with health as it is with illness

Biomedical

1. Reductionism - tries to reduce explanations of illness to the simplest possible process 2. Single-factor causes - looking for THE cause rather than looking for a range of contributory factors 3. Mind-body distinction - descartes, dualism 4. Illness, not health - deals with illness and the development of illness rather than the promotion of good health

Guimont et al (2006)

AIM: 1. To evaluate whether cumulative exposure to job strain significantly increased blood pressure levels of a 7.5-year period among men and women in white-collar occupations. 2. To evaluate the potential modifying effects of social support in the workplace. METHOD: - Prospective study - 8395 male and female white-collar workers, aged between 18-65 years, Quebec City, Canada. (1991-93) -A follow-up 7.5 years later. -At follow-up, 84% of the participants were re-assessed to estimate cumulative exposure to job strain. Self-administered questionnaires: - demographics, characteristics of work and social life, risk factors for high blood pressures, social support at work. -Measured components of Karasek's job strain model with the Job Consent Questionnaire. Nurses measured: ¤blood pressure ¤weight ¤height ¤waist circumference The participants were placed in different groups, depending on the level of job strain: Active group Passive group Low-strain group High-strain group RESULTS: - Men with cumulative exposure to job strain had significant increases in systolic blood pressure. - Men who became exposed during follow-up also showed significant raise in systolic blood pressure. - For men, these effects were similar to those associated with sedentary behaviour, age and overweight, known blood pressure risk factors. - Among women, the results tended to be similar as for men, although magnitudes were smaller. - Among women, the effect of job strain on blood pressure was smaller than of the known blood pressure risk factors.(like age) - Job strain effects on blood pressure tended to be more among men and women with low levels of social support at work. - Men and women at high social support levels at work showed no job strain effect.

Maestripieri et al (2010)

AIM: 1. To investigate sex differences in hormonal responses to psychosocial stress 2. To investigate the relation between variability in pre-test hormone concentrations and stress-induced hormonal changes 3. To investigate some possible sources of within-sex variation in pre-test hormone concentrations and in hormonal responses to the test (e.g. social variables such as marital or relationship status) METHOD: 501 Master's students in a Business School at the University of Chicago 348 males, 24-36 years, mean age 29 153 females, 23-38 years, mean age 27 stressors: - test was a course requirement and results could affect future career placement - could win or lose real money - had to play against each other - Marital and relationship status were assessed with a questionnaire completed after the study RESULTS: - psychosocial test significantly reduced testosterone in males - significantly increased cortisol in all participants, especially in females. - Males had higher concentration of testosterone and cortisol than females. - The two hormones showed different effects of time of day. (i.e. testosterone was higher in late samples, cortisol was higher in early samples) - Unpaired males had significantly higher average testosterone concentration than paired males. - Unpaired males had significantly higher cortisol residuals than paired males. - Unpaired individuals had higher cortisol residuals than married individuals with or without children.

Ahmad and Reid (2008)

AIM: Investigate whether special communication styles were required to maintain arranged marriage in south asian canadian culture. METHOD: Participants were obtained through a large snowball sampling, where they were asked to pass it around to people they know. The researchers focused on their (couples) listening styles and therefore used surveys to measure marriage satisfaction on the participants. They measure marital satisfaction through a Revised Relationship Adjustment survey and measured the degree of traditionalism through a Traditional Orientation to Marital Relationship scale. The surveys and scales contained different questions and items. RESULTS: The researchers found significant correlations and links between the scores on the scales. The results were anticipated as such: Traditional relationships showed less satisfaction which is due to the tendency of listening to each other, rather than their understanding of each other. This suggests that a higher focus on equality within the relationship increases listening tendencies, which in turn increases overall satisfaction in marriage.

Bond and Smith (1996)

AIM: Meta-analysis to investigate if there are any consitencies in cross-cultural studies on conformity. METHOD: Researchers used databases on psychology reports to find conformity experiments during the time period 1952 to 1994. They only included replications of Asch's experiment or the Crutchfield technique. The task should have been to judge the length of three lines and the majority fiving erroneous responses should have been present . RESULTS: They found that an overwhelming majority of the experiments had used students as participants. Cosistent with expectations they also found that conformity was higher when the proportion of female participants was larger. A third factor that increased conformity was when the majority consisted in in-group members. Stimulus material also had an impact on level of conformity, the more the ambigous the task was the higher the conformity.

Baumgartner (2008)

AIM: Oxytocin plays a role in he reproductive life of mammals. Relationships rely on bonds of trust, this research attempts to explain the neural mechanisms underlying bond and trust behaviour. METHOD: two groups, 49 males given either oxytocin or placebo through nasal spray. Simultaneously undergoing fMRI, participants were instructed to act as investors during multiple rounds of a trust game with different trustees. They were also told they would engage in a risk game. In order to investigate the role of oxytocin, the experiment was divided into pre- and post-feedback phase. In between the phases the participants received feedback info indicating that their decisions (in both games) had resulted in poor investments (breached trust) or their gamble did not pay off. FINDINGS: Participants who were given a placebo decreased the rate of trust (how much they were willing to invest) when their trust had been violated. Participants who received oxytocin continued to invest at similar rates regardless of whether their trusting behaviour had been taken advantage of. fMRI= oxytocin decreased responses in the amygdala (emotion region and oxytocin receptors). The neural results observed were only apparent when participants played the trust game, not the risk game. This suggest that oxytocin influence on trust is exclusive to interactions with real people.

Levine et al (2001)

AIM: To assess helpfulness towards strangers in 23 international cities METHOD: To assess helpfulness towards strangers in 23 international cities. RESULTS: Two highest-ranking cities in terms of helping are in Latin America: Rio de Janeiro and San José Helping rates tended to be high in countries with: - Low economic productivity - A low pace of life - Value of social harmony Simpatico hypothesis: A city's personality affects individual behaviour. People in communities where social obligations take priority over individual achievements tend to be less economically productive but show more willingness to help others. They value simpatia. These results were not conclusive in Copenhagen and Vienna (Austria) which were helping, while ala Lumpur (Malaysia) were not helpful at all.

Bandura (1961)

AIM: To demonstrate that learning can occur through observation of role models METHOD: 36 boys and 36 girls from age 3 to 6 were divided into groups according to their aggression evaluation from their parents and teachers Group 1 -exposed to adult models (both genders) who showed aggression by beating up a Bobo Doll Group 2 -observed an adult model (both genders) who displayed no aggression Group 3 -Control group who did not see any model Children were then placed into the room with a Bobo doll after 10 minutes of watching the model RESULTS: Children who observed the aggressive model showed significantly more aggression both physically and verbally Boys were more likely to imitate physical aggression Girls were more likely to imitate verbal aggression Supports the social learing theory

Marlatt et al (1998)

AIM: To evaluate the efficacy of a brief intervention designed to reduce harmful consequences associated with alcohol consumption by high risk college students. METHOD: Identified high risk drinker freshmen at university of Washington. 348 students participated, 188 female and 160 males. High-risk drinkers were randomly assigned to the intervention condition or the control condition. A normative comparison sample of 115 students were randomly selected and recruited. Measured family history, conduct disorder and personal drinking history. One hour interview+questionnaires. The self-reports were ched by two people who knew the participant well. Follow-up assessment at 6 months, 1 year and 2 years. Intervention: Scheduled a motivational interview bt trained interviewers and asked to keep track of their drinking. They were given concrete individualised feedback in graphic form. They got potential risks listed and discussed environmental risk factors. The interviewers were never confrontational. Findinds: Students in the treatment group show significant reduction in both drinking rates and harmful consequences in comparison with no-treatment group. The brief one-session intervention had significant positive effect, Students learned to moderate their drinking in potential hazardous situaations and reduce harmful consequences.

Tholin et al (2005)

AIM: To evaluate the role of genetic and environmental influences on eating behaviour in a Swedish cohort of young adult male twins. METHOD: - Swedish males born (1973 - '79) - 782 twin pairs (326 DZ, 456 MZ) - 1564 participants - 23 - 29 years old, mean age 25.8 - Measured body size, physical activity, eating behaviour, frequency of contact between twin brother. Questionnaire measured three eating behaviours: - The cognitive restraint scale (control over food intake to influence weight and shape) - The emotional eating scale (measures overeating in relation to negative mood states e.g. loneliness, anxiety, depression) - The uncontrolled eating scale (assesses the tendency to lose control over eating when feeling hungry or when exposed to external stimuli) measured on ordinal scales (high scores = more control) The ethics were approved by the Ethics Committee at the Karolinska Institute, Stockholm RESULTS: The within pair correlation of the three scales of eating were more than twice as high in MZ twins compared to DZ twins. (presence of genetic effects on eating behaviour.) Heratibility was estimated to be: 59% cognitive restraint 60% emotional eating 45% uncontrolled eating Non-shared environmental factors were also important (41-44%) Shared environmental factors did not contribute to eating behaviour

Ogden and Greville (1993)

AIM: To examine chanhes in cognitive state in dieters and non-dieters following the consumption of ''forbidden foods''. METHOD: 56 females, 19-25 years and avarege weight from London were categorised as restricted or unrestricted eaters according to a questionnaire. They were randomly allocated into one of two conditions. Low calorie preload vs high calorie preload. They completed rating scales and a stroop task (colour task but with food words, body shapes and cognitive state). FINDINGS: The results showed that the dieters respondedn to the high calorie preload with increases in rebelliousness. Thi suggest that overeating in dieters in respons to preloading may be related to increased rebelliousness.

Oman et al (2008)

AIM: To examine the impact of meditation interventions on college students' stress and well-being outcomes HYPOTHESES: ¤ Levels of perceived stress would decline in the treatment groups compared to the control group ¤ Reductions in rumination, increase in forgiveness and hope in treatment group compared to control ¤ No statistical difference between the MBSR and EPP versions of meditation management of stress METHOD: ¤ self selected sample (info from boards, flyers, etc.) ¤ 47 undergraduate student, Roman Catholic Uni., California, 18-24 years old -Informed consent & approved by institution review board. Randomly allocated ¤ MBSR meditation group (n=16) ¤ EPP meditation group (n=16) (both MBSR & EPP include sitting mediation,focused attention, daily mindfullness, motivational support) ¤ Wait list control group (n=15) Paid 10$ pretest, 20$ posttest, 30$ follow-up - Medation groups met 8x a week for 90 mins - also individual daily practices Answered questionnaire before, after and a 8 week follow-up. measured: ¤ Stress ¤ Rumination ¤ Forgiveness ¤ Hope RESULTS: 29 participants completed training 83% attended all but one meeting Treatment partcipants showed ¤ increase in forgiveness ¤ reduction in ruumination ¤ non-significant changes in hope

Kendler et al (1992)

AIM: To examine the role of genetic and environmental factors in the etiology of narrowly and broadly defined alcoholism in women. METHOD: participants: 1030 female twin pairs from Virginia born between 1934 and 1971 Known zygosity Sampled from the general population (and not treatment facility) Structured interviews, 89% face to face, and 11% by telephone. Pairs were classified as identical or fraternal by two experienced twin researchers.(based on interview and photos) DNA was gathered from twins with uncertain zygosity. The participants were divided into four categories: 1. Unaffected 2. Problem drinking 3. Alcoholism without tolerance dependence 4. Alcoholism with tolerance dependence Individual differences in liability for alcoholism are assumed to arise from: • Additive genetic (genes whose allelic effects combine additively) • Family or common environment (all sources shared by members of a twin pair • Individual-specific environment (all remaining environmental factors not shared within a twin pair) The study uses tetrachoric correlation (correlation of liability)- And Probandwise concordance = the proportion of affected individuals among the co-twins of affected twins. Resemblance in twins are assumed to result from three sets of latent factors: • Additive genetic • Family or common environments • Specific individual environment FINDINGS: 6% met the criteria for a life-time diagnosis of alcoholism with dependence-tolerance. 3%met criteria for alcoholism without dependence-tolerence. 8%met the criteria for problem drinking The rates of alcoholism did not significantly differ in MZ and DZ twins. The proband concordance for alcoholism was higher in MZ than in DZ twins for all definitions of alcoholism. The tetrachoric correlation for alcoholism were substantially higher in MZ than in DZ twins for all definitions of alcoholism. The liability to alcoholism results solely from genetic effects and individual-specific environment. Using the AE model, the estimated heritability of liability to alcoholism ranged, for the three definitions of alcoholism, from 50% in the narrow definition to 60% in the broad definition, meanwhile usin the multiple threshold model, the heritability of liability to alcoholism was estimated to 58

DiClemente (1991)

AIM: To examine the stages of change in predicting smoking cessation METHOD: 1466 participants recruited from an intervention smoking-cessation programme from Texas and Rhode Island The majority started smoking at about 16 and smoked on average 29 cigarettes a day Completed a set of measures, were followed up at one and six months Divided into two categories: contemplators (not considering quitting in the next 30 days) and preparation stage (planning to quit in the next 30 days) Measures -Smoking abstinence self-efficacy -Percieved stress scale -Physical tolerance to nicotine -Perceived pros and cons of smoking -The individual's stage of change -Demographic data RESULTS: Thos is in the preparation stage smoked less, were less addicted, had higher self-efficacy, rated the pros of smoking as less and the costs of smoking as more and had made more prior quitting attempts than the other two groups At both one and six months the subjects in the preparation stage had more quit attempts and were more likely to not be smoking Supports the change of stage model of smoking cessation and suggest that it is a useful tool for predicting successful outcome of any smoking cessation intervention

Prescott and Kendler (1999)

AIM: To find the etiology of alcohol-related disorders in personally interviewed male twins METHOD: 3000 males, Caucasian twins, triplets and quadruplets from male-male pairs with complete data on alcohol diagnosis mean age was 35 Structured interviews were made, most by telephone (95%) and a few in person (5%) Pairs were classified as identical (monozygotic) or fraternal (dizygotic) Individual differences in liability for alcoholism are assumed to arise from: -Additive genetic -common environment -Specific environment Divided into three groups: Alcohol dependence Alcohol abuse (but not alcohol dependence) Alcohol abuse or dependence (no diagnosis) Measured proband concordance = the proportion of affected individuals among the co-twins of affected twins (probands), showing similar characteristics Measured odds ratio = the risk of being affected among co-twins of affected twins compared to the risk of being affected among co-twins of unaffected twins. RESULTS: The risk of an alcohol-related disorder in the co-twin of an affected twin is increased substantially. The odds ratios and pair correlations were significantly higher among monozygotic than among dizygotic pairs, suggesting the importance of genetic influences on variation in risk of alcohol dependence Genetic factors played a major role in the development of alcoholism among males, Environmental factors shared by family members appear to have had little influence on the development of alcoholism in males

Buss (1989)

AIM: To investigate gender differences in mate preferences. Hypothesis: 1. Men will, more than women, prefer youth and attractiveness. 2. Women will, more than men, prefer men with status and resources. 3. These gender differences will occur in all cultures. METHOD: 10 047 ethnically, religiously and socio-economic diverse participants from 27 cultures around the globe answered two questionnaires where they reported the ideal ages at which they and a spouse would marry, rank ordered a list of 13 qualities that a potential mate might have and rated the importance of 18 mate qualities on a second list. FINDINGS: Ideal age for husband=28.8 Ideal age for wifes=25.4 In every culture, men valued having a physically attractive mate more than women did, and in 36 of 37 cultures, women attached more importance than men did to a mate's ambition, status and financial potential.

Darley and Batson (1973)

AIM: To investigate situational and dispositional varbiables in helping behaviour. METHOD: Hypothesis 1. People who think religious or ethical thoughts will be no more likely to offer aid than persons thinking about something else. 2. People in a hurry will be less likely to offer aid than people not in a hurry. 3. People who are religious for intrinsic reasons or whose religion emerges out of questioning the meaning of their everyday lives, will be more likely to offer help to the victim. (= a Samaritan-like religiosity) Field experiment 40 students at Princeton Theological Seminary The participants were paid for their participation First session: participant filled in personality questionnaires concerning types of religiosity. Second session: participant began experimental procedures in one building, and were asked to report to another building. While in transit, the subject passed a "victim", planted in an alleyway. Dependent variable Whether and how the participant helped the victim. Independent variable 1. The degree to which the subject was told to hurry in reaching the other building. (high-hurry or low-hurry condition) 2. The talk he was to give when he arrived. a. about jobs suitable for seminary students b. the parable of the Good Samaritan The incident The victim sat slumped in a doorway, head down, eyes closed, not moving. Coughed and groaned. If approached: " I've got this respiratory condition" The victim rated each participant on a scale of helping behaviour. After entering the other building, the participant recorded his talk. After the speech, the participant filled in a helping behaviour questionnaire. FINDINGS: 40% offered some form of direct or indirect aid to the victim. 60% did not. Percentage of participants who offered aid by situational varible: Low hurry: 63% Intermediate hurry: 45% High hurry: 10% Did not matter which topic Did not matter how religious What mattered was if they were told to hurry! The hypothesis that what you think of is not making you more or less likely to help, was supported. (a person going to speak on the parable of the Good Samaritan is not significantly more likely to stop to help) The hypothesis that the degree of hurry a person is in determines his helping behaviour, was supported. The types of religiosity did not predict helping. No support for this hypothesis.

Speca et al (2000)

AIM: To investigate the effect of Mindfullness Meditation-Based Stress Reduction Programme on mood and symptoms of stress in cancer outpatients METHOD: - Convenience sampling. 109 cancer patients 27-75 years old. Most were well educated. Several different cancer types. Measured mood-fluctuating affecting states and stress-related symtoms and the duration of each person's daily meditation practise using questionnaires. Everyone was interviewed before the start. demographics and disease data was gathered. Participants were radnomly assigned to intervention group or control group (wait-list). All participants were reassessed after completing the program. TREATMENT: Consisted of weekly meditation 1.5 hours for 7 weeks + home meditation practice. RESULTS: No difference shown in mood control and intervention groups at time 1. At time 2 the intervention group had a lower mood distrubance than the control group. The treatment group was lower in anxiety, depression, anger and confusion. 65% lower mood disturbance. 31% reduction of total stress symtoms in the treatment group. 11% reduction of total stress symtoms in the control group.

Collins and Miller (1994)

AIM: To investigate the link between self-disclosure and liking. METHOD: Meta-analysis of self-disclosure studies. FINDINGS: People who disclose intimate information about themselves are more liked than people who don't. People tend to disclose more personal information to those that they like. If people disclose information about someone, they tend to like the person more.

Dutton and Aron (1974)

AIM: To investigate whether an attractive female is seen as more attractive by males who encounter her while experiencing a strong emotion (fear) than by males not experiencing a strong emotions. METHOD: Participants: Self-selected sample 85 men (just pasing by) between 18 and 35, some Canadians and some tourists. Procedure: Field experiment (Canada) Participants cross one of the two bridges Non-fear arousing bridge Wobbly, fear-arousing bridge. w/ low handles 70m above the ground. IV: female and male stooge used as interviewer at the bridge. DV: How many participants accepted the phone number from the interviewer How many actually called. Sexual content in the story. Controlled condition: stable, non-fear arousing bridge Experimental condition: wobbly, fear-arousing suspension bridge. She then asked potential subjects if they would fill out a short questionnaire. The questionnaire contained six filler items such as age, education, prior visits to bridge, etc., on the first page. On the second page, subjects were instructed to write a brief, dramatic story based upon a picture of a young woman covering her face with one hand and reaching with the other Experimenter offers phone number for the participants to call in for the results if they want to. FINDINGS: Passersby on suspension bridge accepted telephone number, called back and included sexual tension in the content of the story to a greater extent only when the interviewer was a women. Female interviewer. Experimental group: 18 of the 23 subjects who agreed to the interview accepted the interviewer's phone number. control group, 16 out of 22 Accepted A second measure of sexual attraction was the number of subjects who called the interview experimental group 9 out of 18 called, control group:2 out of 16 called Taken in conjunction with the sexual imagery data, this finding suggests that subjects in the experimental group were more attracted to the interviewer. Male interviewer experimental group, 7 out of 23 accepted the interviewer's phone number. the control group, 6 out of 22 accepted. experimental group, 2 subjects called; control group, 1 subject called. Again, the pattern of results obtained by the female interviewer was not replicated by the male.

Wedekind (1995)

AIM: To investigate whether body odor plays an important role in attractions. METHOD: 49 women college students with a wide range of MHC genes. 44 men wearing the t-shirts with a wide range of MHC genes. Each man wore a t-shirt for two nights, which was then put into a plastic-lined cardborad box with a sniffing hole. The women sniffed the shirts at the midpoint of their menstrual cycle. Each was presented with a different set of seven boxes. Three with t-shirts from men with similar MHC as the owmen, three with dissimilar and one unworn. The women rated each t-shirt as unpleasant or pleasant. FINDINGS: The women were more likely to prefer scent from men with dissimilar MHC. However, there preference was reversed if they were taking contraceptives.

Arons et al (1997)

AIM: To investigate whether self-disclosure leads to closeness. METHOD: Experiment (IV: level of self-disclosure, DV: the feeling of closeness.), self-selected volunteer students. Researchers paired strangers to each other for 45 minutes where they were given questions and topics to talk about. The control group only small talked for 45 minutes. 1-15 min: Shared thoughts on a list of personal but low-intimacy topics. 15-30 min: More intimate topics. 30-45 min: Most self-disclosure. Findings: Those who experienced escalating self-disclosure felt remarkably close, even without the other components of close relationships (eg commitment and loyalty). Suggests that there is a link between self-disclosure and closeness.

Cole and Scribner (1974)

AIM: To investigate whether the serial position effect is a universal behaviour and specificall to investigate whether it is present in cultures wihtout schooling. METHOD: Cultures with and without schooling was compared. Results: Cultures where schooling have a serial position effect because they have learned to rehars items, and cultures with no schooling dond't have a primacy effect because they have not learned to rehears items. Conclusion: The serial position effect was established thorugh research in Western cultures and thought of as an etic. Shows that the serial position effect is not an etic because one factor that influences the serial position effect is schooling.

Lajunen et al (2007)

AIM: To see if computers and cell phones is associated with BMI and overweight. METHOD: 4098 children + 2736 mothers + 2636 fathers Used self-report questionnaires where they assessed compter and cell phone use. The BMI was measured on every participant. The participants were divided into three groups: 1:obese 2:Overweight 3.Normal weight The mean weight was measured. RESULTS: 8% overweight 1.9% obese 50% higher in boys than girls 86% had a computer, 94% owned a cell phone Adolescents owning a computer without an internet connection had a greater BMI than those without a computer. The time spent on computer increased the probability of being overweight. There was only a weak correlation between bmi and the monthly cell phone bill.

Fischer (2005)

AIM: To study courtship attraction in humans by looking at early stages of intense romantic love. METHOD: Using 10 women and 7 men between 18 and 26 reported being in love for 1-17 months. Each one was interviewed to establish the intensity of their love, then by measuring their brain activity in an fMRI when showing a picture of their beloved one, and a picture of an acquaintance. The procedure was repeated six times. RESULTS: Group activation regions detected as they looked at pictures of their beloved compared to a picture of an acquaintance. Right VTA was activated (region of dopamine cells). Also right caudate nucleus was activated (motivation).

Batson et al (1983)

AIM: To test the empathy-altruism hypothesis by measuring empathy by self-reports (instead of manipulating the level of empathy) METHOD: 10 male and 10 female undergraduate students Participants were asked to report their emotional state after observing a same-sexstooge randomly receiving electric shocks while completing a task. The stooge showed extreme discomfort. (due to a childhood accident) The participants were able to voluntarily take the place of the stooge.(logically expecting that they would be able to tolerate the shocks better) RESULTS: High levels of empathy predicted the decision to volunteer.

Toi and Batson (1982)

AIM: To test the empathy-altruism theory. METHOD: 84 female undergraduates, volunteers from an introductory course in Psychology. The participants listened to a (fictive) interview with Carol Marcy, a freshman in the class who had had both of her legs broken in an auto accident and was worried about being able to still pass the course. The reseachers manipulated the level of empathy: Half of the participants were asked to listen to the interview, trying to be as objective as possible. (=low empathy condition) Half of the participants were asked to imagine the perspective of the person being interviewed. (=high empathy condition) The researchers also manipulated how costly it would be to not help Carol. In one condition participants learned that Carol would come back to class next week. (high-cost condition) In one condition participants learned that Carol would be studying at home and would not come to class. (low-cost condition) After listening to the interview, subjects were asked to help Carol in going over the missed lecture notes. The dependent measure was whether the subjects filled out a slip agreeing to help Carol. RESULTS: ~30% of the low empathy in the low cost condition agreed to help Carol ~75% of the low empathy in the high cost agreed to help Carol ~80% of the high empathy and high cost condtion agreed to help. ~70% of the high empathy and high cost agreed to help.

Perera and Torabi (2009)

AIM: To test the three factor structure to measure drinking motive and examine the relationships between drinking motives and drinking patterns. 1.Personal enjoyment. 2. Tension-reduction. 3. Social pressure. METHOD: Cross-sectional survey. 412 men, age 16-30, used purposive sampling by inviting on the streets, universities and work etc. Variables measured: age, drinking frequency, drinking motives (3 factors). Medical students used as data collectors to increase response rate. RESULTS: 2.2% daily users of alcohol 8% use alcohol 2-3 times a week 18,4& 2-3 times a month 71,4% 2-3 times a year The strongest correlation was found between tension reduction as a motivation towards alkohol use. Weaker correlation was found in personal enjoyment and social pressure.

Clegg et al (2003)

AIM: to assess the clinical and cost effectiveness of surgey for people with morbid obesity. METHOD:- META ANALYSIS A systeatic review of randomised control trials from 14 electronic databases. An economic evaluation was undertakento assess cost effectiveness in the UK. People with BMI >35 with serious comorbid disease in whom previous non-surgical interventions had failed. They measured health change, quality of life, peri- and pstoperative morbidity and mortality. Cost effectiveness was modelled from these data and presented as cost per quality-adjusted life year. RESULTS: Comparing surgery and nonsurgical management showed that surgery resulted in significantly greater long-term weight loss. 23-37 kg more weight loss at 2 years with 21 kg difference maintained to 8 years. Improvements in quality of life and comorbidities. Psychological symptoms and social factors improved. Cost effectiveness- surgery appeares cost effective compared to nonsurgical management. Comparison of the different surgical procedures was less certain. Gastric bypass appeared more beneficial than gastric band surgery. CONCLUSION Surgery for morbid obesity appears to be clinically and cost effective compared to non-surgical treatment.

Darley and Latané (1968)

AIM: to see if the number of people who witness an event will decrease the willingness to step in and help (diffusion of responsibility). Method: participants: 72 psychology uni students in New York Experiment Deception: thought they were going to discuss personal problems for students Used an intercom system, a radio where one person speaks at a time, 2 minutes each IV: three experimental conditions 1. believed they would talk to only one other person 2. believed they would talk to two other people 3. believed they would talk to 5 other people Were told that the microphone was activated 2 minutes at a time, but in reality each subject was alone, the other voices were on tape . The first voice, a male, mentioned that he had epileptic seizures sometimes when stressed. The next time he returned - began to have a seizure- asked for help, choked, then silent. DV: amount of time from the beginning of the victims plea for help until the participant stands up and leaves the room to notify the experimenter' RESULTS: The more other people the participants thought were present, the less likely to help and the longer delays before seeking help. With 4 other potential helpers present, only 62% helped Supports the diffusion of responsibility CONCLUSION: Diffusion of responsibility is an important factor which influences bystanderism a lot.

Adler and Kandel (1982)

AIM: -What is the realtive importance of each domain of variable in predicting alcohol involvement by adolscents in France, Israel and the US? -What is the respective importance of parents and of peers as role models, and how do these interpersonal influences interrelate? METHOD: France: 499 adolescents Israel: 609 adolescents USA: 8206 high school studenrs F+I: structured interviews, administered in households U: self-administered questionnaires, in their classrooms IV: demographic variables, behaviours, attitudes, peer variables, parental variables DV: the type of alcoholic substance RESULTS: Most powerful predictors of all forms of alcohol consumption: U: peer cluster F+I: parental or peer cluster Significant other emerge as most important on adolescent consumption of alcohol and individual characteristics are relatively unimportant Interpersonal influences of parents and peers are the strongest predictors of adolescent drinking Peer influences are almost always stronger than parental influences Maternal effects on adolescents drinking are larger than the paternal effects

Ebbeling et al (2003)

AIM: 1. Develop a reduced-GL diet for use in an adolescent population 2. To determine whether adolescents following the diet will successfully achieve long-term reduction of GL 3. To compare the long-term effects of a reduced-GL diet with those of a conventional reduced-fat diet in a pilot study involving obese adolescents. METHOD: Participants: 16 obese patients (5 male, 11 female) from Children's Hospital, Boston US 13 white, 3 non-white 13-21 years Free of major medical illness Ethics: Approved by the Institutional Review Board at Children's Hospital, Boston US Written informed consent (+18 or parents) Assent (agreement) from minors Randomly assigned to experimental (low-GI diet) or conventional (low-fat diet) dietary treatments. Both groups received similar behavioural therapy, physical activity recommendations and treatment intensity. 6 month intensive intervention (12 counselling sessions) 6 month follow-up (2 counselling sessions) Body composition and insulin resistance measured at 0, 6, & 12 months Diet prescriptions Experimental: - Balance carbohydrates with fat and protein at every meal/snack - Not energy constricted (eat until full and snack when hungry) - Target proportion: carbs: 45-50%, fat: 30-35%, protein 20-25% - Ad libitum approach Conventional: - Less fat intake, more grains, vegetables, and fruit - Negative energy balance of 250-500 kcal/day - Target proportion: carbs: 55-60%, fat: 25-30%, protein: 15-20% Measured: - Session attendance - Self-report of dietary intake - Total body mass and fat mass - Height - Insulin resistance (high values higher risk for diabetes 2) RESULTS: - 14 subjects finished the study - No difference between groups in session attendance - BMI and fat mass decreased in the GL group and no significant change in the conventional group. -Significant difference between the groups at 12 months. - No weight regain from 6-12 months for the GL group/increased weight in low-fat group at follow-up - Insulin reisstance increased significantly less in the GL group compared to the low-fat group = lower risk for diabetes 2.

Vasilaki et al (2006)

AIM: 1. To examine whether motivational interviewing is more efficacious then to no treatment in reducing alcohol consumption. 2. To examine whether motivational interviewing (MI) is as efficacious as other treatments. METHOD: Meta-analysis based on 15 studies made between 1983 and 2003. There were two different groups of studies; 9 compared brief MI with no treatment 9 with another treatment 3 studies compared with a no treatment group and another treatment group. Participants: 2767, 13 studies, mean age 32 12 studies reported gender, 1265 males and 565 females 996 were reported as dependent drinkers and 1771 as heavy or abusive drinkers. 10 of the studies included a non-treatment seeking sample, and 5 studies had treatment seeking samples. The mean time for MI was 87 minutes. RESULTS:: - MI was significantly better in comparison to no treatment in reducing alcohol consumption after the three month follow-up, but not after the 6 month follow-up. The effect of MI was significant when individuals with severe problems were excluded. - MI was more effective than a range of other treatments against alcohol consumption (e.g. directive-confrontational counselling, educational intervention, skill-based counselling, cognitive behavioural treatment) - It was equally effective for both genders.

Levine et al (1990s)

AIM: To assess the helpfulness towards strangers in 36 cities in the US. Method: Field experiment Focused on simple acts of assistance ex) picking up a dropped pen, helping a blind-person across a street etc RESULTS: People in small and medium sized cities in the south-east were the most helpful. In bigger streets, in north-eastern and on the west-coast were the least likely to help. CONCLUSION: One can see that there is a within-culture difference in pro-social behaviour. The best predictor of helping behaviour was population density.

Coan et al (2006)

AIM: To assess the neural responses of a spouse through holding hands while faced with a threatening situation. METHOD: -16 couples, Wisconsin - reported being highly satisfied in their marriage in a self-report. - received payment for participating. The wife was told that she would receive shocks while her brain responses were monitored on a fMRI. They became acquainted with the fMRI and completed a self-report. - red X = 20% chance electrocution - blue O = safe There were three different trials: • Holding hand of spouse • Holding hand of an unseen male stranger • No one held her hand In the repeated measures design, each woman was exposed to all three conditions in random order. After each block, the women were asked to rate how unpleasant it was and how much fear arousal they were experiencing. RESULTS: - less unpleasantness when holding the hand of their spouse, and less bodily arousal. - same level of unpleasantness from holding a stranger's hand and holding no hand. - less bodily arousal from holding someone's hand than no hand.

Stahre et al (2007)

AIM: To describe the method and evaluate the long-term efficacy of a cognitive treatment programme. METHOD: 97 obese women from Sweden were asked to participate in a health programme. 24-61 years old. Two years later 54 of the women agreed to praticipate in a weight-reducing programme. 27 women were randomised to the cognitive treatment group. 27 women were randomised to a conventional weight-reducing programme. Sociodemographincs and smoking habits were extracted. The participants were weighed immediately after the 10 week treatment, and again 6, 12, and 18 months after the end of the treatment. Height was measured and the participants completed a wuestionnaire 1 month after the treatment. Each program: 20 hours, 10 lessons, once a week for a 10 week period of time. COGNITIVE: Aimed to Inform about probable causes for eating behaviour and gave them useful information for changing and controlling such eating behaviour. They measured self-control, self-esteem and stress. CONTROL: Aimed to achieve behavioural changes in eating, stress management and physcial training. Lectures, group discussions and practical demonstations. Questionnaire 1 month after the treatment ended. FINDINGS: The weight change differed between the two groups were highly significant at a follow-up weighings. Mean weight loss after ten weeks: Control: 0.7 kg Cognitive: 8.6 kg Mean weight after 18 months: Control: 89.2 kg Control Group: 91.8 kg Mean BMI: Control: 34.2-> 34.2 Cognitive: 35.5->33.3 46% of the participants in the cognitive program and 13% in the control program showed a weight reduction of 5% or more after 18 months. The cognitive groups scored much higher on knowledge relevant to cognitive treatment of obesity, than the control group. They scored somewhat lower on knowledge of nutrition and physical activity.

Wardle et al (2001)

AIM: To evaluate the BBC's ''fighting fat, fighting fit'' campaign's success in achieving public awareness of the need for obesity prevention and putting over its message of healthy eating and increased physical activity. METHOD: 7-week campaign targeted towards social classes 3, skilled non-manual and manual workers, age 21-45. The campaign aimed to stimulate behaviour change. Based on behaviour change theories such as social learning theory and the health belief model. Programmes on television and radio, book and videos. Participants: stratified probability sample of adults. 1894 participated in interviews by trained interviewers. Assessed demographics and anthroprometric characterics and BMI. RESULTS: Women had lower BMI than men, measured by mean. More women had a BMI of a normal weight range than men. More men were overweight but more women were obese. 57% had heard of the campaign, 29%recalled watching one of the TV programmes, 29% remembered the campaigned involved healthy eating or being more active. Active involvement was extremely rare in the groups. Young, white female respondents had higher levels of awareness, greater likelyhood of watching the programmes and better memory of the messages. Same results from the ones with high education. Non significant differences associated with body weight. The campaign was effective in reaching gtarget audience. The awareness of the message was higher among respondens who were younger, white, female and had more years of education. Tv programmes were effectively transmitting the message.

Streeton and Whelan (2001)

AIM: To evaluate the aggregate efficiacy and potential toxicity of naltrexone, compared to placebo, as an adjunct treatment of alcohol dependence METHOD: - Meta-analysis of 7 English language articles - Compared naltrexone with placebo - 804 adult participants - USA, Germany, & UK - Recently detoxified from alcohol Measured: - Relapse rates - Abstinence rates - The mean percentage of reported drinking days per subject - The mean number of drinks per drinking day / subject Abstinence = No intake of alcohol throughout the 12 week time period RESULTS: - The naltrexone group had significantly higher abstinence rate - Naltrexone treated subject consumed alcohol on average 3% fewer days than placebo and drank 1.0 standard alcoholic drink less per drinking day Subjects taking naltrexone have significantly imporoved outcomes with respect to - relapse rates - Abstinence rates - Alcohol consumption

Speisman et al (1964)

AIM: To examine the level of arousal due to the participants appraisal. METHOD: -56 undergraduate students and 42 middle-level airline executives volunteers -They were shown a film which depicts in graphic detail of an aboriginal puberty rite, where the penises of the boys are cut using a sharpened rock. -The video elicits a high level of physiological arousal. Different soundtracks on the different groups ¤Trauma (Emphasised the pain) ¤Intellectualisation (Ignored emotional elements) ¤Denial (denied that it was painful) ¤ Silence - Measured heart rate and skin resistance (sweat), and the participants took two self-reports immediately after viewing the film. RESULTS: - link between trauma soundtrack and skin conductance. -Heart rate did not parallel the content of the film

Bunting et al (2000)

AIM: To investigate physical and psychological stress in naturalistic situations. To determine if individuals who are more aerobically fit have different neuroendocrenic responses. METHOD: 7 females and 8 males were selected from south-east America to participate in outdoor activities. They all underwent a series of tests for steroids and beta blockers, as well as having their diet restricted 24 hours before arrival. They were also tested for aerobic fitness. The subjects would complete one of the eight outdoor activities, and give a urine sample that they would examine for hormone levels. 1. Three hour van ride from airport to site 2. Wilderness backpacking 3. Intro to rock climbing 4. Advanced rock climbing and rappelling 5. Ropes course events 6. Intro to white water canoeing 7. Advanced white water canoeing 8. Return to airport RESULTS: The average response for those you were less fit, was significantly higher than those who were fitter. Task 7, advanced canoeing, elicited the most amount of adrenaline and noradrenaline. Task 4, advanced climbing, had the highest response for cortisol.

Madsen et al (2007)

AIM: To investigate the Kin Selection hypothesis using participants from two different cultures: UK students and South African students METHOD: Participants supplied a list of biological relatives excluding the relatives who shared a home with the participants. -told beforehand that one specific relative randomly selected from their list would receive payment according to the length of time they could stay in the "seated" position.UK students were in the first experiment, the second experiment was with the South African students who were separated into two groups of Zulu males. FINDINGS: For the British students, the experiment offered 40p per 20 seconds. On average, participants did spend more time on the exercise when the money was going to close family members. South African students were then tested but with food items rather than with money. Participants made more effort to stay in the position for relatives who were biological closer to them. Zulu participants did not seem to distinguish between cousins and close relatives (e.g. siblings, aunts and nephews).

Cohen et al (1993)

AIM: To investigate the connection between stress and the immune system METHOD: -154 men and 266 women volunteers (18-54 years, mean age 33.6) - no chronic or acute illness or regular medication. - judged to be of good health. - thorough medical examination & blood sample - questionnaires concerning ¤ psychological stress ¤ personality ¤ health practice - informed consent - 394 of the participants exposed to respiratory viruses through nasal drops - 26 were given saline - quarantined for 2 days prior to the exposure, and 7 days after, in large apartments either alone or with 1 or 2 others - examined daily by a clinician who was blind to the participants' psychological status and what they had been exposed to. RESULTS: 82% of participants who received virus were infected 19% of people who received placebo infected 38% developed a cold No one in the placebo group developed a cold. People who had experienced above the median number of stressful life events were more likely to be infected and develop a cold.

Piliavin et al (1969)

AIM: To investigate under real conditions, the effect on the speed and frequency of helping, and the race of the helper and - type of victim (drunk or ill) - race of victim (black or white) - presence of helping models (present or absent) - size of witnessing group Hypothesis: an individual will be more inclined to help someone of the same race And help would be offered more often and quicker to the apparently ill victim than the drunk METHOD: Similarity affects cost and reward (race, nationality, age, gender) Design: field experiment IV's: type of victim, race of victim, presence of helping models DV's: frequency to help, speed of help, race of helper, sex of helper, movement out of area, verbal comments Participants: New York subway travellers between 11am and 3pm. Approx. 45% black, 55% while. 4450 total. Mean of 8,5 bystanders in the critical area close to the emergency. Situation: non-stop 7,5m journey in subway carriage Procedure: 4 teams of 4 researchers (2 female observers, 1 male victim, one male model) Victim collapsed after 70 seconds Model instructed to help after two specific set times (70 or 150 sec) 103 trials - 38 with drunk victim - 65 with a sober victim with a cane 26-35 y/o males, three white, one black identically dressed Results: Frequency of spontenous help (before the model acted) was impressive compared to earlier lab studies: 62 out of 65 trials (cane victim) 19 out of 38 trials (drunk victim) Characteristics of spontaneous first helpers: 90% male, 64% white A trend towards "same-race" helping. Drunken victims were often helped by own race. Earlier model (70 sec) elicited significantly more help than the late model Response times were faster in larger groups than I smaller, which contradicts the diffusion of responsibility hypothesis. Conclusion: Sick victims got more help than drunk. With a male victim, another male were more likely to help than a woman. There was no diffusion of responsibility.

Rachlin (2008)

AIM: To test the hypothesis that physical relatedness increases altruistic behavior even if social distance is held constant. METHOD: 206 university undergraduates were asked how much money they would be willing to give in order to have someone else receive $75. Social distance was varied by asking participants to imagine making a list of the 100 people closest to them, and imagine 7 people on points 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 on that scale and report on the relationships to those people. For instance, a participant may place their girlfriend on number 1 on this scale, their grandfather on number 10, and the food store clerk on number 100. Each participant was asked how much money they would spend to give $75 to these different people. "Relatives" were defined as second cousins and closer. RESULTS: While individuals were willing to spend more money on people to whom social distance was low rather than high, it was also clear that irrespective of social distance people were willing to spend more money on relatives compared to non-relatives. This is consistent with Kin Selection theory.

Festinger (1950)

AIM: To investigate formation of friendship patterns at MIT for student couples. METHOD: The researchers made observations and interviewed the residents regularly. RESULTS: - showed that proximity or opportunities to bump into each other on a daily basis increased chances for friendships. After some months more than 10 times as many friendships had developed with people who lived in the same building, and even more with people who lived next door. CONCLUSIONS: - physical proximity increases opportunities for interaction, which in turn increases familiarity. The //mere exposure effect// is enough to increase liking. - Geographical proximity may still be a factor in finding friends and lovers but with the Internet, dating sites, and chat rooms people at distance can now easily contact each other and develop friendships or romantic relationships. The Internet is thus creating a "psychological proximity" that can replace the "geographical proximity".

Bradbury and Finchan (90, 92, 93)

AIM: To investigate types of attributes in married couples on each other's behaviour METHOD: meta-analysis RESULTS: Poor marital quality predicted dispositional attributes Happy and unhappy couples resolves conflicts in different ways, in different attributional patterns. Happy = relationship enhancing pattern Unhappy = distress-maintaining pattern (conflict promoting) 92 AIM: To investigate whether the attributions of a married couple will influence their behaviour towards each other METHOD: ???? RESULTS: Wives who made dispositional attributes to their husbands in negative situations where more likely to behave negatively towards them The opposite was found in women who made dispositional attributes in positive situations. 93 AIM: To investigate the link between attribution style and marital satisfaction METHOD: 12 month long longitudinal study of married couples RESULTS: The kind of attributes made by the couple in the beginning of the study did predict marital satisfaction at the end of the study Level of satisfaction did not predict what kind of attributes the couple made at the end of the study. attributes influence behaviour, not vice versa

Marazziti et al (1999)

Aim: Serotonin could perhaps explain the continuous focus on the beloved Method: Participants: 60, 20 were men and women who had fallen in love in the previous 6 months 20 suffered from untreated OCD 20 were normal, healthy individuals who were used as control, were not in love Serotonin levels in the blood were analysed and compared Results: The serotonin levels of new lovers were equivalent to the low serotonin levels found in people with OCD Conclusion: There is a possible connection between romantic love and low levels of serotonin in the blood

Bartlett (1932)

Aim: To determine how social and cultural factors influence schemas and hence can lead to memory distortions. Method: Participants were from an English background. Were first asked to read a Native American folk tale. (The war of Ghosts). He tested their memory by using serial and repeated reproduction. Serial reproduction: the first participant reading the story reproduces it on a paper, the seconds participant reads that paper and reproduces what he/she remembers. And that goes on until it's reproduced by six/seven different participants. Repeated reproduction: the same participant reproduces the story six or seven times from their own previous reproductions. Their reproductions occurred between time intervals from 15 minutes to as long as 4 months. Results: Both methods lead to similar results. As the number of reproductions increased, the story became shorter and there were more changes to the story. The changes made by the participants in thie reproduction show the alteration of culturally unfamiliar things into what the English participants were culturally familiar with. He found that recalled stories were distorted and altered in various ways making it more conventional and cultural perspective (rationalization). Conclusion: Memory is inaccurate and is always subject to reconstruction based on pre-existing schemas.

Hazan and Shaver (1987/1994)

Aim: To explore the possibility that early childhood attachment patterns could influence later, adult romantic relationships. Method: participants were asked to respond to a "love quiz" in a local newspaper, which asked them firstly to identify the sort of relationship they had with their parents and secondly to report their current feelings to romantic relationships. The correlations between these two questionnaires were assessed. Results: 56% of the participants were classified as securely attached = feels comfortable about being dependent upon romantic partners. 23-25% were anxious-avoidant = feels uncomfortable when partners get too close 19-20% were anxious-ambivalent =feels worried that their partners don't really love them Conclusion: showed correlations between early attachment styles and later romantic ones. Results were significant but not strong.

Kulkofski et al (2011)

Aim: To investiagte how culture affects FBM Method: 274 participants, 35-65 years old Only males 5 differnte cultures (Chinese, Germans, Turkish, British, Americans) Were told to recall as many public memories as possible during 5 minutes Filled in a questionnaire of each memory Classified as FBM with following questions: Where What time How What they were doing With whom they were with They were also asked: How emotional Overt/cover rehearsal National/personal importance Results: There was a difference between cultures and FBMs reported Individualistic cultures (UK, Germany, USA) reported most FBMs Collectivistic cultures (China, Turkey) reported less FBMs Chinese rehearsed the events less Chinese also rated the events as less emotional

Markey et al (2007)

Aim: To investigate the extent to which similarity is a factor in the way people choose partners Method: Large sample of young people who filled in questionnaires and describe the psychological characteristics, values and attitudes of their ideal romantic partner. Then they were asked to describe themselves. Results: The way the young people described themselves was similar to their idea of the ideal partner Conclusion: People's ideal partner is similar to themselves. This supports the similarity hypothesis. (did a follow-up study with the questionnaire method and 106 couples that had been together for a year. They filled in their own and their partners characteristics. And just like the first study, people want partners who are similar to themselves.

Moreland and Beach (1992)

Aim: When seeing the same people in the classroom all semester long, it increases your liking for them Method: planted female confederates in a large collage classroom. The women did not interact but sat where everyone could see them. There was a difference in how many classes they attended, from 0 to 15. The control condition was when no classes were attended. At the end of semester, the students in the class were shown slides of the women and rated how much they liked them. Results: The mere exposure had a definite effect on liking. The students liked the women the more often they had seen them in class

Yuille and Cutshall (1986)

Aim: - To records and evaluate witness accounts. - Examine the issues raised by laboratory research. - Look at how accurate witness accounts and the type pf errors made within them. - To compare interviews performed at the time that were carries out by a police officer with those carried out by research staff (which also incorporated misleading questions). Method: Interviewed witnesses of a crime that had included people getting shot and dying. First the police interviewed the 21 witnesses through word for word reports and the witnesses were asked to report what they had seen with their own words, and were also asked some follow up questions from the police. After 4-5 months 13 /21 witnesses (7 central witnesses and 9 peripheral, distant) were interviewed again, but this time by the researchers, however, they followed the same procedure as the police but added 2 misleading questions (Busted headlight or not? (There was no) Yellow quarter panel? (It was blue)) Participants were asked to rate their stress level during the even on a 7 point scale and were also asked to state their emotional state before and after the event. Results: Researchers gained more details overall compared to the police interviews, and this was because the researchers asked questions that were more detailed and really not in interest for the police. In the police interview the central witnesses had been more accurate than the peripheral but in the researcher interview they were equally accurate. There were errors but they were rare and the percentage of accuracy remained high even 5 months after the event. Misleading information had little effect on witnesses 10/13 answered that there were none. Conclusion: Eyewitnesses aren't as inaccurate as laboratory research suggest. The long-term accuracy of the event could be due to the incident being memorable and unusual and researchers suggested that the witnesses might be using the flashbulb memory (remember big things in great detail). The central witnesses remembered more as they were directly involved and all witnesses felt stressed but that did not affect their memory negatively. The field of nature in this study undermines the findings done in laboratory research when attempts to mislead didn't suceed.

Levine (1995)

Aim: To examine collage student's views about love and marriage from 11 cultures and if students from collectivistic and economically poorer countries would be less likely to view love as a necessary condition to marriage Method: Administred language-approriate versions of the same questionnaire to ca 1100 female and male college students from 11 countries Key question: "If someone had all the other qualities you desired, would you marry this person if you were not in love with him/her?" With possible responses: yes/no/not sure Each country's economic and collectivistic/individualistic status was determined Results: Within each country the male/female answers did not differ significantly Believes across countries varied strongly Most would marry or consider marrying someone they did not love: India, Thailand, Pakistan Students from other countries rejected it Overall, collectivistic and economically poorer countries were less likey to view love as essential in marriage Conclusion: Culture plays a big role what people find as essential for marriage.

Lau and Russel (1980)

Aim: To examine the attributions given for American football teams winning and loosing games Method: Content analysis methodology 33 major sporting events as reported in eight daily newspapers in the US 594 explanations found for winning and losing games from coaches, players and sportswriters by 107 articles Coded as: 1. Dispositional or situational attribution for success or failure 2. Stability of attribution- a temporary/unstable cause (bad luck etc) or a stable cause ( good player etc) Results: Findings showed that American football coaches and players tend to credit their wins- dispositional and stable factors (being in good shape, hard work, natural talent) failures- situational and unstable factors (injusries, weather, fouls etc) Conclusion: Supports self serving bias, however, it can also be argued that cognitive factors and expectations--> if we expect to succeed, and do so, we attribute it dispositional (because of skill and presentation) if we expect to succeed, and fail, we attribute it situational Bt if we not exact to do well, and do not,--> dispositional If we not expect to do well, but do so--> situational

Otani et al (2005)

Aim: To examine whether people who lived near the accident site formed FBM (nuclear accident in Japan) Method: 138 participants filled out a questionnaire two times -95 participants from Ibaraki and Ibaraki university, lived 1-50 km away from the disaster -43 participants from Kansai university, lived 400-550 km away from the disaster (used as a comparison group) Questionnaire about: Emotional arousal Rehearsal Details of the event compared between a questionnaire after 3 weeks and 1 year Results: 3% of the participants created FBMs Showed low on emotional reactions Rated low rehearsal Conclusion: Supported the notion that flashbulb memories are formed through rehearsal rather than at encoding However, it is also possible that rehearsal was a result of the flashbulb memory.

Johns et al (2005)

Aim: To examine whether teaching women about stereotype threat was sufficient to better group-based performance shortfalls METHOD: Participants were 144 Caucasian statistics students who volunteered for extra credit. They randomly assigned the participants to three different conditions. All conditions contained a mixture of genders. What differed is the description of the test. a) problem solving b) maths test c) teaching intervention Sessions were run by either a male of female experimenter. They played an audio recording of a man describing the study. The problem solving condition were told they would have to complete a problem solving exercise for a study of general aspects of cognitive processes. In the math-test condition, participants were told that they would be completing a standardized test for a study of gender differences in mathematics performance. In the teaching intervention condition, they were told the same as the previous group. In addition, they were told that it's generally known that women aren't as good at maths as men, and any anxiety they may feel is because of that. They rated how much they thought the professor believed that gender could affect performance, to assess how well they had gotten the stereotype across. Results: Women scored better in the problem solving condition. They saw an effect of the stereotype threat in the math thest condition. They also almost removed the entire effect of the steretype threat by making them aware of the effect.

Sharot et al (2006)

Aim: To explore the neural basis of FBM To clarify the characteristics of the emotional events that may give rise to them. Method: Participants: 24 participants that were in Manhattan at 9/11. Used self reports + fMRI Compared memories from the summer of 2001 with the 9/11 in fMRI Completed a survey about the memories of the summer of 2001 and 9/11 Also, wrote down the memories they had from the event and the summer of 2001 and 9/11 Results: Self-reports Participants who rated their recollection higher were the ones closer to the event. Participants closer to the event used more words to describe the events than the ones further away No difference when they wrote about their memories of the summer 2001. fMRI Showed difference in activation of the left amygdala of the group closest to the events than the memory from the summer (83%) This effect did not sow in the further away groups. Conclusion: Amygdala showed to play an important role of retrieval of FBM Amygdala has previously been shown to play an important role of emotional influence on memory Only persons closest to the events formed FBM higher emotional involvement lead to more vivid memories Support Brown and Kulik by a neural activation Support the theory of arousak rather than the rehearsal leads to more vivid memories.

Brown and Kulik (1977)

Aim: To investigate correlations between cultures and flashbulb memories To determine the conditions in which flashbulb memories are created. Method: Participants: 40 African-Americans 40 Caucasian Americans Year 20-60 Questionnaires about 10 very unexpected or novel events 9 of them public, 1 personal Also filled in if they talked about the event with someone (overt rehearsal) Results: African Americans: John f Kennedy:40 Malcolm x:14 Gerald Ford:16 Martin Luther King:30 Caucasian Americans: John F. Kennedy: 39 Malcolm X:1 Gerald Ford: 23 Martin Luther King:13 Remembered vivid memories from the different events Jfk was the memory that most remembered (79/80) JFK was also rehearsed the most. African Americans had more flashbulb memories than Caucasian Americans The personal FMB was most often a death of someone close. Most often remembered things: Place, ongoing activity, information, own affect, other affect and aftermath Conclusion: FMB forms from surprising and emotional events and are maintained by overt rehaearsal. The difference between FMB and regular memories is FBM being more vivid and longer lasting Suggests that Flahshbulb memories form when related to you.

Reicher and Haslam (2006)

Aim: To investigate how people deal with inequalities between groups Stated that Zimbardo's results depended on ingroups/outgroups more than automatically relate to role given to you Method: 15 participants - Applied through ad - Screened for medical references, police checks and assessment by psychologists 1.Permeability-the ability to be promoted to a better group 2. Security of the intergroup relations - legitimacy - stability 3. If people believe that the groups are unstable they may be ware of Cognitive alternatives (schemas) Experimental case study IV: INTERVENTIONS - Permeability (promotion of prison guards, to see if prisoners will work in groups or individually to achieve higher status) - Legitimacy (part. were told that according to observations, there were no differences between guards and prisoners) - Cognitive alternatives (a new prisoner with experience from union trades was introduced-believed to crewte new cognitive alternatives DV: Behaviour - depression - stress -authoritarianis Results: The guards failed to identify as a group, their usability to work together led to a fragile system- instability Guards were none unified The tyranny After impermeability the guards increased their identification as a group. The new prisoners-cognitive alternatives, led to willingness to identify with the subordinate group. The prisoners became more and more unified- impermeability, legitimacy and cognitive alternatives The rebellion Conclusion: Roles and identities: Individuals do not conform blindly to roles, rather they act in terms of a role when they internalize it as a result of social identification with the group if they see the role as a part of their identity Identification, organization and power: A sense of shared social identity is the basis of effective organization and group power Where people lack a sense of common identity, they cannot agree on values or goals. Can not organize themselves--> no group power Groups and well-being: 1.When a group share a social identity, they are more able to achieve their groups goals, in particular to form a social system based on their share beliefs and values. 2.The group identity is transformed from as set of ideas into a living reality-collective-self-realisation-->great psychological benefits for individual group members. 3. Important links between social psychological factors (group identity, group solidarity) and significant clinical outcomes (anxiety, depression) Tyranny: 1. people support oppressive groups when their own group is failing, and they cannot realize their own values and beliefs. 2. More likely to accept alternatives that provide the prospect success. More likely to embrace a strong figure who promises to make things for for them. 3. Combination failure and promise Supports SIT.

Guéguen (2002)

Aim: To investigate if the foot-in-the-door technique is effective when contact is taken over the internet. Method: The participants were 50 computer science students from France. The experimenter created two email addresses, one with a female name and one with a male name, both indicated they went to the same school. 25 participants were in the experimental condition, and they received an email asking if they could help with their CV as it had to be in RTF format. The signature indicated that it was a student of statistics. This was considered a small request. The large request was sent 15 minutes later, asking if they could help out in a project about diet habits for students where they would have to fill out a questionnaire containing 40 questions that took 15-20 minutes to answer. The control condition received the same request but without the words once more used in the email. Results: There was a significant difference in the compliance rate between the conditions. In the experimental, 76% filled out the questionnaire, whereas only 44% did in the control condition. Conclusion: This supports the foot-in-the-door technique.

Perdue (1990)

Aim: To investigate the evaluation of syllables associated to ingroups vs outgroups Method: Participants: 23 undergraduate psychology students (17 women and 6 men) Procedure: Participants were presented with 108 trials of randomly paired letter strings on a computer screen, where each pair consisted of nonsense syllable (xeh, yof,laj etc) IV:with one of the ingroup pronouns (we,us,our)or one of the outgroup pronouns (them, they, theirs) or Control: 1/8 other pronouns (she, he,his,her etc) For half the participants: Xeh always came eith in-group pronouns Yof always came with out-group pronouns Then reversed for other half Participants were blind to aim Participants were asked to rate unpleasant-pleasant Results: Syllables associated with in-group pronounce were rated above average and syllables which associated with out-groups were rated clearly below average Ingroup stronger positivity than outgroup negativity Conclusion: Supports the SIT, social categorisation To achieve high self-esteem, we focus and exaggerate positive aspects of the groups we belong to We focus and exaggerate negative effects of the out-groups

Jones and Harris (1967)

Aim: To investigate under what conditions internal attributions are made Method: Participants 36 male+ 15 female introductory psychology (political science) university students Procedure: Students' essays which were either Pro Fidel Castro or Anti Fidel Castro Participants were told that some writers freely chose to be pro or anti, while others were assigned to write from a pro or con stance (determined by a coin toss) Participants were asked to rate how pro/anti the attitudes of the writers were Results: When the participants thought that the writers freely chose the positions they took (pro or anti), they naturally rated the people that spoke in favour of Castro as having more ositive feelings towards Castro. (A dispositional factor) When participants were told that the writers positions were determined by a coin toss, they still rated the writers who spoke in favour of Castro as having (avarege) more positive attitudes towards Castro than those who spoke against him. Conclusion: The participants were unable to see the influence of the situation; they could not refrain from attributing dispositional factors to the writers even though they knew they were randomly assigned. Results go against hypothesis and demonstrates the fundamental attribution error

Bandura (1977)

Aim: To investigate whether children who passively witness aggression in adults will replicate the behaviour when given the opportunity. Method: 36 boys and 36 girls between the ages of 3 and 6 were tested. One adult male and one adult female acted as models. There were three major conditions: 1. Control group 2. Exposed to aggressive model 3. Exposed to passive model They measured the average aggression in every child, and grouped them accordingly. The children were tested individually. First, they were taken off to the experimental room, which was set out for play. In one corner, there was toys for playing with, and in the other there were tinker toys, a bobo doll and a mallet. This is where the model would come in, and then leave. In the passive condition the model came in, played with the tinker toys, ignoring the bobo doll. In the aggressive condition, the model would play with the toys, and then start hitting the doll with the mallet as being verbally aggressive. Secondly, the children were taken to another room to induce arousal. There were attractive toys, but they were told these were the experimenters very best toys, and were reserved for the other children. Then, they were taken into a third room with both non-aggressive toys and aggressive toys. They were observed by judges through a one way glass. They looked at three types of imitation 1. imitation of physical and verbal aggression, or non-aggression 2. incomplete imitations of model (mallet aggression, sits on Bobo) 3. behaviour not imitated by model Results: Children in the aggressive condition behaved more aggressively. Boys were more aggressive than girls. Boys in the aggressive condition showed ore aggression if the model was male Girls showed physical aggression if model was male, but more verbal if model was female.

Kiesler and Baral (1970)

Aim: To investigate whether self-esteem could influence a persons perception of themselves and thus whom they would choose as a partner Method: experiment, IV = made up scores on an IQ test either high or low DV = how fast they engaged in a conversation with a woman and how engaged they were in the conversation Used independent measures design All participants were male The participants took a fake IQ test and were given results privately Either: 1. you scored off the charts, highest scores we have seen 2. there must have been an misunderstanding, so low were your results, you can redo them sometime soon Then participants waited in an waiting room individually for their payment for partaking and an attractive woman walks in Results: The men with the "high scores" and a self-esteem boost engaged more quickly in a conversation and were more engaged, compared to those given low scores Conclusion: Your cognitive state and perception of yourself can affect who you choose as a partner and if you have the confidence to approach someone and have a conversation.

Berry (1967)

Aim: To investigate whether there is a difference in degree of conformity between the Temne people of Sierra Leone (rice farmers) and Baffin Island Eskimo (fish and hunter) Method: Participants: 90 people from Temne- Traditional 32 people from Temne- Transitional 91 Eskimo -Traditional 31 Eskimo- Transitional Control group: Two samples of Scots 62 Rural, 60 Urban Procedure: Participants were shown a paper with 9 different lines, informed that most other people ad identified the line with an X as the line equal to the standad line Results: The average conformity score was significantly higher in the Temne Sample Average for Eskimo sample was considerably lower than the score for the Scottish People. All differences between the different cultures were statically significant. The transitional and urban samples were lower as compared to the traditional or rural samples within each culture, but not significant. Conclusion: There were more significant differences between cultures than within Collectivistic cultures (farming societies) Collectiistic cultures are high on collectivism, have a higher need on conformation, cooperation. Individualistic cullers tend to be low on collectivism and don't depend on conformity.

Marshall and Zimbardo (1979)

Aim: To replicate the Schacter and Singer's euphoria condition. Method: Participants were injected with adrenaline or a placebo, but the researcher told them that they will be expecting non-arousal symptoms The participants were put into one of four different conditions 1. Injected wuth adrenaline and exposed to neutral confederate. 2. Placebo injection and told to expect arousal symptoms 3. Two conditions were the dosage of adrenaline were determined by body weight. Results: Found that euphoria confederate had a little impact on the participants The euphoric cnónfederate did not produce any more euphoria than the neutral confederate did.

Asch (1955)

Aim: To see if it is possible to manipulate people's behavior by applying group pressure Method: 123 male college students 18 trials/session a participant was seated in a row among 6 confederates 6th seat of 7 people Were asked to select the line on the second card which matched the length of the length of the first line The confederates gave the wrong answer in 12 trials Results: 75% of the participants conformed at least once with the group Average: 32% of participants conformed in half or more of the trials When alone-less than 1% wrong answer 24% did not conform to any of the incorrect responses Conformity was most likely when all confederates agreed If one confederate disagreed, part. was less likely to conform if 1/7 gave the correct answer, only 5 percent of part. agreed with the group. Conclusion: Supports the level of conformity

Cialdini (1975)

Aim: To test if the door-in-the-face technique is effective because of the reciprocity norm or because of the contrast effect. Method: The participants were 72 people walking through a university campus. The sample consisted of both men and women. They were approached by an experimenter who introduced themselves as working with a youth programme. The participants were randomly allocated into three conditions: 1. rejection-moderation: asked to volunteer for unpaid work in the programme for two hours per week for at least two years. When rejected, they were asked if they could instead volunteer as chaperones for a group of youths on a trip to the zoo that would take two hours. 2. exposure control: first informed about both requests and the asked if they could accept any of the two. 3. control: only asked about the minor request. Results: No participant complied with the large request. The compliance rate was highest in the rejection-moderation condition. The compliance rate was higher in the exposure control condition that in the control condition. Conclusion: The reciprocity norm is the reason why the door-in-the-face technique works.

Zimbardo (1973)

Aim: To test the dispositional hypothesis Method: Participants 24 physically and mentally stable men, based on ad in newspaper, College students, Stanford area Procedure: IV: Participants were randomly assigned to one of two conditions 1. prisoners role 2. guard role DV: observed pattern of behaviour Prisoners were randomly assigned to one of three cells (6*9 feet) for 24 hours Guards worked on three man, eight hour shifts and went about their normal lives at other times the guards were asked to maintain a reasonable order in the prison, necessary for its functioning, but no details were given about how this might be achieved, so that that their behavior would reflect their genuine reactions. Though, they were not allowed to use any physical abuse. The prisoners were ''unexpectedly arrested'', at their homes. Results: Both guards and prisoners showed an increased level of negative emotion (self-reports) Interactions were hostile, dehumanising and insulting. Prisoners' immediately became very passive, while guards were very active 90% of interactions between prisoners concerned immediate conditions within the prison 5 prisoners had to be released in regards to acute anxiety, rage,crying and depression only two prisoners said they were not willing to forfeit the money they earned in order to be paroled. The experiment, due to art for two weeks, was terminated after six days. Guards Semmed distressed by the decision to terminate study. Guards became sufficiently involved in their roles, enjoying the extreme power and control. 1 guard reported being upset about the treatment of the prisoners, although, everyone arrived at time for work and often stayed on duty voluntarily. Interactins mainly concerned prisoners or prison it self. Post-experiment data showed that guards being alone w/ the prisoners and out of range w/ recording equipment, the harassments grew stronger. Guards redefined rights as earned privileges which had to be earned by obedient behavior. Conclusion: Suggests that dispositional hypothesis can be rejectedin favor of the few that social, institutional forces make good men engage in evil deeds

Milgram (1974)

Aim: To test the theory of 'germans are different hypothesis' Method: Participants: 40 males between 20 and 50 years of age, Yale university Americans Were paid 4.50 dollars Controlled observation study: Observation In the form of films and tape recorders Also interviews with the participants after their session Procedure: Participants were met by experimenter (stoge) and another participant (also stoge) Participants were told that the experiment would be on punishment in kearning Rigged randomly assigned to be the teacher or student, every participant became teacher Participants were led into a room were the student was strapped on to an electric chair, The teachers were sat in a room with a big generator 15-450 volts The teacher was instructed to read out word pairs which the learner had to remember They were given first word, remembered second Each time the learner gave the wrong answer, the teacher was instructed to give them a shock, moving up volts The learner was instructed to pound on walls and scream up to 300 V, which teacher could hear The experimenter was told to give certain instructions Please continue The experiment requires you to continue It is absolutely essential that you continue You have no other choice, you must continue There is no permanent tissue damage, please continue Results: Every participant shocked up to 300 V Five refused to go beyond 300 V Four refused to go beyond 315 V Two refused to go beyond 330V One at 345, 360 and 375 V 26 participants went all the way to 450 V

Neisser and Harsch (1992)

Aim: To test the theory of Flashbulb memory by investigating the extent to which memory for a shocking event (the challenger disaster) would be accurate after a period of time Method: Participants: 108 students Were given questionnaires and asked to write a description in their own words of how they had heard the news Also answered seven questions related to where they were, what they were doing and what emotional feelings they experienced at the time of the event. Participants answered the questionnaires less than 24 h after the event Two and a half years later, 44 people 44 of the participants answered the same questionnaire again. This time they were asked to rate how confident they were of the accuracy of the memory on a scale of 1 to 5. The participants were asked if they had filled in the form before. Sometime after the last questionnaire, the researchers performed a semi-structured interview to test wether the participants could remember what they had written previously. Participants then saw the original reports from the first questionnaire. Results:

Schacter and Singer (1962)

Aim: To test three propositions regarding the interaction between psychological and cognitive factors in the experience of emotion: 1. The same state of arousal could be labelled as different emotions (joy, fury, jealousy etc, depending on the situation) 2. If the person experiences a state of arousal they have an explanation of, they will be unlikely to label their emotion differently. 3. A person will experience emotions only if in a state of arousal. Method: Gave the participants adrenaline (no one were told they were given adrenaline), to create arousal. Effects of adrenaline: Blood pressure and heart rate increases Blood flow increases Muscle and cerebral blood flow increases Blood sugar and lactic acid concentration increases Respiration rate increases slightly Paricipants: 184 psychology students, all had their health checked in advance. Were placed in one of four groups 1. Adrenaline informed: Given an adrenaline injection and warned of the side effects (hand shaking, dry mouth, heart pounding).Told the side effects depended on Suproxin. 2. Adrenaline ignorant: Given adrenaline and not told about the side effects of the drug. 3. Adrenaline Misinformed: Given adrenaline and warned to be expecting side effects such as numb feet and headache (not expected by adrenaline) 4. Control group: Were given Saline solution and given no instruction of what to expect Procedure: The groups were pu in one of two conditions for 20 minutes 1. Euphoria situation: A stooge enters the room while the participant is waiting to conduct a vision test. Stooge fool around with paper planes, hoola hoops, and basket balls. 2. Anger situation: Participants were asked to fill out a questionnaire while a stooge disturbs the participants and ask questions about the questionnaire and eventually becomes angry. Measurements: Observational measures of emotional response through a one way mirror Self reports Results: The adrenaline groups showed more physiological response than the control group which had received the placebo as the pulse rate of the adrenaline subjects had increased tremendously compared to the control group. Adrenaline misinformed and adrenaline ignorant were the most euphoric The control group's emotional state was similar to the adrenaline Misinformed group.

Tajfel (1970)

Aim: Two experiments to investigate the factors that will enhance discrimination in groups Method: Experiment 1. Participants: 64 boys, 14-15 years old from Bristol Procedure Boys went to the laboratory in separate groups of eight, were all the boys knew each other well. Designed to create group categorization, then investigate effects of it. The boys were told that the investigators researched visual judgements. 40 clusters of varying numbers of dots were flashing onto a screen. The boys were asked to estimate the number of dots in each cluster. Randomly assigned to groups in two contidions: Underestimator or Overestimator, (told that it was because of their judgement Highlt accurate or poorly accurate The boys were asked to give money to the other boys in experiment (not knowing the identity of receiver, but which group they were in) Each boy was given an 18-page booklet with sets of numbers, and asked to choose a pair of numbers that would allocate money to two other boys. Ingroup choices- money to two in same group Outgroup choices- money to two in outgroup Intergrop choices- money to one in ingroup and one in outgroup. Experiment 2. 16 boys divided into groups told to determine their artistic preferences. Shown 12 paintings (Klee or Kandinsky) Then randomly told that they preffered either Klee or Kandinsky. Asked to fill similar sets pf reward booklets as experiment 1, but interested in which variable had the most effect of boys choice. Maximumpoint profit- Largest reward to members of both groups Largest possible reward to ingroup- could choose largest possible reward to ingroup regardless of the reward to outgroup Maximum difference- could choose lagerst possible difference in reward between members of the different groups (in favour of the ingroup) Results: Experiment 1. Tajfel found that a large majority of the boys gave more money to members of their own group than to outgroups. Experiment2. Tajfel found that maximum joint profit had very little effect and most important factor in their choices maximising the differences between the groups. the boys would have left the study with less moneey than if they gave each other te most money available. Conclusion: Tajfel suggests that outgroup discrimination is extraordinarily easy to trigger and once it is triggered, we have norms of behaviour for outgroups which includes discrimination.

Martinez and Kesner (1991)

Aim: To determine the role of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine on memory Method: Researchers trained a group of rats how to run through a maze, where they in the end received food. Once the rats were able to do so, the researchers made three groups of the rats. One in which they got injected with scopolamine, which blocks acetylcholine receptor sites which leads to a decrease availably of acetylcholine. The second group of rats got injected with physostigmine, which blocks the production of cholinesterase (cholinesterase does the ''clean-up'' of acetylcholine from the synapse and returns the neuron to its ''resting state''. Killing the killer.) The third group of rats were not given any injections, and were therefore the control group. They then let the rats run the maze and saw results from that. Results: Rats injected with scopolamine were slower at finding their way around and made more mistakes. The rats injected with physostigmine were on the other hand more successful, made less mistakes than both the control group and the scopolamine-group and found the food faster. Conclusion: By the results of this experiment the researcher could conclude that acetylcholine plays an important role in creating memories.

Talarico and Rubin (2003)

Aim: To find out the differences between regular ordinary everyday memories and flashbulb memories. Method: Participants: 54 Duke students divided into 3 conditions Group 1: tested 7 days after the event (14 female, 4 male) Group 2: tested 42 days after the event (12 female, 6 male) Group 3: tested 224 days after the event (14 female, 4 male) Procedure: Participants answered open ended questionnaires the day after the 9/11 event They answered the same questionnaire again according to which group they were assigned to. They were asked to rate how vivid their memories of the event were. Results: The groups didn't differ in details over time The flashbulb memories were believed to be recalled more accurate The Flashbulb memories were rated more vivid Conclusion: Flashbulb memories enhances vividness and confidence of the event, But contradicts earlier theories on Flashbulb memories being more accurate than regular memories. Overtime- participants were confident of the Flashbulb memories being accurate over time.

Glanzer and Kunitz (1966)

Aim: To test the hypothesis that there are two distinct storage mechanisms that produce the serial position curve in free recall. Method: Participants were introduced to 15 words, one at a time (one word at the time). There were two conditions, immediate free recall (IFR) where participants were to repeat the words immediately after, in any order, and the other one were delayed free recall (DFR) where the participants where to wait for 30 seconds and then count backward - this to prevent rehearsing and then recall the word in any order. Results: Participants remembered the first and last few words better and the results were so that the fell into a pattern known as the ''serial position curve'' which means that the tops of performance are in the beginning and end. In the IFR condition there were a true serial postion curve, both the top at the beginning and the end. But in the DFR the last few words were not recalled because of loss through decay. Conclusion: Supports the -multi-store-model in the way memory consists of different storage systems. Explained the primacy effect (recalling the first words) by claiming it was recalle from the Long term storage (LTS). First words attracted attention and were rehearsed in Short term storage (STS) and then transferred to LTS. Explained the recency effect (recalling the last words) by claiming that it was recalled from the STS. During the DFR the rehearsal was busy with other information and could therefore not rehears the word and store them in LTS.

Lazarus

Appraisal: The act of estimating, assessing, evaluating or judging the nature or value of something or someone. Arousal: A physiological and psychological state of being awake or reactive to stimuli Assessment of the situation is made according to its implications for the person's own well-being - how it might affect them personally. = Primary appraisal. This will determine the type and intensity of emotions felt. Secondary appraisal then determines the response. This is how emotion is expressed in behaviour.

Social penetration theory (altman and taylor 1973)

As relationships develop, interpersonal communication moves from relatively shallow, non-intimate levels to deeper, more intimate ones. Self.disclosure.

Kin selection theory

Basic premise is helping others in your family, particularly direct descendants, which increases the chances of genes that caused the helping behaviour being passed on.

Social learning theory (1961)

Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning. Suggests that humans are active information processors and think about the relationship between their behavior and its consequences. Observational learning could not occur unless cognitive processes were at work. Children pay attention to models and encode their behaviour. The models they copy are usually people with similar characteristics to them. The people around the child will respond to the behavior it imitates with either reinforcement or punishment. If a child imitates a model's behavior and the consequences are rewarding, the child is likely to continue performing the behavior The child will also take into account of what happens to other people when deciding whether or not to copy someone's actions. This is known as vicarious reinforcement.

Evolutionary theory (Buss 1992)

Events that activates jealousy physiologically and psychologically differ for men and women because of the different adaptive problems they have faced over human evolutionary history in mating contexts

Reis (1986)

Gender Differences in Self-disclosure RESULTS: - Women self-disclose more than men - Women disclose more to other women than men do to other men = gender differences in the way men and women communicate to each other

Karasek (1979)

Model created to measure job strain. Job strain and health effects experience of stress from the interaction of two factors: 1. Psychological demand at work 2. The control degree over the demands. High demands and low control leads to high job strain. Divided into Low-strain/high-strain and active/passive.

Two factor theory of love

People sometimes misinterpret arousal for attraction. This means that arousal could enhance passionate attraction toward another person. When we are aroused, we attribute causes to the arousal.

Holmes and Rahe (1967)

Standardised scale to measure how stressful daily-life events are. The scale consists of 43 common stressors experienced and are rated from worst to least impact. If you have a total of >300 life units you will, accodring to the model, have a 80% chance of developing a stress-related illness.

The similarity Hypothesis

Suggests that people are atracted to those they perceive as similar to themselves (age, gender, ethnicity etc), personality and attitudes are most important. Similarity is a cognitive factor since it is about the way we interpret how similar we are to someone. Couples tend to be similar in age, religion, social class etc. Adult friends tend to be similar in income, education, occupational status etc. Other people's support for one's own views and attitudes is rewarding because it validates one's opinions and boosts self-esteem. People tend to assume that people who are similar to themselves will like them. However, it is difficult to establish causation.

Conger (1956)

Tension reduction hypothesis of alcohol consumption Alcohol reduces tension and people drink in order to experience relief from tension. People learn to avoid or reduce unpleasant stress. Suggests that exposure to tension-producing circumstances should lead to increased drinking.

Schema theory (Jean Piaget, 1926)

The concept of schema was first used by Jean Piaget in 1926. He suggested that children learn using existing schemas that are either accommodated or assimilated. Accommodation is when an existing schema is replaced. For example, as technology evolves and we have new ways of doing things, I expect a computer to work in these new ways. I replace my old schema with a new one. Assimilation is when you add information to your schema. So, for example, I know how a shower works. I go into a hotel and have a shower that works differently. I incorporate or assimilate that knowledge into my understanding of showers.

The mere exposure effect

The more exposure we have to stimuli, the more apt we are to like it.

FBM- Brown and Kulik (1977)

The theory that memories of the circumstances in which one first learned of a sudden, surprising event. The memories associated with the event, not the actual event. These are maintained by overt and covert rehearsal (covert-repeating yourself, overt-discussing with others). Where you where What you where doing How you were informed Your reaction to the information How others reacted

Attributional hypothesis

The way people communicate attributions for negative events or behaviour could determine whether a relationship will end. There is a correlation between attributional style and marital satisfaction

Lazarus Appraisal Theory

Theory of Appraisal (Theorist: Lazarus) A thought must occur before one experiences any emotion or physiological responses. People make an appraisal of the situation. Then they act according to the interpretation/appraisal of situation. What they are suppose to feel that best fits the situation. Primary appraisal - Evaluation of the nature of the threat. e.g. "am I going to die?" Secondary appraisal - Evaluation of possible ways to cope with the situation. e.g. "how should I feel and react?" Positive emotions emerges if appraisal assesses potential benefit Negative emotions emerges if appraisal assesses potential harm

Arousal-cost-reward model (Piliavin 1981)

This model emphasies the inteaction of mood and cognition. Unpleasant Emotional Arousal - the emotional response to the need or distress of others According to this model we are motivated to help people not by altruism (acting in the interest of others) but as a way of reducing unpleasant feelings of arousal.

Two Factor Theory

Two Factor Theory of Emotion - Schachter & Singer We first watch what we do and feel and then deduce our nature from this 1st factor - Experience physiological arousal, then try to find a label to explain our feelings (looking at what we are doing and what is happening at the time of arousal). 2nd factor - We decide what we make of the feelings we have.

Empathy-alturism model

When feeling empathy for a person, we will try to help only for altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain. Two types of emotions possible when we see a person in need. 1. personal distress- leads to egoistic helping or escape. 2. Empathy- leads to altruistic behaviour. Perception of need begins with the perception of a mismatch between the current state and their potential state. The strength of the observer's empathic response is affected by: 1. How great the need is perceived to be 2. the Strength os the observer's attachment to the person in need.