Psychopharmacology MC Exam 2
Which of the following is a sympathomimetic effect of cocaine? a. Vasoconstriction b. Decreased heart rate c. Hypothermia d. Hypotension
Vasoconstriction
One potential effect of dopamine acting on D4 receptors is: a. an increase in adenylyl cyclase activity. b. a decrease in adenylyl cyclase activity. c. a decrease in K+ concentration inside the presynaptic terminal. d. a decrease in Cl- concentration inside the presynaptic terminal.
a decrease in adenylyl cyclase activity
Neurotransmitter can be released from a. axon terminals b. glial cells c. dendrites d. all of the above
all of the above
According to the microdialysis experiments we discussed in class, dopamine concentrations in the nucleus accumbens of rats are the highest following: a. sexual activity. b. cocaine. c. morphine. d. amphetamine.
amphetamine
Methamphetamine is rapidly metabolized to: a. cocaine. b. alpha-methyl-p-tyrosine (AMPT). c. methylamphinase. d. amphetamine.
amphetamine
Activation of the nAChR leads to: a. an increase in adenylyl cyclase. b. a decrease in adenylyl cyclase. c. an EPSP. d. an IPSP.
an EPSP
A drug that exerts an effect similar to, and occupies the same receptor site as, the naturally occurring compound is termed: a. a mimicker b. a non-competitive antagonist c. a competitive antagonist. d. an agonist.
an agonist
Ligands that bind to a receptor and fail to produce a conformational change in the receptor are called: a. antagonists. b. agonists. c. neurotransmitters. d. null ligands.
antagonists
The type of ligands that have no direct effect on a receptor after binding (i.e., do not induce a conformational change) are called a. antagonists. b. agonists. c. neurotransmitters. d. null ligands.
antagonists
A2A receptors: a. are coupled to Gs and stimulate PKA activity when they are activated. b. increase the activity of postsynaptic cells when they are stimulated by anandamide. c. are down-regulated in response to repeated opiate exposure. d. are only found in the PNS.
are coupled to Gs and stimulate PKA activity when they are activated
The components of cigarette smoke other than nicotine: a. are known to inhibit MAO. b. are known to inhibit L-DOPA. c. fail to elicit smoking behavior in experienced smokers. d. have no harmful effects on human health.
are known to inhibit MAO
Methylphenidate and cocaine are similar in that they both: a. are used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). b. have a very low abuse potential. c. get in to the brain in very low concentrations. d. are transporter blockers, rather than substrates.
are transporter blockers, rather than substrates
In a myelinated axon, action potentials are regenerated: a. at the terminal buttons. b. all along the axon. c. at gaps in the myelin known as nodes of Ranvier. d. at the axon hillock.
at gaps in the myelin known as nodes of Ranvier
One mechanism of action of caffeine appears to be: a. stimulation of GABAA receptors. b. stimulation of adenosine receptors. c. blockade of Ca2+ channels. d. blockade of adenosine receptors.
blockade of adenosine receptors
Local anesthetics, such as novocaine, have their effects by a. blocking the Na+/K+ pump. b. preventing the generation of IPSPs. c. blocking voltage-gated Ca2+ channels. d. blocking voltage-gated Na+ channels.
blocking voltage-gated Na+ channels
If a neurotransmitter has the effect of depolarizing the membrane at a synapse, this may be referred to as a. excitation. b. EPSP. c. IPSP. d. both A. and B.
both A and B
Caffeine metabolism in women is a. faster during pregnancy. b. slower during pregnancy. c. altered by the menstrual cycle. d. both B and C
both B and C
Drugs that block the function of proton (H+) pumps would be expected to: a. increase vesicular storage of neurotransmitter. b. decrease the vesicular storage of neurotransmitter. c. reduce the amount of neurotransmitter available for release. d. both b and c.
both b and c
Adenosine: a. is a constituent of dopamine. b. is only found in the peripheral nervous system. c. builds up during wakefulness, creating a state of drowsiness. d. is an agonist at AMPA receptors.
builds up during wakefulness, creating a state of drowsiness
Withdrawal effects: a. can be alleviated by re-administration of the drug. b. are typically indistinguishable from the drug's main effects. c. are caused by toxic byproducts found in street drugs. d. are observable in humans, but not in laboratory animals.
can be alleviated by re-administration of the drug
Nicotinic receptors a. are metabotropic receptors that bind acetylcholine. b. consist of three subunits: alpha, beta, and gamma. c. are constructed of subunits that form a potassium channel in the cell membrane. d. can become silenced by depolarization block with repeated stimulation.
can become silenced by depolarization block with repeated stimulation
Non-experimental (i.e., correlational) research a. can demonstrate that a drug binds to a receptor and causes a conformational change. b. can demonstrate that a drug causes adverse effects. c. determines whether there is a relationship between two manipulated events. d. cannot demonstrate that one event causes another.
cannot demonstrate that one event causes another
Caffeine is found in many over-the-counter headache remedies because it a. is an effective bronchodilator. b. causes vasodilation in the periphery. c. causes vasoconstriction in the periphery. d. causes vasoconstriction in the brain.
causes vasoconstriction in the brain
Which of the following is NOT considered one of the regions of the simplified reward circuit that was discussed in class? a. cerebellum b. ventral tegmental area c. nucleus accumbens d. prefrontal cortex
cerebellum
When someone is drinking alcohol and snorting cocaine, what metabolite can be measured in the blood? a. alcococaine b. ethanococaine c. cocaethylene d. cocacetylaldehyde
cocaethylene
Which of the following is NOT an example of a phenylethylamine psychostimulant drug? a. methamphetamine b. MDMA ("ecstasy") c. amphetamine d. cocaine
cocaine
Which of the following differentiates the pharmacological effects of cocaine from those of amphetamine? a. cocaine upregulates tyrosine hydroxylase b. cocaine blocks the VMAT c. cocaine blocks Na+ channels d. All of the above
cocaine blocks Na+ channels
Traditionally, Indians of the Andes would consume coca leaves mixed with lime. This was because a. cocaine is a base and has a pKa of 8.7. b. cocaine is an acid and has a pKa of 8.7. c. it was necessary to mask the bitter taste. the lime destroyed the bacteria that caused the leaf of the coca bush to deteriorate.
cocaine is a base and has a pKa of 8.7
In the late 1970's, Siegel used measures of body temperature to demonstrate experimentally that a. rats will self-administer morphine. b. conditioning influences tolerance. c. morphine produces hypothermia. d. morphine produces sensitization.
conditioning influences tolerance
Most illicit drug users are in the _______ year-old age range. a. 16- to 17- b. 18- to 20- c. 21- to 25- d. 26- to 29-
18- to 20-
In which of the following age groups does the use of illicit drugs peak? a. 12-15 years old b. 18-25 years old c. 28-34 years old d. 45-54 years old
18-25 years old
Why did the early studies with nicotine have difficulty demonstrating that laboratory animals would reliably self-administer the drug? a. Nicotine has a very wide dose range within which it serves as a reinforcer. b. A second-order schedule of reinforcement is required for reliable self-administration. c. It was too difficult to teach a rat to hold, light and smoke a cigarette. d. Nicotine is not reinforcing to laboratory animals.
A second-order schedule of reinforcement is required for reliable self-administration
After smoking a cigarette, the concentration of nicotine is: a. highest in arterial blood. b. highest in venous blood. c. highest in the stomach. d. highest in the liver because of first pass metabolism.
highest in arterial blood
Caffeine is useful for treating headaches because it: a. increases blood flow in the brain, but not in the periphery. b. dilates blood vessels by about 30%. c. increases blood pressure and therefore decreases tension in head muscles. d. constricts blood vessels in the brain.
constricts blood vessels in the brain
If you are asked to take a drug test before you are issued a life insurance policy, and the agent is testing for nicotine use, what are they most likely testing for in your blood? a. nicotine b. CYP2A6 c. cotinine d. tar
cotinine
Which of the following is NOT one of the major metabolites of caffeine? a. paraxanthine b. cotinine c. theophylline d. theobromine
cotinine
In addition to coffee and tea, caffeine is found in all of the following except for a. analgesic drugs. b. cough suppressants. c. OTC stimulants. d. diet soda.
cough suppressants
In rats trained to self-administer cocaine, responding _______________ across extinction sessions. a. increases b. decreases c. becomes more variable d. does not change
decreases
With a fixed interval (FI) 4 schedule of reinforcement, a rat is a. delivered a reinforcer after he presses the lever four times. b. delivered a reinforcer after he presses the lever an average of four times. c. delivered a reinforcer after he makes at least one response and four minutes elapse. d. delivered a reinforcer after he makes at least one response and an average of four minutes elapse.
delivered a reinforcer after he makes at least one response and four minutes elapse
Caffeine's direct effects on cAMP levels (via inhibition of cAMP phosphodiesterase) are probably relevant for its a. stimulating effect on locomotion in mice. b. ability to act as a GABAA agonist. c. low dose effect of decreasing lever press behavior. d. high dose, toxic effects.
high dose, toxic effects
There is a ________ frequency of smoking in depressed individuals and this is likely due to the ________ effect of nicotine. a. lower; mood decreasing b. lower; anxiogenic c. higher; mood elevating d. higher; hyperalgesic
higher; mood elevating
In the United States, the most commonly used illicit drug is a. marijuana. b. heroin. c. cocaine. d. oxycontin.
marijuana
The major (i.e., most plentiful) cell type in the nucleus accumbens is the: a. spiny somatostatin-expressing interneuron (SOM). b. parvalbumin-expressing interneuron (PV). c. medium spiny projection neuron (MSN). d. medium calretinin-expressing projection neuron (CALB2).
medium spiny projection neuron (MSN)
With regard to glial cells, _______ form the myelin sheath in the CNS, while _______ help maintain the ionic and chemical environment. a. Schwann cells; astrocytes b. oligodendroglia; astrocytes c. oligodendroglia; microglia d. Schwann cells; microglia
oligodendroglia; astrocytes
The event that leads to the generation of the action potential is a. opening of a large number of K+ channels b. opening of a large number of Na+ channels c. opening of a large number of Ca2+ channels d. closing of Na+ channels.
opening of a large number of Na+ channels
When he put a stimulating electrode into a rat's anterior medial hypothalamus, Olds found that the rat would lever press for stimulation: a. over 50,000 times. b. for 12 straight hours before they were exhausted and went to sleep. c. only during the light phase of the daily light/dark cycle.
over 50,000 times
The ____________ nervous system is responsible for energy _____________. a. parasympathetic; storage b. enteric; utilization c. sympathetic; conservation d. enteric; consumption
parasympathetic; storage
Which of the following is the primary metabolite of caffeine (i.e., it is found in the highest concentration)? a. theobromine b. methoxsalen c. paraxanthine d. theophylline
paraxanthine
When a neuron is at its resting potential, the ion channels that are open are: a. passive K+ channels. b. ligand-gated K+ channels. c. voltage-gated Na+ channels. d. passive Cl- channels.
passive K+ channels
Withdrawal symptoms are usually a. physiological changes similar to the effect of the drug. b. physiological changes that are opposite to the effect of the drug. c. less severe if the drug is discontinued abruptly. d. not seen when the drug is administered by inhalation.
physiological changes that are opposite to the effect of the drug
The relative strength of drug reinforcement can be measured using a _______ schedule of drug self-administration. a. fixed ratio (FR) b. variable ratio (VR) c. progressive ratio (PR) d. variable interval (VI)
progressive ratio (PR)
One of the key ingredients in the manufacture of methamphetamine is: a. SCH 23390. b. cocaine. c. quaalude. d. pseudoephedrine.
pseudoephedrine
Microdialysis is a technique that allows scientists to measure neurotransmitters by: a. recording the firing activity of single neurons. b. determining metabolism in the liver. c. administering a radioligand and watching for changes in its binding. d. quantifying the chemicals that diffuse across a semipermeable membrane.
quantifying the chemicals that diffuse across a semipermeable membrane
Which schedule of reinforcement is associated with very high rates of responding? a. variable interval b. random ratio c. Both a and b d. Neither a nor b
random ratio
Tachyphylaxis is: a. the effect of a drug that is observed in some people, but not others. b. a method of drug administration via the topical route. c. rapid tolerance. d. the grapefruit juice effect.
rapid tolerance
When a ligand binds to a trk receptor a. the receptor is phosphorylated at tryptophan residues. b. receptor subunits dimerize. c. ions flow into the cell through a K+ channel. d. vesicular storage of neurotransmitters is inhibited.
receptor subunits dimerize
In a fixed ratio 15 schedule of reinforcement: a. the first lever press after 15 seconds has elapsed will lead to a reinforcement. b. the first lever press after an average of 15 seconds has elapsed will lead to a punishment. c. reinforcement will be delivered following 15 lever press responses. reinforcement will be delivered 15 times, regardless of the number of responses made
reinforcement will be delivered following 15 lever press responses
Amphetamine and methamphetamine affect synaptic transmission by a. increasing catecholamine reuptake. b. increasing metabolism by MAO. c. releasing dopamine from vesicles into the cytoplasm. d. shutting down the dopamine transporter.
releasing dopamine from vesicles into the cytoplasm
Amphetamine and related psychostimulants in the amphetamine-like family a. are drugs of abuse with no therapeutic value. b. resemble the neurotransmitter DA in their chemical structure. c. are all synthetic. d. are drugs of the twentieth century, having no use prior to 1900.
resemble the neurotransmitter DA in their chemical structure
Pharmacodynamic tolerance occurs in the __________, whereas metabolic tolerance occurs in the ___________. a. synapse/neuron; liver b. stomach/small intestine; mitochondria c. synapse/neuron; mitochondria d. stomach/small intestine; liver
synapse/neuron; liver
Which of the following serve as calcium sensors in vesicles? a. synaptotagmins. b. vesicular transporters. c. ligand-gated calcium channels. d. voltage-gated sodium channels.
synaptotagmins
Tolerance that occurs after one or two administrations of a drug is called a. cross tolerance. b. mithridatism. c. tachyphylaxis. d. none of the above.
tachyphylaxis
The _______ is a test of analgesia. a. open field test b. tail-flick test c. catalepsy test d. multiple T-maze
tail-flick test
The functional difference between the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) is a. the SNS prepares the body for a sudden expenditure of energy and the PSNS handles routine functions. b. the PSNS prepares the body for a sudden expenditure of energy and the SNS handles routine functions. c. the SNS is not innervated by nerve fibers from the CNS, whereas the PSNS is. d. the PSNS is not innervated by nerve fibers from the CNS, whereas the SNS is.
the SNS prepares the body for a sudden expenditure of energy and the PSNS handles routine functions
When a GPCR is in its basal state: a. RGS proteins are facilitating the conversion of GDP to GTP.. b. the beta subunit is disassociated from the gamma subunit. c. the beta subunit is bound to GTP and is associated with the gamma subunit. d. the alpha subunit is bound to GDP and is associated with the beta and gamma subunits.
the alpha subunit is bound to GDP and is associated with the beta and gamma subunits
The central nervous system includes a. the autonomic nervous system. b. the somatic nervous system. c. the brain and spinal cord. d. the brain only
the brain and spinal cord
In a within-subjects design: a. the control and experimental conditions are administered to the same subjects on different occasions b. subjects in the control condition get saline and one dose of drug on one occasion, whereas those in the experimental condition get saline and a second dose of drug on a different occasion. c. subjects in the control condition get saline on one occasion, whereas those in the experimental conditions get saline plus two different doses of a drug on a different occasion. d. the control and experimental conditions are administered to different subjects on different occasions.
the control and experimental conditions are administered to the same subjects on different occasions
According to the opponent process theory of drug effects: a. the primary "a" process is aversive and becomes evident to the user only after he/she experiences the opponent "b" process. b. the effects of the "a" and "b" process sum to result in an appetitive effect followed by less pleasant withdrawal effect. c. the effects of the "a" and "b" process sum to produce a euphoric effect that remains unchanged with repeated drug exposure. d. sensitization will occur after each drug administration.
the effects of the "a" and "b" process sum to result in an appetitive effect followed by less pleasant withdrawal effect
The "incubation" effect for stimulant sensitization refers to: a. the ability of sensitization to occur after a single dose. b. the fact that sensitization is not associated with changes in brain anatomy. c. the fact that sensitization occurs independent of context. d. the ability of sensitization to grow over time.
the fact that sensitization occurs independent of context
In a fixed interval 30 (FI-30) schedule of reinforcement: a. the first lever press after 30 seconds has elapsed will lead to a reinforcement. b. the first lever press after an average of 30 seconds has elapsed will lead to a punishment. c. the 30th lever press will lead to a reinforcement. d. reinforcement will be delivered 30 times, regardless of the number of responses made by the organism.
the first lever press after 30 seconds has elapsed will lead to a reinforcement
When smokers are given cigarettes lower in nicotine and tar a. they reduce their intake slightly. b. there is no change in smoking behavior. c. there is a marked decrease in their smoking behavior. d. they smoke more.
they smoke more
Synaptic vesicles are filled with neurotransmitters a. through the actions of a Na+ ATPase. b. because of the electrochemical gradients produced by Ca+ ion imbalances. c. because of transporter proteins found on glial cells. d. through the actions of a protein-proton pump.
through the actions of a protein-proton pump
In an elevated plus maze experiment, anxiety is measured by: a. time spent in the open arms b. time spent lever pressing c. time in the center of the maze d. number of times the rat jumps off the maze
time spent in the open arms
One of the first steps in the synthesis of new proteins is: a. axoplasmic transport. b. transcription factor binding. c. translation of the message. d. transcription of the message.
transcription factor binding
The half-life of cocaine is: a. 48 hours. b. 9-12 hours. c. 4 hours. d. 0.5-1.5 hours.
0.5-1.5 hours
In plasma, the half-life of cocaine is about ___________; the half-life of amphetamine is about ___________ . a. 20 minutes; 1.5 hours b. 1 hour; 2 hours c. 1 hour; 10 hours 24 hours; 30 minutes
1 hour; 10 hours
A smoker extracts a. 50-75 mg of nicotine per cigarette. b. 15-25 mg of nicotine per cigarette. c. 6-11 mg of nicotine per cigarette. d. 1-3 mg of nicotine per cigarette.
1-3 mg of nicotine per cigarette
According to the 2016 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), what percentage of the US population are current users of an illicit drug? a. 2% b. 5% c. 10% d. 27%
10%
The half-life of caffeine ranges from a. 30 minutes to 1 hour. b. 1 to 2 hours. c. 2.5 to 4.5 hours. d. 4.5 to 6.5 hours.
2.5 to 4.5 hours
According to the 2016 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), what percentage of the US population are current users of tobacco? a. 6% b. 14% c. 23% d. 38%
23%
According to the 2016 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), what percentage of the US population are current users of alcohol? a. 19% b. 50% c. 67% d. 75%
50%
Tea leaves contain: a. caffeine. b. theophylline. c. A and B d. neither A nor B
A and B
Which of the following is NOT a subtype of adenosine receptors: a. A1 b. A2B c. A3 d. A4
A4
Adenosine receptors: a. are co-localized with D1 and D2 receptors. b. are metabotropic. c. exist in a least 4 subtypes. d. All of the above
All of the above
At high doses, caffeine: a. stimulates Ca2+ release b. inhibits cAMP phosphodisterase c. blocks GABAA receptors d. All of the above
All of the above
Electrophysiological data from Schultz and colleagues show that dopamine cells in the VTA show an increase in rate of firing in response to a(n) a. novel stimulus. b. unpredictable reward. c. CS previously paired with a reward. d. All of the above
All of the above
In rats with extinguished lever pressing behavior for cocaine, responding can be reinstated by exposure to: a. cocaine b. drug-associated cues c. stress d. All of the above
All of the above
The reward circuit in the brain includes neurons that release: a. GABA b. glutamate c. dopamine d. All of the above
All of the above
In the study by Costello et al. (2014) where rats were trained to lever press for an i.v. infusion of nicotine, different results were observed when nicotine was delivered alone compared to when the nicotine was a component of cigarette smoke extract (CSE). What did they find in rats lever pressing for CSE compared to those responding for nicotine alone? a. An increased incidence of cancers. b. A decrease in dopamine concentration due to inhibition of L-DOPA by CSE. c. An increase in responding across FR schedules. d. A decrease in depression-like behavior due to the antidepressant effects of CSE.
An increase in responding across FR schedules
Which of the following about drug self-administration procedures is false? a. They rely on positive reinforcement produced by the substance being investigated. b. The typical dose-response function is an inverted U-shaped curve. c. Antidepressants and antipsychotics are readily self-administered by animals. d. In general, the reinforcing properties of an addictive drug increase as the dose is increased, within a certain range.
Antidepressants and antipsychotics are readily self-administered by animals
Which of the following is characteristic of the firing activity of dopamine neurons when they are recorded in vivo? a. They exhibit burst firing. b. They exhibit irregular spiking. c. They exhibit regular spiking. d. Both A and B.
Both A and B
Which of the following are major drawbacks of correlational studies? a. Third variable problem b. Difficultly determining the direction of potential causality. c. Both a and b. d. Neither a nor b.
Both a and b
The enzyme responsible for the metabolism of caffeine is ___________ and this enzyme is ___________ in smokers. a. CYP1A2; upregulated b. CYP6B3; downregulated c. CYP3A9; inhibited d. CYP2D3; functioning normally
CYP1A2; upregulated
Nicotine is primarily metabolized by: a. MAO b. CYP2A6 c. CYP3A9 d. mecamylamine
CYP2A6
Adenosine receptors are found co-localized with __________ receptors in the nucleus accumbens. a. NMDA b. nicotinic and muscarinic c. 5-HT3 d. D1 and D2
D1 and D2
The D5 receptor is a member of the: a. D1 family of dopamine receptors. b. D2 family of dopamine receptors. c. ionotropic family of receptors. d. Gi coupled family of receptors.
D1 family of dopamine receptors
The discriminative stimulus effects of cocaine are mediated by: a. D1 receptors b. 5-HT3 receptors c. GABAA receptors d. D2 receptors
D2 receptors
The rank order of potency for amphetamine and methamphetamine at monoamine transporters is: a. DAT ≈ NET >>> SERT b. NET > GAT > DAT c. SERT ≈ NET >>> DAT d. VMAT > SERT >>> DAT
DAT ≈ NET >>> SERT
At receptor XYZ, drug A has a Kd = 150 nM and drug B has a Kd = 15 nM. What can you say about the affinity of these drugs at the XYZ receptor? a. Drug A has a higher affinity than drug B. b. Drug B has a higher affinity than drug A. c. The drugs have equal affinity, but drug A is more likely to be an antagonist because of its high Kd. d. Nothing because Kd is a measure of a drug's ED50.
Drug B has a higher affinity than drug A
The natural form of amphetamine is found in: a. leaves of the shrub Erythroxylon coca b. ma huang c. cold medicines like Sudafed. d. Egyptian jasmine
Egyptian jasmine
___________ cells are specialized glia that are found in the ___________ and are responsible for making cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). a. Microglia; brain b. Schwann; periphery c. Ependymal; choroid plexus d. Astrocytes; blood brain barrier
Ependymal; choroid plexus
In his experiments using electrophysiological methods to record dopamine neuron activity in behaving monkeys, Schultz demonstrated that these neurons: a. Exhibit burst firing for both CS presentation and delivery of juice reward following conditioning. b. Exhibit burst firing for CS presentation but reduced firing (relative to baseline) for delivery of juice reward following conditioning. c. Exhibit burst firing for CS presentation but are unresponsive to delivery of juice reward following conditioning. d. Are unresponsive during all components of the task but decrease firing when the experimenter entered or exited the testing room.
Exhibit burst firing for CS presentation but are unresponsive to delivery of juice reward following conditioning
What would be the effect of the cardiac glycosides digoxin and oubain on a neuron? a. Following an action potential, the cell would remain significantly hyperpolarized. b. Following an action potential, the cell would rapidly re-polarize and its absolute refractory period would become shortened. c. There would be a large increase in K+ concentration inside the cell. d. There would be a large increase in Na+ concentration inside the cell.
Following an action potential, the cell would remain significantly hyperpolarized
D2 receptors are coupled to _____ and their activation results in _________ excitability of the cell. a. Gq; decreased b. Gi; decreased c. Gx; increased d. Gs; increased.
Gi; decreased
What is the main thing that differentiates glia from neurons? a. Neurons release neurotransmitters, glia do not. b. Neurons have the potential to produce action potentials, glia do not. c. Glia have receptors on their membranes, neurons do not. d. Glia undergo mitosis, neurons do not
Glia undergo mitosis, neurons do not
When unconditioned behavior is studied in a psychopharmacology experiment, a common question that would be asked is: a. How many reinforcements did the subject obtain? b. How much of a behavior is present? c. What was the conditioned response (CR) exhibited by the subject? d. What would be considered the neutral stimulus?
How much of a behavior is present?
Which of the following statements about adenosine is false? a. It is a constituent of ATP. b. It builds up during wakefulness, creating a state of drowsiness. c. It acts on four different receptor subtypes. d. It is released by caffeine
It is released by caffeine
Which of the following about the metabolism of nicotine is false? a. It yields the principal metabolite cotinine. b. The liver enzyme CYP2A6 is involved. c. Its half-life is about 18 hours. d. Inefficient metabolizers may be less likely to become cigarette smokers.
Its half-life is about 18 hours
In laboratory animals, which of the following drugs does not typically serve as a positive reinforcer? a. methamphetamine b. LSD c. cocaine d. cannabis
LSD
Nonhuman animals will learn to press a lever to avoid an infusion of which of the following drugs? a. heroin b. alcohol c. LSD d. morphine
LSD
At low doses, caffeine primarily a. acts as an agonist at adenosine A1 receptors b. acts as an agonist at adenosine A2A receptors c. Both A and B d. None of the above
None of the above
Which of the following about cocaine administration and absorption is false? a. The cocaine metabolite benzoylecgonine can be detected for only a few hours after the last dose of drug. b. Rapid absorption occurs with intravenous and smoked forms of cocaine. c. Cocaethylene is a metabolite of cocaine and alcohol that exerts an effect similar to cocaine, but that lasts for a longer time. d. One key reason why smoking crack cocaine promotes addiction is because the brain receives a large surge of drug, even though the duration of its effects is relatively short.
One key reason why smoking crack cocaine promotes addiction is because the brain receives a large surge of drug, even though the duration of its effects is relatively short.
Which of the following is likely to be an important role for adenosine in the nervous system? a. Acts as an antagonist at adenosine receptors b. Promotes wakefulness c. Acts as a partial antagonist at opiate receptors d. Promotes sleepiness
Promotes sleepiness
An inverse agonist a. Acts like an antagonist at transporters. b. Reduces the activity of a constitutively active receptor. c. Increases the activity of a receptor without producing a conformational change in the receptor. d. Mimics the activity of an endogenous ligand by blocking the binding site
Reduces the activity of a constitutively active receptor
Cocaine has its highest affinity as an antagonist (i.e., blocker) at which type of transporter? a. NET b. DAT c. SERT d. VMAT
SERT
The rank order of potency for cocaine at monoamine transporters is: a. SERT > DAT >>> NET b. DAT > NET > SERT c. SERT ≈ DAT ≈ NET (i.e., approximately equal potency) d. NET >>> DAT > SERT ≈ VMAT
SERT > DAT >>> NET
Which of the following protein families is most directly involved in vesicle docking? a. SNARES. b. vesicular acetylcholine transporter c. Kinesin d. SM
SNARES
Which of the following is not part of the peripheral nervous system? a. Sympathetic nervous system b. Parasympathetic nervous system c. Spinal cord d. Cranial nerves
Spinal cord
In the electrophysiology study where recordings were made in dopamine cells in the substantia nigra (SN) or ventral tegmental area (VTA): a. tobacco smoke (TS) leads to a prolonged decrease in the activity of VTA cells, but not SN cells. b. TS leads to a prolonged decrease in the activity of SN cells, but not VTA cells. c. TS leads to a prolonged increase in the activity of VTA cells, but not SN cells. d. TS leads to a prolonged increase in the activity of SN cells, but not VTA cells.
TS leads to a prolonged increase in the activity of VTA cells, but not SN cells
If you administer a drug that is known to be an agonist that selectively targets autoreceptors, which of the following is the most likely effect that you would observe? a. The presynaptic neuron increases its firing rate. b. The postsynaptic neuron increases its firing rate. c. There is an increase in neurotransmitter release. d. There is a decrease in neurotransmitter release.
There is a decrease in neurotransmitter release
In rats trained to discriminate 10 mg/kg cocaine from saline, what was the effect of co-administering 5 mg/kg cocaine and a high dose of the D2 antagonist haloperidol (0.16 mg/kg)? a. There was a significant increase in responding on the cocaine-appropriate lever, compared to when 5 mg/kg cocaine and saline were co-administered. b. There was a significant decrease in responding on the cocaine-appropriate lever, compared to when 5 mg/kg cocaine and saline were co-administered. c. There was no change in responding on the cocaine-appropriate lever, compared to when 5 mg/kg cocaine and saline were co-administered. d. There was a shift in responding to the haloperidol associated lever, compared to when 5 mg/kg cocaine and saline were co-administered.
There was a significant decrease in responding on the cocaine-appropriate lever, compared to when 5 mg/kg cocaine and saline were co-administered
Which of the following most accurately describes the process involved in protein synthesis? a. Transcription factors activate promoter region → translation by ribosomes → transcription of mRNA b. Transcription factors activate promoter region → transcription of mRNA → translation by ribosomes c. Translation by ribosomes → transcription factors activate promoter region → transcription of mRNA d. Translation by ribosomes → transcription of cDNA → transcription factors activate promoter region
Transcription factors activate promoter region → transcription of mRNA → translation by ribosomes
____________ receptors mediate the effects of neurotrophic factors. a. Ligand-gated ion channel b. Tyrosine kinase c. Protein kinase A d. Metabotropic
Tyrosine kinase
Reinstatement of intravenous cocaine self-administration in a rat is: a. a model of addiction-like behavior with very little face validity b. a model of fixed interval reinforcement with reasonable content validity c. a model of variable interval reinforcement with very little face validity d. a model of addiction-like behavior with reasonable content validity
a model of addiction-like behavior with reasonable content validity
A research design that compares the behavior of a subject under the influence of a drug with the behavior of the same subject after being given a placebo is a. a statistically significant design. b. a within-subject design. c. not properly controlled. d. a between-subject design.
a within-subject design
Dopamine transporter knockout mice a. suffer from Huntington's disease. b. exhibit an increased latency to flick their tail in a morphine analgesia test. c. actively self-administer cocaine. d. are hyperactive after psychostimulant treatment.
actively self-administer cocaine
A primary reinforcer: a. is a natural reward like food. b. cannot be a non-natural reward like a drug. c. acts as a reinforcer without any prior experience. d. develops reinforcing properties only after it is paired with other reinforcers.
acts as a reinforcer without any prior experience
At low doses, caffeine primarily a. inhibits Ca2+ release b. stimulates Ca2+ release c. acts as an inhibitor of GABAA function d. acts as an antagonist at adenosine receptors
acts as an antagonist at adenosine receptors
You have just discovered a new drug and you hypothesize that its primary pharmacological effect is to act as an agonist at D3 receptors. Which of the following would be consistent with that hypothesis? a. phospholipase C (PLC) activity is increased following administration of your drug. b. adenylyl cyclase activity is decreased following administration of your drug. c. PKC activity is decreased following administration of your drug. d. cAMP activity is increased following administration of your drug.
adenylyl cyclase activity is decreased following administration of your drug
Both agonists and antagonists have _______ but only agonists have apparent _______. a. interactions; affinity b. affinity; bioavailability c. affinity; efficacy d. efficacy; affinity
affinity; efficacy
If you could measure the function of a nicotinic α4β2 receptor in a smoker after she had just finished a cigarette, what state would that receptor most likely be in? a. activated and allowing only Na+ ions through its channel b. activated and allowing only Ca2+ ions through its channel c. blocked due to nicotine's antagonist actions d. desensitized
desensitized
Methylphenidate (Ritalin) has its highest affinity for a. K+ channels. b. dopamine transporters. c. serotonin transporters. d. 5HT3 receptors.
dopamine transporters
For most drugs, especially those that are used therapeutically, main effects are the result of a. depot binding. b. first-pass metabolism. c. drug action at target sites. d. user-dependent variables.
drug action at target sites
In an empirical research design, which of the following would be considered an independent variable? a. rearing b. drug dose c. paw lick latency d. open arm entries
drug dose
In a conditioned place preference (CPP) experiment, time spent on the side of the chamber that was previously paired with a drug is a measure of: a. drug reward b. aversion c. unconditioned behavior d. addiction
drug reward
Open-field activity is typically used to assess experimentally a. the discriminative stimulus effects of drugs. b. different schedules of reinforcement. c. breakpoints. d. drugs that activate behavior.
drugs that activate behavior
In 1954, Olds and Milner were the first to show evidence that rats found ______________ rewarding. a. footshocks b. sex c. cocaine d. electrical stimulation of the brain.
electrical stimulation of the brain
In electrochemical detection, an applied voltage leads to a movement of _________ that can be measured as a change in _________. a. electrons; current b. protons; dopamine c. perfusate ; neurotransmitters d. neurotransmitters; concentration
electrons; current
Vesicles originate from a. the cell nucleus. b. dendrites. c. endosomes. d. ribosomes.
endosomes
Which of the following is NOT a potential cause for pharmacodynamic tolerance? a. enzyme induction b. increase in the number of receptors c. decrease in the sensitivity of receptors d. change in the function of receptors
enzyme induction
Which of the following cell types is responsible for creating cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) in the central nervous system? a. neurons b. Schwann cells c. astrocytes d. ependymal cells
ependymal cells
Rats who have dopamine transporters that are genetically engineered to be completely insensitive to cocaine (i.e., mice homozygous for the mutation): a. will self-administer cocaine when given the chance. b. find methamphetamine aversive. c. exhibit increases in nucleus accumbens dopamine levels following amphetamine, but not cocaine. d. All of the above.
exhibit increases in nucleus accumbens dopamine levels following amphetamine, but not cocaine
Cross-tolerance occurs when: a. the metabolism of a drug is decreased following repeated exposure. b. the effects of one drug interact with the effects of another and lead to an enhanced response to the second drug. c. repeated exposure to one drug leads to sensitization to a second drug. d. exposure to one drug reduces the effects of a second drug that has similar pharmacology
exposure to one drug reduces the effects of a second drug that has similar pharmacology
Ligand-gated ion channels are _______; G protein coupled receptors are _______. a. slow/ionotropic; fast/metabotropic. b. fast/ionotropic; slow/metabotropic. c. slow/metabotropic; fast/ionotropic. d. fast/metabotropic; slow/ionotropic.
fast/ionotropic; slow/metabotropic
Which schedule of reinforcement is associated with a "scalloping" effect where responding increases just before each reinforcement is earned? a. fixed interval b. random ratio c. variable interval d. fixed ratio
fixed interval
Which schedule of reinforcement is associated with a post-reinforcement pause? a. fixed interval b. random ratio c. variable interval d. fixed ratio
fixed ratio
In rats trained to discriminate diazepam from saline: a. flumazenil shifts the dose response curve for diazepam discrimination to the left. b. flumazenil generalizes to diazepam. c. flumazenil reduces the discriminative stimulus properties of diazepam. d. flumazenil substitutes for diazepam.
flumazenil reduces the discriminative stimulus properties of diazepam
Ligand-gated ion channels are composed of multiple subunits, each with a. four to five transmembrane domains. b. a ligand binding site. c. one transmembrane domain. d. an antagonist binding site.
four to five transmembrane domains
In a ligand-gated ion channel, there are ____ transmembrane domains in each of the ____ subunits of the receptor. a. seven; four b. four; seven c. five; four d. four; five
four; five
Which of the following has the most subtypes of vesicular transporters? a. GABA and glycine. b. glutamate. c. monamines. d. acetylcholine.
glutamate
Compared to amphetamine, cocaine: a. has a shorter half-life. b. has a longer half-life. c. is rapidly absorbed via the oral route. d. Both b and c.
has a shorter half-life
Vesicular transporters a. contain 5 subunits. b. have 12 transmembrane doamins. c. are directly coupled to the Na+/K+ pump. d. are enzymes that degrade neurotransmitter located in the synapse.
have 12 transmembrane doamins
Mice with cocaine insensitive dopamine transporters a. self-administer cocaine to a greater extent than heterozygous controls b. exhibit self-administration behavior that is indistinguishable from that observed in DAT knock-out mice. c. have no significant change in nucleus accumbens dopamine following cocaine injections. d. have no significant change in dorsal raphe dopamine following amphetamine injections.
have no significant change in nucleus accumbens dopamine following cocaine injections.
Drugs that block the action of plasma membrane transporter proteins would be expected to ________; drugs that facilitate the action these transporters would be expected to _________. a. decrease the level of neurotransmitter in the synapse; decrease the level of neurotransmitter in the synapse. b. increase the level of neurotransmitter in the synapse; increase the level of neurotransmitter in the synapse. c. increase the level of neurotransmitter in the synapse; decrease the level of neurotransmitter in the synapse. d. decrease the level of neurotransmitter in the synapse; increase the level of neurotransmitter in the synapse.
increase the level of neurotransmitter in the synapse; decrease the level of neurotransmitter in the synapse
Which of the following effects is associated with activation of D1 receptors? a. decreased phosphorylation of other proteins b. protein kinase A is inhibited c. increased expression of transcription factors such as CREB d. None of the above
increased expression of transcription factors such as CREB
In the elevated plus maze experiment we described in class, the highest dose of diazepam: a. increased the amount of time spent in the open arms of the maze. b. increased the amount of time spent in the closed arms of the maze. c. increased the total amount of motor activity that rats engaged in while they were on the maze. d. had an anxiogenic effect.
increased the amount of time spent in the open arms of the maze
In rats trained to lever press for food, responding _______________ when reinforcement is no longer available and _______________ across subsequent extinction sessions. a. increases; increases b. decreases; decreases c. increases; decreases d. decreases; does not change
increases; decreases
The "temporary inactivation" method of creating a lesion involves a. infusing a neurotoxin, such as 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA). b. applying a high intensity current to the brain. c. removing brain tissue using vacuum suction. d. infusing a drug such as lidocane.
infusing a drug such as lidocane
The binding of a drug molecule to a receptor a. is a dynamic process of association and disassociation. b. occurs only in the brain. c. is the result of the formation of covalent bonds. d. occurs only with drugs that are lipid soluble.
is a dynamic process of association and disassociation
Cotinine: a. is a high affinity agonist at nicotinic receptors. b. is a metabolite of amphetamine. c. has a half-life that is about 20 min. d. leads to decreases in mood.
is a high affinity agonist at nicotinic receptors
Disinhibition of dopamine projection neurons in the VTA: a. is caused by inhibition of GABA interneurons and results in decreased dopamine release in the NAc. b. is caused by inhibition of glutamate neurons and results in decreased dopamine release in the NAc. c. is caused by inhibition of GABA interneurons and results in increased dopamine release in the NAc. d. is caused by inhibition of glutamate neurons and results in decreased dopamine release in the NAc. When someone
is caused by inhibition of GABA interneurons and results in increased dopamine release in the NAc
Amphetamine increases synaptic levels of serotonin because: a. it increases the activity of the VMAT. b. it causes exchange diffusion. c. it increases the activity of MAO. d. it blocks COMT
it causes exchange diffusion
Amphetamine binds to a. D2 receptors b. norepinephrine transporters (NETs) c. vesicular acetylcholine transporters d. Both A and B
norepinephrine transporters (NETs)
Which of the following best describes the effect of caffeine on sleep? a. it causes insomnia and increases total sleep time. b. it causes insomnia and reduces total sleep time. c. it induces sleep and has no effect on total sleep time. d. it induces sleep and raises the acoustic arousal threshold.
it causes insomnia and reduces total sleep time
The reason why many pipe and cigar smokers don't inhale is because: a. it has an acid pH and the nicotine is already highly ionized. b. it has a basic pH which is irritating to the lungs c. pipe and cigar does not have nicotine. d. they might one day run for political office.
it has a basic pH which is irritating to the lungs
The concept of habituation refers to a. doing the same behavior repeatedly. b. learning the negative effects of a drug. c. conditioning of the withdrawal effects of drugs. d. learning not to respond to a repetitious stimulus.
learning not to respond to a repetitious stimulus
"Slow metabolizers" of nicotine are: a. more likely to smoke. b. less likely to smoke. c. more likely to have high levels of bicuculline in their system. d. less likely to have high levels of bicuculline in their system.
less likely to smoke
Amphetamine was originally synthesized as an alternative for: a. methamphetamine b. ma huang c. cocaine d. aspirin
ma huang
Which of the following is one of the important roles of Na+/K+ ATPases? a. provide a source of Cl- ions to drive the activity of other transporters. b. prevent action potentials from occurring. c. counteract the K+ leak that occurs via passive K+ channels. d. maintain cell volume by preventing the cell from swelling and bursting due to osmosis
maintain cell volume by preventing the cell from swelling and bursting due to osmosis
Coca chewers mix slaked lime with the wad of coca leaf they chew in order to: a. decrease side effects. b. make the saliva more basic and thereby improve absorption of cocaine. c. render cocaine undetectable by urinalysis. d. soften the coca leaves so they are less likely to cut or otherwise irritate their gums.
make the saliva more basic and thereby improve absorption of cocaine
Exchange diffusion occurs when a. dopamine escapes the synapse and can act on nearby synapses and cells. b. methamphetamine causes the plasma membrane transporter to work in reverse. c. norepinephrine is converted to epinephrine via the enzyme PNMT d. cocaine displaces acetylcholine from its binding site on muscarinic acetylcholine receptors.
methamphetamine causes the plasma membrane transporter to work in reverse
Cocaine acts in the nervous system by blocking _______ and _______. a. monoamine transporters; voltage-gated potassium channels b. monoamine release; voltage-gated calcium channels c. monoamine transporters; voltage-gated sodium channels d. monoamine synthesis; voltage-gated calcium channels
monoamine transporters; voltage-gated sodium channels
When tobacco is burned: a. nicotine is only one of thousands of compounds. b. nicotine is vaporized and serves as an inactive ingredient. c. nicotine is rapidly degraded. d. nicotine is rapidly converted to methoxsalen.
nicotine is only one of thousands of compounds
A double blind experiment is a. where a participant closes both eyes and reports hallucinations. b. where only the participant does not know whether he/she is in the experimental or the control group. c. where only the experimenter knows who has been given a placebo. d. none of the above.
none of the above
The processing of nicotine in chewing tobacco and oral snuff a. results in increased absorption via the stomach because of inhibition of metabolic enzymes. b. results in increased absorption at oral mucosa because of increases in mouth pH. c. results in a nicotine molecule that is highly ionized in the mouth. d. results in a product with low abuse and addiction properties because it is rapidly absorbed into the blood.
results in increased absorption at oral mucosa because of increases in mouth pH
In Pavlov's experiment in dogs given apomorphine, he demonstrated dogs would a. avoid a place where they had previously been given the drug (i.e., conditioned place aversion). b. become aggressive towards other dogs after they were injected with the drug. c. approach a place where they had previously been given the drug (i.e., conditioned place preference). d. salivate in response to a cue they had previously associated with the drug injection.
salivate in response to a cue they had previously associated with the drug injection
When a stimulus acquires its reinforcing properties after it has been paired with a food reward, it is considered a/an a. extinguished reinforcer. b. primary reinforcer. c. secondary reinforcer. d. aversive stimulus.
secondary reinforcer
Reverse tolerance is a. not observed in combination with tolerance. b. when a previously observed drug effect returns because drug use significantly decreases. c. sensitization. d. All of the above.
sensitization
The half-life of cocaine in plasma is significantly ____________ than that of amphetamine, which is why cocaine abusers tend to self-administer the drug __________________ than those who abuse amphetamine. a. longer; more frequently b. shorter; more frequently c. longer; less frequently d. shorter; less frequently
shorter; more frequently
Following oral administration, how would you characterize the relative absorption of amphetamine? a. slow, because amphetamine has a pKa well above the pH of the stomach. b. slow, because the amphetamine molecules will be in a low ionization state. c. fast, because amphetamine is a weak acid. d. fast, because the amphetamine molecules will be in a high ionization state.
slow, because amphetamine has a pKa well above the pH of the stomach
Compared to nicotine delivery via cigarettes, the pharmacokinetic profile of nicotine when it is delivered by a patch or gum is characterized by a. higher absolute blood levels for a comparable dose. b. more rapid absorption. c. slower absorption. d. a lack of psychoactive effect since nicotine concentration in the blood never reaches a significant level.
slower absorption
Punding is the human equivalent of a. depressive behavior in nonhumans. b. excessive eating in nonhumans. c. brain damage in nonhumans. d. stereotyped behavior in nonhumans.
stereotyped behavior in nonhumans
Mephedrone, which is the drug typically found in "bath salts", is a. an acetylcholine uptake blocker. b. substrate-like transporter ligand. c. inert substance when dry, but highly toxic when mixed in water. d. an endogenous inhibitor of glutamate synthesis.
substrate-like transporter ligand
In a drug discrimination experiment: a. responses on the drug-associated lever are reinforced by a drug infusion. b. rats are trained to lever press for a drug depending on its subjective effects. c. generalization tests reveal how similar the effects of the training drug are to the effects of structurally similar drugs. d. the interoceptive effects of the drug are used as a discriminative stimulus.
the interoceptive effects of the drug are used as a discriminative stimulus
Which of the following defines tolerance? a. an increase in the potency of a drug resulting from repeated administrations. b. the necessity to increase the dose of a drug to achieve the same effect after repeated administrations. c. a shift to the left of the dose response curve following repeated drug administrations. d. All of the above.
the necessity to increase the dose of a drug to achieve the same effect after repeated administrations
Breakpoint is a. the point of food deprivation at which an animal will choose food over a given dose of a drug. b. the point at which price increases of a drug will cause a person to increase consumption. c. the point during a punishment study where the electric shocks are so bad that the subject will not continue the task. d. the point where the demand on a progressive ratio schedule becomes too great and causes the organism to cease responding.
the point where the demand on a progressive ratio schedule becomes too great and causes the organism to cease responding
In the experiment that investigated amphetamine sensitization in humans, evidence for sensitization was provided by demonstrating: a. the subjective effects of amphetamine decreased with repeated exposure. b. the objective effects of amphetamine, as measured by eye blink rate, decreased with repeated exposure. c. the binding potential of [11C]raclopride in the ventral striatum was increased during the last dose (i.e., dose 5) compared to the first dose (i.e., dose 1). d. the the binding potential of [11C]raclopride in the ventral striatum was decreased during the last dose (i.e., dose 5) compared to the first dose (i.e., dose 1). 2. The half-life of cocaine is:
the the binding potential of [11C]raclopride in the ventral striatum was decreased during the last dose (i.e., dose 5) compared to the first dose (i.e., dose 1).
The resting potential is caused by a. the axon hillock. b. static electric charges built up by friction. c. the uneven distribution of ions inside and outside the cell. d. the release of ions by neighboring neurons.
the uneven distribution of ions inside and outside the cel
When an organism is expressing sensitization to a drug: a. their behavioral response is reduced compared to the first time they received the drug. b. their enzymes have upregulated and the blood levels of the drug are significantly lower than they were the first time they received the drug. c. their receptors are no longer becoming activated by the drug. d. they are exhibiting reverse tolerance.
they are exhibiting reverse tolerance
In rats that are trained to lever press for cocaine and are then forced to be abstinent by isolation in their home cage, their return to the self-administration chamber is associated with: a. very low levels of lever pressing. b. very high levels of lever pressing. c. no lever pressing. d. None of the above because rats cannot be trained to lever press for cocaine.
very high levels of lever pressing
Amphetamine is a: a. weak base with a pKa between 0.5-1.5. b. weak base with a pKa between 9-10. c. weak acid with a pKa between 5.5-6.5. d. weak acid with pKa between 9.5-10.3.
weak base with a pKa between 9-10
Nicotine is a a. weak acid with pKa = 8.0, suggesting it will be highly ionized in acidic environments (e.g., stomach). b. weak base with pKa = 8.0, suggesting it will be highly ionized in acidic environments (e.g., stomach). c. weak acid with pKa = 3.0, suggesting it will be highly ionized in basic environments (e.g., blood). d. weak base with pKa = 3.0, suggesting it will be highly ionized in basic environments (e.g., blood).
weak base with pKa = 8.0, suggesting it will be highly ionized in acidic environments (e.g., stomach)
Caffeine is a: a. weak acid, with a pKa of ~8.0 b. weak acid, with a pKa of ~0.5 c. weak base, with a pKa of ~8.0 d. weak base, with a pKa of ~0.5
weak base, with a pKa of ~0.5
In the blood, the weak base caffeine: a. will be highly ionized because it has a pKa = 0.5. b. will be almost completely non-ionized because it has a pKa = 0.5. c. will be highly ionized because it has a pKa = 8.0. d. will be almost completely non-ionized because it has a pKa = 8.0.
will be almost completely non-ionized because it has a pKa = 0.5
Baboons a. will not self-administer caffeine. b. will self-administer caffeine, but in an erratic manner characterized by days where they take significant amounts and days where they take little to no drug. c. will self-administer caffeine at a high constant rate. d. will self-administer caffeine at a high constant rate, but only when the drug is given in the presence of a female baboon that is also taking the drug.
will self-administer caffeine, but in an erratic manner characterized by days where they take significant amounts and days where they take little to no drug
Physiological changes that occur following discontinuation of a drug that had been administered repeatedly are called a. withdrawal symptoms. b. physical or physiological dependence. c. dependence. d. abstinence disruption.
withdrawal symptoms