Public Speaking Final Exam

Define affective language.

Strong, provocative language that stirs up an audience's emotions

How many times should your practice before delivering your speech?

As many times as possible

Define the four specific qualities that influence our perceptions of a speaker.

1 trustworthiness: we are more likely to listen to and act on the advice of people who we think are honest and concerned about our best interests; integrity and sincerity inspire trust 2. competence: listeners tend to be persuaded more easily by speakers they view as intelligent, well informed, or personally competent 3. open- mindedness: a speaker's ethos are also influenced by the impressions listeners have of his or her open mindedness; audiences value speakers who seem willing to enter into a dialogue, consider various points of view, and search for common ground 4. dynamism: audiences look positively on speakers who are energetic and enthusiastic; this means achieving the right balance of enthusiasm and self-control; setting the right tone for the occasion; type of filter

Name the fallacies of relevance.

1. Appeal to ignorance 2. Appeal to popular beliefs 3. The non sequitur 4. Appeal to tradition 5. The red herring fallacy 6. The straw man fallacy

Besides focusing on what is believed to be true, questions of value should also consider what is

1. Appropriate 2. Legal 3. Ethical 4. Moral

The answers to which questions help determine the quality of evidence?

1. Are the examples representative? 2. Are the statistics reliable? 3. Is the testimony authoritative? 4. Are the comparisons sound- that is, are the objects or ideas being compared really comparable?

Explain the four standards of a reasonable argument.

1. Claims: the debatable assertions put forward by a speaker 2. Evidence: used to help persuade an audience to accept a factual claim; can be statistics, specific examples, testimony by experts, and other sorts of evidence 3. Warrants: the general assumptions, rules, or principles that connect evidence to claims 4. The burden proof: the standards or expectations that define a "reasonable argument" in a particular situation or the proof necessary to warrant serious consideration and further debate over an advocate's claims.

What are the two basic variations of the meaning of facts?

1. Describe something that is already established as true 2. Something that we can just look up in a reference book or by using an appropriate measurement

A question of fact typically involves issues of?

1. Existence: making someone think something is real or alive when it might not ne 2. Scope: can be debates over how many Americans are unemployed or the extent of a flu epidemic 3. Causality: the relationship between cause and effect and how they are related

Persuasive issues revolve around the questions of?

1. Fact (what is true) 2. Value (what is good or bad) 3. Policy (What we should do in the future)

Name the four categories of fallacies.

1. Fallacies of relevance 2. Fallacies of faulty reasoning 3. Fallacies of inadequate evidence 4. Fallacies of personal attack

Name and explain each of the fallacies of evidence.

1. False cause (Post hoc, ergo propter hoc): The fallacy that occurs when a speaker assumes that because one event precedes another, it must have caused it. 2. The hasty generalization: The fallacy that occurs when a speaker generalizes from too few examples.

Name the fallacies of reasoning:

1. False dilemma 2. Begging the question 3. The faulty analogy 4. The slippery slope

What is the focus of a question of value?

1. Good or bad 2. Right or wrong 3. Just or unjust 4. Moral and immoral

What are the four forms of inferential reasoning? Explain the meaning and purpose of each one.

1. Inductive reasoning: reasoning from particular instances or examples to a general conclusion; helpful when trying to gather a realistic outcome 2. Deductive reasoning: reasoning from an accepted generalization to a conclusion about a particular case; helpful to testing if information is correct and has a realistic conclusion 3. Casual reasoning: reasoning that aims to prove relationships between effects and causes; helpful when figuring out the relationship between the cause of actions and the effect it has 4. Analogical reasoning: inferring that what is true of one case will be true of another, similar case; helpful when making decisions and problem solving

What do people seek when trying to persuade someone?

1. Influence the beliefs, values, or actions of others 2. "Make the case" for a new policy or program

What does the success of our democracy depend on?

1. Our willingness to subject our ideas to the scrutiny of public debate 2. To be open minded and respectful toward those who disagree

Name and explain the fallacies of personal attack.

1. The Ad hominem fallacy: The fallacy that occurs when a speaker substitutes an attack on a person for a refutation of that person's arguments 2. Guilt by association: The fallacy that occurs when an advocate judges an idea, person, or program solely on the basis of its association with other ideas, people, or programs

What are the three basic tests of evidence?

1. The quality of the evidence should justify the audience's acceptance 2. The evidence must be relevant to the claim 3. The amount of evidence used must be sufficient to support the claim

Name and discuss delivery techniques for ceremonial speaking.

1. Vivid language and imagery: In a ceremonial speech, you should pay closer attention to language and choose your words carefully to achieve a more eloquent tone. Not all epideictic speeches are flowery or poetic, but all should reflect careful attention to language and style. 2. rhythm and cadence: In general, strive for a smooth, balanced rhythm, paying special attention to the length and structure of the speech's phrases and sentences. You also may employ stylistic devices that contribute to a more "poetic" rhythm, such as antithesis, parallelism, or simple repetition. 3. speaking from a manuscript: On most occasions, you will deliver your ceremonial speech from a manuscript rather than from an outline or brief notes. That is, you will take care to present the speech exactly as written. This is not to say that you should stand before your audience, eyes glued to your manuscript, and simply read the speech.

Characteristics of speech that engage your audience emotionally include?

1. affective language 2. shared values 2. vivid detail 4. visualization 5. familiar references

Ceremonial speeches accomplish the following:

1. comfort us 2. inspires us 3. reinforces our faith in ourselves and in one another

These speeches help?

1. defines who we are as a people 2. binds us together as members of a group, community, or nation

Name the types of ceremonial speeches in a free society.

1. remembering the past 2. honoring heroes 3. celebrating shared beliefs and values 4. offering inspiration and encouragement

Any issues addressed in a speech must be grounded in?

1. research 2. analysis of both your topic and your audience

How can you enhance your ethos?

1. show your audience that you share their experiences and concerns 2. bolster your own ethos with the ethos of reputable experts 3. strengthen your ethos with personal experiences 4. strive to be clear and interesting 5. show your audience that you have considered different points of view 6. develop a dynamic, audience- centered delivery

The purpose in a persuasive speech should be clear. That purpose may be one of the following:

1. simulate their thinking 2. aspire to change minds 3. inspire the audience to act in some way

Aristotle identified the most important dimensions of ethos as?

1. speaker's character 2. intelligence 3. goodwill

What are the six ways to appeal to audience emotions?

1. strong affective language 2. appealing to shared social values 3. providing specific vivid detail 4. helping listeners visualize what you are talking about 5. comparing the unfamiliar to the familiar

Whatever your purpose in a persuasive speech regarding policy, the speech should reflect?

1. the current status of the public controversy surrounding your topic 2. the existing beliefs and opinions of your audience

Even when agreement on a particular approach to some problem is reached, there may still be debates about?

1. the details of implementation 2. financing 3. administration

Identify the different types of ceremonial speeches.

1. the speech of introduction 2. welcome and farewell addresses 3. presentation and acceptance speeches 4. commemoration and commencement speeches 5. tributes and eulogies 6. inaugural and keynote addresses 7. the after-dinner speech 8. sermons

A question of policy has to do with our actions in the future because?

1. there is something wrong in our world 2. we need to correct it, we have a problem that needs to be solved

How do we choose and define the general principles that we employ in value arguments?

1. we may find principles written in a law book or in a professional code of ethics 2. we might rely on reputable authorities to suggest the appropriate principle or criteria of judgment 3. we may consult with experts in constitutional law 4. we should consult whomever our audience considers a credible moral authority

When considering options regarding a question of policy, we must consider?

1. weigh out its effectiveness in solving the problem 2. cost 3. feasibility 4. advantages and disadvantages that it might have

What are the qualities of open-mindedness?

1. willing to listen to others 2. treat their ideas fairly 3. remain open to at least the possibility of changing your own mind

Appeal to tradition:

A fallacy in which a speaker offers past ways of doing things as the only reason for or against doing something now or in the future

The red herring fallacy:

A fallacy in which the speaker attempts to throw an audience off track by raising an irrelevant, often highly emotional issue that prevents critical examination of an argument

The non sequitur:

A fallacy that occurs when a conclusion simply does not follow logically from the arguments and evidence that precede it.

What is an enthymeme or a rhetorical syllogism?

A form of deductive reasoning in which the speaker draws inferences from a general principle or rule, often unstated, that is already accepted by the audience

Define argument.

A series of ideas, each one supported by evidence, used to advance a particular position on an issue

The speech of introduction:

A type of ceremonial or epideictic speech in which the speaker's purpose is to welcome and introduce another speaker, reinforce that speaker's credibility, and provide any background information necessary for the audience to understand the featured speech.

Appeal to popular beliefs:

Also known as bandwagon appeal; The fallacy that occurs when a speaker urges listeners to accept something simply because so many others accept it.

The after-dinner speech:

Ceremonial speeches designed to entertain while still saying something significant.

Commemoration and commencement speeches:

Commemorative= A ceremonial speech marking an important date or event Commencement= A type of ceremonial speech— more specifically, a type of commemorative speech—celebrating the social values associated with graduation from an educational institution.

What is persuasion rooted in?

Controversy

Define demagoguery.

Deceptive or manipulative speech, often relying upon the charismatic ethos of the demagogue and appealing to "dark" emotions like hatred or fear

How may these delivery problems be overcome or avoided?

Delivering a speech from manuscript requires that you write the speech in a good oral style, using words and sentence constructions that you will not stumble over as you speak. It also requires that you make a special effort to maintain a slow, deliberate pace that allows you to stay connected to your audience. Never forget that you are delivering a speech, not simply reading out loud

Define fallacies.

Flaws in reasoning and evidence that render arguments logically unsound

What are debates over questions all about?

Determining how we should evaluate specific facts, ideas, or actions

What kind of proof is needed for fact?

Empirical proof; real examples, statistics, and testimony.

Why should questions of fact be resolved before debating questions of value or policy?

If you cannot agree about the questions of fact, it makes little sense to discuss solutions

Inaugural and keynote addresses:

Inaugural addresses Ceremonial addresses given upon assuming a new office or position Keynote addresses= Ceremonial speeches designed to set the tone and sound the key themes of a meeting, conference, or other formal gathering.

What qualities inspire trust?

Integrity and sincerity

How can vivid detail be used to help audience members?

It can help your audience relate to your topic emotionally. Persuasive speakers engage audiences' feelings by reinforcing their ideas with vivid detail

Define eloquence as related to delivering a speech.

It is a way to give a persuasive way of speaking.

Why is appealing to an audience's emotions fundamental?

It is fundamental to motivating them to act

Celebrating shared beliefs and values:

It is important to recognize that the shared beliefs and values of one group may be controversial or rejected altogether within another community

What does deliberating "in good faith" mean?

It means debating and discussing controversial issues in spirit of mutual respect, with a commitment to telling the truth, backing arguments with sound reasoning and evidence, and remaining open to changing one's mind

Explain the value of shared values between speaker and audience. Why is this important?

Listeners are more likely to be emotionally engaged when their own values are involved. Even if you don't embrace the ideas a speaker is presenting, you will have a stronger emotional appeal if the idea(s) are something you agree with

What are some delivery problems to avoid when using a manuscript?

Most speakers find it more difficult to maintain eye contact, use physical movement and gestures, sustain the appropriate rate and volume, and react to audience feedback while reading from a manuscript.

Describe how one might best deliver a speech when using a manuscript.

On most occasions, you will deliver your ceremonial speech from a manuscript rather than from an outline or brief notes. That is, you will take care to present the speech exactly as written. This is not to say that you should stand before your audience, eyes glued to your manuscript, and simply read the speech. The reason most ceremonial speeches are delivered from manuscript should be obvious: because of the emphasis on language and style, it is important that we deliver the speech precisely as written. That is not to say that you should never diverge from your manuscript or "ad lib" a few lines.

Presentation and acceptance speeches:

Presentation= Ceremonial or epideictic speeches in which the speaker formally announces the winner of some award or other recognition and reminds the audience of why the recipient is worthy of the recognition Acceptance= Ceremonial or epideictic speeches in which the speaker expresses gratitude for an award or some other recognition and gives credit to those who contributed to his or her success.

Define reasoning.

Reaching a conclusion on the basis of supporting evidence

Define empirical proof.

Real examples, statistics, and testimony from experts

Sermons:

Religious speeches that may be either persuasive or ceremonial (epideictic), depending on the occasion, purpose, and audience

Why would a speaker use familiar references?

Speakers often relate new ideas, plans, or proposals to familiar things, not so much to prove their value but to help listeners feel more comfortable with something new. It helps with making complicated and even controversial ideas more familiar and in everyday terms

Define persuasion.

The chief mechanism through which citizens in a democracy select their leaders, determine their civic priorities, resolve controversies and disputes, and choose among various policies

What do public controversies involve?

The choice we must make as citizens; they affect the whole community, perhaps even the nation or the world

The faulty analogy:

The fallacy of analogical reasoning that occurs when speakers compare things that are not, in fact, similar.

Appeal to ignorance:

The fallacy that occurs when a speaker argues that because something has never been proven wrong, it must be right. Or the opposite: because something has never been proven true, it must be false

The straw man fallacy:

The fallacy that occurs when a speaker attributes a flimsy, easy-to-refute argument to his opponent, then proceeds to demolish it, in the process misrepresenting the opponent's real position

The slippery slope:

The fallacy that occurs when a speaker claims that some cause will inevitably lead to undesirable effects, ultimately resulting in some worst-case scenario.

Begging the question:

The fallacy that occurs when a speaker makes a claim that assumes the very thing he or she hopes to prove, thus arguing in a circle

False dilemma:

The fallacy that occurs when a speaker suggests that we have only two alternatives, when in fact more than two alternatives exist.

Explain the meaning of ethos, especially as it applies to a speaker.

The perception we have of a speaker and whether that perception is positive or negative

Explain how ceremonial speeches define and reinforce social values.

The purpose is typically to articulate and reinforce existing social values. Most important, they reinforce the shared social values that define us as a community. Sometimes ceremonial speeches affirm traditional values and work to preserve things as they are. Yet ceremonial speeches can also be powerful agents of change, challenging prevailing values or pointing to contradictions between our ideals and our actions.

Explain the role of reservations in an argument.

They are exceptions to our claim or stipulated conditions under which we no longer hold to out claim. By identifying one or two major reservations, however, you can assert your claim more confidently and still make a reasonable argument

What are qualifiers? Why are they significant in preparing an argument?

They are the words or phrases that indicate the level of confidence we have in our claims. If you over qualify our claim at all, we may sound unsure or wishy washy, BUT if you don't qualify your claim at all, we may overstate our case

Why should you use note cards with a key word outline to deliver your speech?

They are there to help remind us of key points; they prevent us from reading our speech word for word; with a piece of paper, if you are nervous and your hands shake, it is more noticeable with the paper

What is said about listeners who have little or no emotional involvement in a speech?

They are unlikely to be persuaded

What should appeals to your audience's emotions never do?

They should never substitute for reasoned arguments backed by the best available evidence

Speeches given on ceremonial occasions rich in?

They're rich in symbolic content

What is the value of visualization? How can it be achieved?

This can be achieved through the use of pictures or other visual aids and sometimes even with statistics or examples. When you help the audience visualize what you're talking about in your speech, you can stir their emotions, get them thinking more deeply about your topic, and clarify information that many have been vague or unclear

Why are style and delivery so important in ceremonial speaking?

This emphasis on "eloquence" focuses more attention on the speaker's language. When preparing a ceremonial speech, you should choose your language carefully, using vivid language and figures of speech to create memorable images and a poetic rhythm and cadence. And because of the emphasis on style, most ceremonial speeches are delivered word for word from a manuscript.

Tributes and eulogies:

Tributes= Ceremonial speeches honoring a person, group, event, organization, town, or community Eulogies= Ceremonial speeches paying tribute to a recently deceased person.

Discuss the ethics of emotional appeals.

Underneath the emotional appeal, there must be a sound argument and a substructure of evidence and reasoning. The speaker should appeal to their minds while recognizing that emotions play an important role in human behavior.

How does context affect ethos?

We are more concerned with whether they can explain technical aspects of plant clearly; whether they have the competence to answer our questions about how the plant would work; the context determines the characteristics

Welcome and farewell addresses:

Welcome= Ceremonial or epideictic speeches in which the speaker formally welcomes some honored guest or dignitary or some group of participants to a convention, fair, or similar public event Farewell= Ceremonial or epideictic speeches in which the speaker bids a formal farewell to his or her hosts during an extended visit or to employees, supporters, or constituents after serving for a time in a particular office or position.

Offering inspiration and encouragement:

Whatever the specific type of speech, the goal remains the same: to inspire and encourage people to be good citizens, do good work, and "give back" to their communities; basically, a motivational speech

Remembering the past:

When we remember the past, we come to a clearer understanding of ourselves and the challenges we face; being able to recall past events helps define who we are, what we stand for, and where we are headed in the future

Honoring heroes:

With this we emphasize themes of character and personal virtue, hoping to inspire others by holding up role models worth emulating; these can include presidents, explorers, military heroes, movie stars, etc

Define orator-statesman.

Woodrow Wilson's term for the ethical, civic-minded public speaker

What are the responsibilities involved in deliberating "in good faith"?

You must be able to tell the truth, at least as you see it; you must be able to back up your personal opinions with evidence and reasoning; you must be able to accept your burden of proof, or your responsibly to meet a certain standard of proof in a particular context