Question 1: Leadership Contingency Theories

What is internal/external locus of control? How does it pertain to CWBs?

(1) Internal locus of control---- If people believe that they have some control over the outcomes, they will find more constructive ways to cope with their negative emotions. (2) External locus of control---- External locus of control will make CWBs more likely. Narcissism and trait anger will likely react to negative environmental stimuli. Trait anxiety represents the general tendency to experience anxious emotions across a variety of situations and may heighten responses to negative or threatening environmental stimuli—likely to trigger CWB. Those with an external locus of control tend to believe that environment is not in direct control, but rather are the result of luck, fate, or powerful others.

In regards to the Psychological Contract Model, what are the four steps of a broken psychological contract?

(1) Passive, Constructive corner-- Starts with loyalty--- "I didn't get the raise this year like I was promised, but maybe I will get it next year (2) Constructive, Active corner-- Voicing Displeasure--- Instead of hoping things would get better " I was told I would get a raise, but I haven't received it yet" (3) Passive, Destructive corner--- Withdrawal---Neglect, letting work slide, not going to do too much (4) Active, Destructive corner---Quitting--- Sabotage

According to Murphy, what are the 8 ways to assess job performance?

(1) Pencil/paper tests(2) Job skill tests(3) Onsite hands on testing(4) off-site hands(5) high-fidelity simulations(6) Symbolic simulations(7) Task ratings (8) global ratings

(1) Define production deviance from Spector's 5 Factor Model.(2) Name examples of production deviance.(3) How often does it occur?(4) Why do people do it?(5) What are three factors that explain production deviance?(6) What factor in Spector's 5 Factor Model has an equal impact on the organization?

(1) Represents deliberate attempts by employees to work below their capabilities.(2) Common examples include purposefully doing work incorrectly, purposely working slower than one is capable of working, and deliberately failing to follow directions.(3) People occasionally waste time, but this form of deviance is rare because there is usually a high risk of consequences.(4) People do this in response to stressors(5) Three factors explain deviance. 1. The opportunity to do it. 2. Rewarded for looking bad (called impression management) —doing a mediocre job means you won't get assigned more work tasks 3. job boredom(6) Production deviance has the same impact as sabotage has on an organization. Frequently discussed with sabotage.

Antecedents of Creativity and Innovation

Must have task-relevant skills Must have creativity-relevant skills Learning goal orientation (motivated to learn new skills) Task motivation

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm (all mechanisms of resistance are used), resistance (only some mechanisms are used), exhaustion (body recognizes its mechanisms are depleted and makes another attempt to mobilize).

Vroom-Yetton-Jago Model

The Vroom-Yetton- Jago model (Vroom & Jago, 1988, 2007; Vroom & Yetton, 1973) is a contingency theory of leadership that focuses on one aspect of leadership: decision making. This model is also more prescriptive than the other theories discussed; that is, this theory is focused on providing leaders with a set of guidelines for which decision-making style to adopt. According to this model, leaders will be more effective to the extent that their decision-making style.

Validity

The ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure - important so false conclusions are not made.

Perceived Organizational Support (POS)

the degree to which employees believe an organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being

(1) Define Sabotage from Spector's 5 Factor Model.(2) Name examples of Sabotage.(3) How often does it occur?(4) Why do people do it?(5) What is a moderator of sabotage and interpersonal injustice?(6) What factor in Spector's 5 Factor Model has an equal impact on the organization?

(1) Represents deliberate attempts to directly or indirectly undermine the work that is being done with an organization. Deliberate destruction or damaging the organizations property or work of the organization's members.(2) Damaging a piece of equipment or property belonging to the organization. Purposely wasting materials or supplies or dirtying/littering ones work area.(3) Employees can face criminal prosecution if this behavior is done with great frequency.(4) Compared to other forms of CWB, sabotage is likely to be caused when an employee feels there is injustice. Some people won't engage in sabotage even though they know they are being mistreated.(5) interpersonal injustice and sabotage towards customers was moderated by moral identity(6) Sabotage has the same impact as production deviance has on the organization. Frequently discussed with production deviance.

Issues in researching OCBs

-direction of causality: OCBs cause effectiveness or vice versa?-validity of OCB concept: people may view OCBs as part of formal role responsibilities

Components of Campbell's model of determinants of job performance

1) Declarative knowledge (i.e., knowledge about facts and things, easily expressed) 2) Procedural knowledge 3) Motivation

Campbell's 8 Dimensions of Job Performance

1. Job-specific task proficiency (in-role) 2. Nonjob-specific task proficiency (in-role) 3. Written and Oral Communication (extra-role) 4. Demonstrating Effort (extra-role) 5. Maintaining Personal Discipline (extra-role) 6. Facilitating Peer and Team Performance (extra-role) 7. Supervision/Leadership (extra-role) 8. Management/Administration (extra-role)

Spector's five-factor model

1. Production Deviance - working below capabilities 2. Sabotage - (in)directly undermine the work being done in organizations 3. Theft - taking property or materials that don't belong (interesting bc even if you steal from employees and it doesn't affect org it creates a culture of suspicion). 4. Withdrawal - disengaging from the workplace (e.g., missing work, being late 5. Abuse toward others - verbal or physical behaviors that mistreat others in the workplace

Murphy's Model of Job Performance (4 Dimensions)

1. Task-oriented Behaviors 2. Interpersonally Oriented Behaviors 3. Downtime Behaviors 4. Destructive/Hazardous Behaviors

OCBs can be categorized into 5 different types

1.Altruism 2.Courtesy3. Sportsmanship4.(High level of) Consciousness 5. Civic Virtue

What did fielder say about relation oriented leaders with their LPC score? When are they the most effective?

A high LPC score indicates that leaders have described their least preferred co-worker in relatively favorable terms. This indicates that leaders are relationship-oriented because they are able to rate this co-worker favorably, even though the individual is not seen as someone who would facilitate task accomplishment. When situations are moderately favorable, Fiedler proposed that leaders who are relationship oriented (herein referred to as High LPC leaders) are most effective. The logic here is that moderately favorable situations are not "black and white." Such situations often require some interpersonal finesse, and a High LPC leader has this trait. Let's say, for example, that a leader is in a moderately favorable situation: Leader-member relations are good, but task structure and position power are low. High LPC leaders are needed because the leaders may have to rely heavily on their relationships with subordinates in order to clarify the task and ultimately get things done.

LMX and OCBs

A meta-analysis by Ilies, Nahrgang, and Morgeson (2007) of 50 different samples also found that LMX was positively related to employee OCBs, especially those OCBs directed toward fellow co-workers in contrast to the organization. However, a more recent meta-analysis by Rockstuhl, Dulebohn, Ang, and Shore (2012) found that the relationship between LMX and OCBs was weaker in more collective Asian cultures. These authors hypothesize that employees in Asian cultures may be sensitive to not only the individual relationship between an employee and his or her leader, but also to obligations and the broader collective context of the organization. In a more recent meta-analysis, Dulebohn et al. (2012) found that LMX was linked to lower turnover intentions and actual turnover, higher levels of OCB and performance, and more positive ratings of a variety of job attitudes and perceptions (e.g., job satisfaction, organizational commitment, organizational justice)

Situation-based factors associated with CWBs

Absence culture, drug culture, stressful conditions, perceived injustice

outcomes of organizational commitment

Absenteeism, turnover, job performance, attitudinal outcomes (e.g., affective, normative, continuance)

Vroom-Yetton-Jago Model: second part of the theory

According to the model, in order to determine which decision-making style is most appropriate leaders must analyze a situation for the presence or absence of the following eight attributes: (1) the need for a quality decision; (2) whether the leader has sufficient information to make the decision alone; (3) the degree to which the problem is structured; (4) whether subordinates' acceptance is needed for implementation; (5) whether subordinates will accept the leader's decision; (6) the degree to which subordinates share the organization's goals; (7) whether there will likely be conflict among subordinates as to the most preferred decision; and (8) whether subordinates have enough relevant information to make a decision on their own. According to the model, these eight situational attributes will determine a "feasibility set" of decision-making strategies. The feasibility set simply represents those decision-making strategies that may be appropriate for a given situation. The situational questions are asked in a sequential fashion that resembles a flowchart. Specifically, the leader's response to each question narrows the feasibility set until eventually one decision-making style is recommended.

Path-goal Theory: achievement-oriented leadership

Achievement-oriented leadership involves pushing followers to achieve excellence in their work. An achievement-oriented leader can help create excellence by expressing confidence in team members' abilities and setting challenging goals Achievement-oriented leadership represents behaviors that are aimed at helping employees to improve their performance and ultimately perform better. A leader may exhibit this leadership style in a number of ways, such as providing on-the-job coaching, setting challenging goals, making sure training and development opportunities are available, and seeing to it that subordinates have the resources they need in order to be successful.

Fiedler's Contingency Theory: Relationship-oriented leader- What does this mean for Danielle

Allow LPC score indicates a relatively unfavorable view of the least-preferred coworker. To Fiedler, this result shows that the leader is task-oriented, since this coworker's negativity affects task accomplishment more than any positive qualities he may possess. Based on my leader's low Low task structure, good member relations, and high position of power, my leader would have moderate situation favorability. According to this theory, relationship-oriented leaders are more likely to thrive in moderate situation favorability (Jex & Britt, 2014). According to the LPC quiz, my boss meets this contingency, as she is a relationship-oriented leader

Five Dimensions of OCBs

Altruism, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, courtesy, and civic virtue.

Daniella is hired at Coldwell Banker. On the way to her desk, she noticed that her boss dropped her pencil. Daniella picks it up for her. What is this an example of?Civic Virtue Conscientiousness Altruism Sportsmanship

Altruism-- Helping people for nothing in return

Occupational health psychology

An interdisciplinary field that is concerned with using the theories and methods of psychology (and other closely related fields) to enhance the health, safety, and well-being of employees

Leaders vs managers

Another issue that complicates the task of defining leadership is the frequent distinction between leadership and management. Leaders, some have argued, are people who obtain commitments from their subordinates and, in some cases, may even inspire them. Managers, on the other hand, are people who make sure the "trains run on time" and primarily obtain compliance from their subordinates. Managers are people who don't make things worse for their work group, but don't get them too excited either. Interestingly, the leadership-management distinction is much more of an issue in the popular leadership literature than it is among leadership scholars. This may explain why people have strong feelings about the issue

continuance commitment

organizational commitment based on the fact that an individual cannot afford to leave

Before giving raises, Daniella's boss begins to evaluate her employees job performance. Some of Daniella's coworkers frequently make mistakes. However, her boss views them as good employees. When an employee makes a mistake, she gets upset but never punishes anyone for their errors. She gives them all raises and high performance reviews because she wants everyone to keep their job. The assessment results are an example of which of the following? Artificial variability True variability Contrived variability Accurate variability

Artificial Variability

Least favorable situations for leaders according to fielder

At the other end of the spectrum, the least favorable situations for leaders are those in which leader-member relations are poor, task structure is low, and the leader has very low position power. From a leader's perspective, what could be worse? The fact that the leader does not get along well with his or her subordinates is likely to be unpleasant. However, when combined with a very vague and unstructured task and a very low level of authority, this is even worse. Leaders in this situation may have to spend the bulk of their time trying to influence or negotiate with subordinates to get anything accomplished. Furthermore, there is no guarantee that such influence attempts will be successful. The leader will have considerably less time available for things such as strategic planning, resource acquisition, or employee development.

Outcomes of Job Satisfaction

Attitudinal, absenteeism (weak), turnover, job performance (weak)

Fielder's contingency theory: octants online image

Based on the three situational attributes each has two levels, it is possible to come up with eight unique situations called octants.

Describe the institute of social research (ISR) model

Begins with the objective environment (anything in an employee's work environment)Next step is labeled "psychological environment" (employee perceives the objective environment/appraising aspects of work environment & making judgement as to if they are threatening)Response (physiological, behavioral, affective)Common physiological changes- increased heart rate/blood pressure/respirationCommon behavioral responses- decreased effort, inability to concentrateCommon emotional responses- increase in anxiety/depressive symptomsAdverse changes in mental & physical health (depending on severity/duration of immediate responses)Interpersonal relationsEnduring properties of the person (genetics, demographic. personality)**5 & 6 illustrate the impact of individual differences on all of the processes (perception, responses, & whether stressors lead to adverse mental/physical health)

Productive Behaviors

Behavior that contributes positively to the goals and objectives of the organization. New employees do not contribute during the initial "transition" period. Takes into account cost of achieving certain level of performance.

Job Performance

Behaviors employees engage in at work that contribute to organizational goals. Formally evaluated by the organization.

Courtesy

Behaviors reflect basic consideration for others. Example-- Periodically touching base with one's co-workers to find out how things are going, or letting someone know where one can be reached.

Daniella's boss gave a raise to an employee that frequently engaged in CWBs. Daniella was angry because not only was she handed the worst job in the company, the coworker that actively sabotages her was getting a raise. Daniella confronts her boss, and her boss lies about the amount of money her coworker makes. Is Daniella likely to engage in OCBs for this company ?A. Only if her personality predisposes her to B. Only if she was also given a raise for her hard work C. Both A and B D. None of the above

C

Daniella attends a team meeting at her job. Her boss says that she bought a gift card to reward an employee that is always on time to work. She gifts it to Daniella. Her boss tries to use this as a tactic to encourage the other employees to show up on time. Coming on time to work is an example of?Civic Virtue Conscientiousness Altruism Sportsmanship

Conscientiousness

Person-based factors associated with CWBs

Conscientiousness, trait anger, self-control, narcissism, locus of control

Path-goal Theory: Characteristics of the environment

Considering the characteristics of employees is essential since they interpret the behavior of their leaders based on their needs, including the degree of structure they need, affiliation, perceived ability level, and control desire. For example, providing more structure than employees need will motivate them less. Therefore, leaders must understand their employees to motivate them effectively (Jex & Britt, 2014). Based on this theory, task and environmental characteristics are important because if an obstacle becomes too strong, the leader must assist the employee in finding a path to overcome it. Workgroups, formal authority systems, and task design are some characteristics of tasks. One aspect of the situation that is important is the prevailing norms regarding authority and leadership within an organization. This is really an aspect of an organization's culture and reflects, for example, prevailing views on issues such as employee involvement and participation, the extent to which employees should take the initiative to solve work-related problems, and whether managers should get involved in subordinates' personal lives. In an organization that strongly values employee involvement and participation, a participative leadership style would fit much better than in a very autocratic organization. Similarly, in an organization that places a great deal of emphasis on employee self-reliance, a very directive style of leadership would probably not fit very well. On the other hand, achievement oriented and participative styles would be very compatible. Task structure is a second characteristic of the work environment that is important in determining the most appropriate leadership style. If a leader is directing a group that is working on a highly structured task (e.g., producing a very simple product), there would probably be little need for the leader to adopt a directive or a participative leadership style because members of the group know exactly what they're supposed to do. In contrast, when a task is highly unstructured (e.g., developing a new product), a leader may at times have to be directive, but may also need to be participative in order to help the group figure out how best to approach the task. The final environmental characteristic proposed by Path-Goal Theory is the nature of the work group one is leading. For example, in some groups, the task of providing direction is done by experienced members of the group rather than the leader. If this is the case, the leader does not need to be directive but could emphasize other leadership styles. Essentially, this means that the leader's behavior needs to "add value" to the behaviors being performed by members of the group

Daniella's has some rapport with her coworker. Her coworkers dad passes from brain cancer. Her coworker leaves the office for a couple weeks to take care of business. Daniella texts her coworker periodically to let her know she is there for her if she needs anything. What is this an example of? Civic Virtue Conscientiousness Altruism Courtesy

Courtesy

Civic virtue

Different from the others because the target is the organization or, in some cases, the work group--- rather than the individual. Example would be attending a charitable function for the organization.

Path-goal Theory: Directive leadership

Directive leadership focuses on making sure that subordinates know what they are supposed to be doing, and perhaps clarifying task responsibilities. A leader who meets with subordinates once a week to give out work assignments is exhibiting directive leadership. Leaders who practice participatory leadership incorporate followers' opinions and ideas into decision-making directive behavior involves setting expectations for follower performance anddefining the processes and procedures to be followed. Leaders who exercise directive leadershiptell their followers what to do, how to do it, and when to do it by (Schriesheim & Schriesheim,1980). When the tasks expected of employees are not clearly defined, directive leadership ismost effective (Northouse, 2013).

job satisfaction

Employee's overall satisfaction with their jobs, including feelings of positive affect toward their jobs or job situations.

Effectiveness

Evaluation of the results of an employee's job performance. Determined by more than JP alone (e.g., error).

Measures of Job Satisfaction

Faces Scale Job Descriptive Index (yes/no questions, normative data that allows the comparison of samples, no overall satisfaction scale, high construct validity) Job in General scale (created to address no overall satisfaction scale in JDI) Minnesota Satisfaction questionnaire (longest, 100ish questions, tested 20 facets) Job satisfaction survey (36 items, 9 facets)

Person-Environment Fit Model

Fit between person & environment determines amount of stress that person perceives.Employees see the environment as stressful when there is a lack of fit (e.g., creative individuals being bored of an environment that lacks flexibility and is mundane).

Determinants of absenteeism

Gender, absence control policies, absence culture, ability/desire to attend

How can sexual harassment be prevented?

Have a clearly articulated sexual harassment policy for both the organization and for customers, and inform people what sexual harassment is and what the consequences are for SH.

What are moderate situations for leaders according to fielder

In between these extremes are six other situations that Fiedler referred to as having moderate favorability for the leader. However, as an example of a moderately favorable situation, leaders may have good leader-member relations, high task structure, and low position power vis-à-vis their subordinates. From the leader's point of view, these situations are inherently more complex than situations of either very high or very low favorability.

What did fielder say about task oriented leaders with their LPC score? When are they most effective

In contrast, a low LPC score indicates that the least preferred co-worker is described in relatively unfavorable terms. This indicates that the leader is task-oriented, according to Fiedler, because this co-worker's negative impact on task accomplishment overrides any positive qualities this person may possess. Fiedler proposed that leaders who are task-oriented (herein referred to as Low LPC leaders) are most successful in either highly favorable or highly unfavorable situations. In highly favorable situations, Low LPC leaders will basically leave things alone and not try to introduce major changes. They will also not try to "get into people's heads" and become very close to them interpersonally. This type of leader behavior simply is not needed. In contrast, when situations are highly unfavorable, a Low LPC leader is probably the only type that will get anything done. In these situations, a High LPC leader's attempts to develop strong interpersonal ties will likely fall flat and will ultimately reduce the chances of any form of task accomplishment. In moderate situations Low LPC leaders would be unsuccessful in this situation, primarily because they may not see the complexities in the situation and may simply demand performance. The relationship between LPC and situational favorability is summarized in Figure 11.4.

in-role vs extra-role

In-role: technical aspects of the job, formal requirementsExtra-role: not formally required, but helps the organization run smoothly

Conscientiousness as an OCB

Involves being a good citizen in the workplace and doing things such as arriving on time for meetings.

Sportsmanship

Is different from other forms of OCB's because it is typically exhibited by not engaging in basic forms of behaviors like complaining about problems or minor inconveniences.

Three approaches to studying job satisfaction

Job characteristics (e.g., culture, work hours) Dispositional (e.g., affective characteristics) Social information processing (e.g., verbal comments about job characteristics)

Vroom-Yetton-Jago Model: AI

Leader makes the decision alone after considering the relevant information

Vroom-Yetton-Jago Model: AII

Leader makes the decision alone after obtaining relevant information directly from subordinates

Vroom-Yetton-Jago Model: CI

Leader shares the problem with each subordinate individually and then makes the decision alone.

Vroom-Yetton-Jago Model: CII

Leader shares the problem with subordinates as a group and then makes the decision alone.

Fiedler's Contingency Theory: leader-member relations

Leader-member relations, reflects the extent to which a leader gets along well with his or her subordinates. Generally speaking, situations are more favorable for leaders when they get along well with subordinates, and, conversely, less favorable if leader-member relations are poor. My manager meets the theory's leader-member relations contingency, as she gets along well with everyone she leads. For example, my coworker and I speak highly of her to each other because of our relationship with her as a team and individually.

Trait-Based Leadership

Leadership effectiveness is influenced by traits such as intelligence, self-confidence, determination, integrity, and sociability. This leadership theory favors the notion that leaders are born, not made. The basic premise behind the trait approach to leadership is actually quite simple: Those who are effective leaders possess traits that are different from those who are less effective leaders. Leadership research guided by the trait approach is aimed primarily at identifying traits that discriminate between effective and ineffective leaders

Leadership Theories can be divided into what three catagories?

Leadership theories can be divided into three categories: trait-based, behavioral-based, and contingency-based

Beehr and Franz's four perspectives on organizational stress

Medical, Clinical/Counseling, Engineering Psychology/Human Factors, Organizational Psychology

Contemporary organizational stressors

Mergers and acquisitions (e.g., when two organizations combine into one, or when a company controls another) Layoffs and job insecurity Emotional LaborTechnology-related stressors Work-Family Conflict

Challenges of LMX

One of the most important of these is continued refinement of what actually constitutes the exchange relationship itself. To measure the exchange relationship, Liden and Maslyn (1998) developed a scale that consisted of four distinct dimensions: (1) affect, which represents the levels of mutual interpersonal attraction between a leader and subordinate; (2) loyalty, which represents the amount of public support provided by each member of the leader-subordinate dyad; (3) contribution, which represents what each member of the leader-subordinate dyad contributes positively to the goals of the organization; and (4) professional respect, which represents the degree to which members of the leader-subordinate dyad have built a reputation, within and/or outside of work, because they excel in their line of work. Previous LMX scales have treated it as a one-dimensional construct. the unique relationship they develop with their immediate supervisor is one of the most important dimensions of their work experience. As such, it may influence many work outcomes. For example, Kokotovich, Jex, and Adams (2000) found that a high-quality LMX moderated the relationship between role ambiguity and job satisfaction. Employees reporting a high-quality LMX actually reacted positively to role ambiguity.

Path-goal Theory: Characteristics of the employee

Other contingency theories (e.g., House, 1971), however, propose that leaders are fully capable of adapting their behaviors to different situations. This really speaks to the more basic issue of the malleability of behavior With respect to subordinates, the two key factors that a leader must consider are perceived ability and personality. In considering perceived ability, what would be the most appropriate leadership style for subordinates who perceive themselves as having limited job-related abilities? For these subordinates, a leader would probably need to be quite directive, because these individuals likely would want to know exactly what to do. Participative leadership may not be emphasized because individuals who perceive their abilities to be limited may not have a great deal to contribute. Achievement-oriented and supportive leadership would probably be used to varying degrees, depending on other characteristics of the subordinates. When subordinates perceive themselves as having a great deal of task-related ability, a leader would probably need to put relatively little emphasis on directing. Instead, the leader may need to strongly emphasize achievement-oriented and participative leadership. Those who perceive their abilities to be high may have a strong desire to further develop those abilities; thus, achievement-oriented behaviors would be called for. These subordinates may also have a great deal to contribute, so it would be in the leader's best interests to solicit input and ideas from these individuals. Supportive leadership would likely be used in varying degrees, depending on other characteristics of subordinates. The second subordinate characteristic that leaders need to consider when deciding on a leadership style is personality. This is obviously a broad category, but one personality trait that Path-Goal Theory deems important is subordinates' locus of control. According to Rotter (1966), locus of control reflects relatively stable individual differences in beliefs regarding control of external reinforcements. People with an internal locus of control believe that they have a great deal of control over reinforcements. Such a person, for example, would believe that working hard would be a good thing to do because it would lead to positive outcomes. Persons with an external locus of control believe that reinforcements in their lives are due to external forces such as luck, fate, or, perhaps, powerful people. As a leader, managing an individual with an internal locus of control would probably require an emphasis on achievementoriented and participative leadership, and comparatively less on directive and supportive leadership. Employees with an internal locus of control believe that they have control over reinforcements, and hence are also likely to believe that if performance is increased, then positive rewards will result. Facilitating this process requires the use of achievement-oriented leadership. Also, because those with an internal locus of control (internals) may also perform well (Spector, 1982), it is often in the best interest of the leader to seek input from such individuals through participative leadership Those with an external locus of control will likely need greater direction from the leader; thus, directive leadership behaviors will be needed. Also, it is very likely that Modern Theories of Leadership 387 those with an external locus of control (externals) will need more support from the leader, compared to internals. Having an external locus of control has been shown to be associated with negative mental health outcomes (e.g., Spector, 1982; Storms & Spector, 1987); thus, externals may often be more anxious, frustrated, and dissatisfied than internals

Ways to test or measure job performance

Paper/pencil tests, job skills tests, on-site and off-site hands on testing, high fidelity simulations

Path-goal Theory: Participative leadership

Participative leadership is described as leaders who use a collaborative style in decision-making. Leaders who practice participatory leadership incorporate followers' opinions and ideas into decision-making (Schriesheim & Schriesheim, 1980). When leaders and subordinates work collaboratively on a task, participatory leadership works best (Northouse, 2013). Finally, participative leadership represents behaviors that are aimed at getting the input of subordinates on work-related matters. A leader who regularly seeks the input of subordinates before making important decisions is exhibiting this form of leadership.

Path-Goal Contingency Theory

Path-Goal Theory represents a very ambitious attempt to blend leadership and employee motivation into one theory. House actually stated this in Expectancy Theory terms (Vroom, 1964); specifically, if a leader is successful, subordinates' level of expectancy (the perception that effort will lead to performance) is raised. Stated differently, the function of leaders is to show subordinates the "path to the goal." the leader's job is to assist followers in attaining goals and to provide direction or support to ensure the goals are compatible with organizational goals Path-Goal Theory states that leaders must be able to adapt their leadership style to the subordinates being supervised and the situation. House proposed that, to be successful, a leader must be capable of utilizing the four different leadership styles: directive leadership, supportive leadership, achievement-oriented leadership, and participative leadership. Path-Goal Theory proposes that leaders should consider two situational factors when they are deciding on the appropriate leadership style: (1) characteristics of one's subordinates, and (2) characteristics of the work environment.

Conservation of Resources Theory

People are motivated to build their pool of resources over time, and the actual or threatened loss of resources creates stress (e.g., building up supervisor support, and when an employee feels as if the support is diminishing it can cause stress).This model contends that if a person experiences continued losses of resources without any resource gain, spirals will occur that eventually lead to burnout.

Pros and cons of drug testing

Pros: Prevents CWBs that are a result of drug consumption Cons: May result in adverse impact, expensive, controversial

Altruism

Prosocial behavior. Example-- Employee's voluntarily assisting coworkers who have difficulty operating their computer.

Behavioral-Based Leadership

Ralph Stogdill and Edwin Fleishman and their colleagues at Ohio State University (e.g., Fleishman, Harris, & Burtt, 1955). According to these researchers, leadership behavior can be broken down into two basic categories: (1) initiating structure and (2) consideration. Leader behaviors that comprise the initiating structure dimension are aimed at facilitating the task performance of groups University of Michigan made the distinction between job-centered leadership behavior and employee-centered leadership behavior (Likert, 1961). Blake and Mouton (1964) made a similar distinction between concern for production and concern for people in the development of their managerial grid. Note that all of these reflect a basic distinction between leader behaviors designed to facilitate task completion, and leader behaviors designed to enhance interpersonal harmony in a group. In addition, recent research has highlighted the importance of not only examining the overall level of the leader initiating structure and consideration, but also the level of initiating structure and consideration perceived to be needed by the employee However, one final issue that continues to plague the behavioral approach (and has from the beginning) is that researchers were never able to identify a set of leader behaviors that were consistently associated with effectiveness across all types of situations. This suggests that there is no universal set of leader behaviors that will result in leader effectiveness in all situations. Rather, the behaviors that are needed from a leader will vary from situation to situation. This realization led to the contingency approach

Challenges associated with testing/assessing job performance

Rater biases inadequate opportunity to observe performanceartificial restriction in performance variability (i.e., errors in performance ratings or errors in performance measurement) true restriction in performance variability (e.g., uniformity in job performance)instability of job performance over time (due to maintenance or transition stages)

Industrial side

Recruitment, selection, classification, compensation, performance appraisal, training Industrial psychology tends to focus on hiring, training and development, assessing employee performance, and legal issues associated with those issues.

Strain

Represents a multitude of maladaptive ways employees react to workplace stressors.

Stressor

Represents aspects of the work environment that may require some adaptive response on the part of the employee

organizational commitment

Represents employee's feelings of attachment and loyalty toward an organization.

Classic organizational stressors

Role stressors (e.g., role ambiguity, role conflict, role overload) workload (e.g., quantitative, qualitative) interpersonal conflict (e.g., verbal arguments) organizational constraints (e.g., lack of financial resources) perceived control (e.g., helping with management decisions.

Efficiency

Sometimes used interchangeably with productivity. Level of performance achieved in a certain period of time.

Daniella had a meeting with two of her bosses. They laughed and told her that her job sucks and that it was her cross to bear while she worked in the company. Instead of complaining and getting upset, Daniella smiles and laughs to avoid potential awkwardness. What is this an example of? Civic Virtue Conscientiousness Altruism Sportsmanship

Sportsmanship

Stimulus (Stress definition)

Stress is some type of force acting upon an individual

Response (Stress definition)

Stress is synonymous with the way people react to stressful situations

Stimulus-Response (Stress definition)

Stress is the overall process in which the work environment may negatively impact employees

Ways to reduce workplace stress

Stress management training health and fitness programs reduction of stressors (e.g., redesigning a job to be more autonomous)

hindrance stressors

Stressors that tend to be appraised as thwarting progress toward growth and achievement (e.g., an abusive supervisor)

Path-goal Theory: Supportive leadership

Supportive leadership involves attending to the needs and well-being of their subordinates, being friendly and accessible, and attempting to make their work more enjoyable (Schriesheim & Schriesheim, 1980). This leadership style suits employees facing personal obstacles such as low morale (Northouse, 2013). Supportive leadership represents behaviors that are aimed at showing concern and caring for subordinates. A leader who makes it a point to ask about a subordinate's sick child is exhibiting supportive leadership.

French & Raven: Bases of Power: coercive

The basis of this influence tactic is that one person can punish another. Thus, a subordinate may do what a leader requests because the leader has the power to fire the subordinate. Although the threat of punishment may give a leader considerable power over subordinates, coercive power generally is not a very efficient base of power. If subordinates do what the leader wants only because they are threatened with punishment, the leader's power is diminished considerably if he or she is not around to monitor the ongoing behavior and administer punishment if necessary

Vroom-Yetton-Jago Model: GII

The decision is made by group consensus.

French & Raven: Bases of Power: expert power

The fourth power base isexpert power. This is power based on the fact that an individual is perceived as an expert on something that is important to the target of influence. If leaders of a group of design engineers are also expert design engineers, this will make subordinates more likely to do what they say. One thing that is important to note about expert power is that it is the perception that is important. For this to be a viable power base, subordinates must perceive that the leader is an expert. Regardless of the level of one's true expertise, if this is not perceived, then no expert power exists. It is also possible for nonleaders within a given workgroup or organization to possess expert power. For example, if a certain employee is known as the individual possessing a large amount of knowledge regarding a particular topic or procedure, that employee will have expert power even if he or she is not technically a leader.

Equity Theory

The idea that employees try to maintain equity between inputs and outputs compared to others in similar positions

Absence culture

The informal norms within a work unit that determine how employees of that unit view absenteeism.

Most favorable situations for leaders according to fielder

The most favorable situations for leaders are those in which leader-member relations are good, task structure is high, and position power is high. In this type of situation, a leader gets along well with his or her subordinates, is directing a group of employees working on a well-defined task, and has a great deal of formal authority. From a leader's perspective, what could be better? A leader can then spend his or her time on activities such as strategic planning, acquiring resources for the group, and perhaps helping subordinates to develop their skills.

Describe Demands Control Model

The most stressful situations are those in which employees are subjected to high work demands yet have low control over decisions concerning their work.

Fiedler's Contingency Theory: task structure

The next situational attribute, task structure, reflects whether the subordinates are working on a task that is very straightforward and structured (e.g., produce 50 cars FIGURE 11.2 Determinants of Situation Favorability in Fiedler's Contingency Theory Task Structure Leader-Member Relations Position Power Situation Favorability per day), or whether the task is vague and unstructured (e.g., "Develop innovative products"). Although subordinates may find a lack of structure challenging, from a leader's perspective having a high degree of structure is more favorable than having a low degree. When task structure is high, the leader is required to spend less time clarifying the task for subordinates, and decisions are typically much easier to make. My leader only partially meets the contingency of this theory, as she structures our tasks by telling us what needs to be done, why the task needs to be done, and in what time frame it should be done, but she leaves how we accomplish the task to us. She often gives us autonomy and creative freedom to work on our projects since we have experienced leaders with the same leadership style. To fully meet this contingency, she must tell us how to do the assigned tasks

What is the second part of fielder's theory

The second portion of Fiedler's theory has to do with the characteristics of the leader. According to Fiedler, leaders can be reliably distinguished in terms of whether they are task-oriented versus relationship-oriented. To measure task versus relationship orientation in leaders, Fiedler and his colleagues developed the Least Preferred Co-worker Scale (LPC; Fiedler, 1967). As can be seen in Table 11.1, the LPC Scale consists of 18 pairs of adjectives. Respondents completing this scale are asked to think of a person with whom they currently work or have worked with in the past, and with whom they have had the most difficulty in getting work done.

French & Raven: Bases of Power: reward power

The second power base described by French and Raven is labeled reward power. This is essentially the opposite of coercive power. That is, subordinates do what the leader wants because the leader has the ability to reward them in some way. For example, a subordinate may comply with a leader's request that he or she work overtime because the leader has the power to grant this employee a larger pay increase when raises are given out. Unfortunately, as with coercive power, reward power is not a highly efficient power base. It requires the leader to monitor subordinates' behaviors and reward them at the appropriate time. An individual who possesses either coercive or reward power is likely to also possess the corresponding type of power. Leaders differ, however, in the extent to which they ultimately choose to use reward versus coercive power

French & Raven: Bases of Power:

The sixth and final base of power is referred to as informational power. As stated earlier, this is typically not presented as one of the bases of power in the French and Raven model, but it was included in the initial model (Raven, 1993). Leaders have informational power to the extent that they have high-quality information that will be convincing to subordinates. For example, a person trying to convince someone else to wear a seatbelt would have a great deal of informational power if valid data could be cited showing that the odds of being fatally injured are much lower if a seatbelt is being worn.

Fiedler's Contingency Theory: position power

The third determinant of situation favorability is the position power of the leaders—the amount of formal authority that leaders have over their subordinates. Some degree of authority is inherent in all leadership positions, but the amount of authority actually varies considerably. Some leaders are granted the authority to assign subordinates to different jobs, to evaluate their work, and to dismiss those who are not performing well. However, leadership positions do not always carry a great deal of authority. A good example is the chairperson of an academic department. A chairperson is technically "in charge" of an academic department, but this person has little formal authority beyond that of supervisors in many other types of organizations. From a leader's perspective, a high rather than a low position power is desirable. When position power is high, subordinates will typically do what the leader wants, and the leader does not have to exert a great deal of force over employees. When a leader's position power is low, subordinates may still do what the leader wants, but the leader may have to expend a great deal of effort to make that happen. Consider, for example, the chairperson of an academic department who is trying to persuade a tenured faculty member to teach a class that this individual does not want to teach. The chairperson must spend time and effort to persuade this individual to teach the course, and perhaps may have to offer something in return (a course release in the future). Every leadership position involves some level of authority, but the degree varies. The role of leadership may include assigning different jobs to subordinates, evaluating their work, and dismissing poor performers. My leader meets this contingency as she has full reign to manage how we perform our tasks to meet company goals and evaluate our performance.

French & Raven: Bases of Power: referent power

This is power based on subordinates' liking of a leader. Here, as in the identification mode of influence described earlier, subordinates do what the leader wants because they like him or her. Although this form of power does not require surveillance, it is also somewhat more tenuous than expert power because interpersonal attraction is considerably more volatile than expertise. If subordinates no longer have positive feelings toward leaders, then a great deal of their power over subordinates is lost

Daniella's boss begins to evaluate her production teams job performance. Daniella's boss gets mad because the production team frequently makes mistakes and is frequently late at printing important items. However, the reason the production team struggles to print stuff correctly and on time is because the printer always breaks down. She gives all of them low performance reviews. The results are an example of which of the following?Artificial variability True variability Contrived variability Accurate variability

True variability--situational constraints that ultimately reduces the variability in performance (Ex: mechanics cannot perform well without proper equipment).

Utility

Value of a given level of performance, effectiveness, or productivity for the organization. (If a professor is best at teaching but the university places more importance on research, then their utility is low).

Bennett and Robinson's two-factor model

Very broadly defines CWBs under two categories :Organizational: behaviors that are directed to the organization as a whole (e.g., wasting time, sabotage, talking negatively about the organization to others). Individual: behaviors that are directed toward employees, not the organization as a whole (e.g., excluding others, spreading rumors).

(1) What is Eustress? (2) What are some examples of Eustress? Can the body tell a difference between Eustress and stress?

What are some examples of Eustress? Can the body tell a difference between Eustress and stress? (1) positive stress(2) Examples include-- play games, playing sports, plan a wedding, or riding on a roller coaster(3) Body doesn't know the difference between stress and Eustress.

LMX and perceived exchange relationship research

What are the consequences of the exchange relationship that develops between a subordinate and a leader? Gerstner and Day (1997) conducted a meta-analysis of 79 studies that examined correlates of Leader- Member Exchange. They found that LMX was positively related to job performance, ob satisfaction, and organizational commitment, and negatively related to outcomes such as turnover and role stressors. One of the most perplexing findings in their meta-analysis was the relatively small correlation between leaders' and subordinates' reports on the quality of the exchange relationship (corrected r = .37). Thus, although leaders and subordinates tend to agree on the quality of the relationship that exists between them, this level of agreement is not great. At present, it is unclear why agreement on the quality of the exchange relationship is not higher, what factors influence agreement, or the impact of disagreements over the quality of the exchange relationship.

Organizational Citizenship Behaviors (OCBs)

When employees do things not required by their formal job descriptions (e.g., helping other employees with a task).

Practical avenues for reducing CWBs

Workplace climate that does not condone CWBs, screen personality factors that are negatively associated with CWBs

Definition of leadership

Yukl and Van Fleet (1992) define leadership as "a process that includes influencing the task objectives and strategies of an organization, influencing people in the organization to implement the strategies and achieve the objectives, influencing the group maintenance and identification, and influencing the culture of the organization

normative commitment

a desire to remain a member of an organization due to a feeling of obligation

Affective commitment

a desire to remain a member of an organization due to an emotional attachment to, and involvement with, that organization (Highest correlation with job satisfaction)

Meyer and Allen's three component model

a desire to remain a member of an organization due to an emotional attachment to, and involvement with, that organization (Highest correlation with job satisfaction)

Employee Theft

any unauthorized taking of company or personal property by employees for their personal use Though theft of other employees does not affect the organization per se, it can create a culture of suspicion.

What is implicit leadership theory?

based on the idea that people have beliefs about how leaders should behave and what they should do for their followers

implicit leadership theory

based on the idea that people have beliefs about how leaders should behave and what they should do for their followers

incivility

discourteous communication and rude behavior that are disrespectful, hurtful, or injurious

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Model

eaders typically develop a unique relationship with each subordinate, and some of these relationships are more positive than others. Based on this idea, Dansereau, Graen, and Haga (1975) developed the Vertical Dyad Linkage Model of leadership. The term Vertical Dyad was originally used to describe this theory because of its emphasis on the unique relationship between leaders and subordinates. Over time, however, the name of the theory eventually became Leader-Member Exchange because this relationship is really one that reflects social exchange between the leader and the subordinate. According to Dansereau et al. (1975), within work groups there are typically two sets of employees: the in-group and the out-group. The in-group consists of employees who are trusted confidants of the leader. These are typically individuals who perform well, have a desire to assume greater levels of responsibility, and simply get along well with the leader. Members of the out-group consist of the group of subordinates who have more formal relationships with the leader. Members of the in-group are typically privy to more information from the leader than are members of the out-group, and they are also given more discretion over how to do their jobs. Members of the out-group are typically individuals who may not perform as well, may not desire a great deal of responsibility, or simply may not get along as well with the leader as do members of the in-group

absence control policy

employers policies regarding missing work- may be strict or lenient

What individual differences seem to be the most universally successful predictors of performance?

general mental ability

French & Raven: Bases of Power: legitimate power

he third power base is labeled legitimate power. This power emanates from the position that one holds in an organization. In most organizational settings, the fact that one employee is another employee's supervisor means that the supervisor has a legitimate right to make requests of the other person. Note that this legitimate right is independent of the person holding the position. Compared to coercive and reward power, legitimate power is more efficient. It does not require surveillance on the leader's part because, in most organizations, the level of legitimate authority that goes with any given position is typically known. In fact, in many cases, it is even documented in job descriptions and other formal documents. A limitation of legitimate power, however, is that if it is used exclusively, it may elicit only compliance from subordinates and, in the long run, may engender a great deal of resentment among them. People generally do not like to be told to do something simply because "I'm your supervisor."

production deviance

intentionally reducing organizational efficiency of work output (e.g., producing less than you are capable of)

Distributive Justice

perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals

procedural justice

perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards

Employees typically have more control over ___________ than __________.

performance, effectiveness/productivity

Job embeddedness

refers to the fact that some people stay on their jobs, even when they decide they are unhappy and should leave. Other ties in the community or obligations keep the employee on the job. the amount of fit between the person, their job, the organization, and the community. The person has already established links b/w others in the org. or community. They would sacrifice too much if they left.

Cons of the trait approach in theory and why did it re-emerge?

research failed to generate a definitive profile of the traits that characterized "the effective leader," partly because some of the "traits" explored by these early leadership researchers (e.g., physical characteristics, gender) were not based on sound theoretical reasoning. In addition, the aim of most of these early leadership researchers was to use traits to distinguish effective from ineffective leaders. Given that numerous variables influence leaders' effectiveness, it is understandable that using traits alone to predict effectiveness met with only limited succe Over time, however, the trait approach to leadership resurfaced and made important contributions to the study of leadership, primarily due to two factors. First, researchers eventually decreased the emphasis on the prediction of leader effectiveness, in favor of predicting leader emergence. In group situations where there is not a formally designated leader, someone within the group eventually assumes the leadership role. Leadership emergence is simply the process by which this occurs. Those who are more intelligent, have higher needs for dominance, are high self-monitors, and are socially perceptive tend to emerge as leaders when no leader has been formally designated. This profile suggests that emergent leaders are able to: (1) accurately "read" the social dynamics of a situation, and (2) adapt their behavior to meet those social demands Colbert et al. (2012) also found that emergent leaders who were judged as higher in extraversion and openness to experience by their peers. Second, trait-based leadership research has made a comeback because the traits investigated in more recent research have been more theoretically plausible. According to Yukl and Van Fleet (1992), several traits have been identified that predict managerial effectiveness and advancement within organizations. These include a high energy level, stress tolerance, integrity, emotional maturity, and self-confidence

incivility

rude, intimidating, and undesirable behavior directed at another person

Organizational side

socialization. motivation, health and well-being, leadership, social norms, fairness Organizational psychology tends to focus on motivation, teamwork, and leadership.

challenge stressors

stressors that tend to be appraised as opportunities for growth and achievement (e.g., tight deadlines)

Productive forgetting

the ability to abandon unproductive searches and temporarily put aside problems

organization ideation

the creative process of generating, developing, and communicating new ideas

Interactional Justice

the degree to which people are treated with respect, kindness, and dignity in interpersonal interactions

absenteeism

the failure to show up for work

Theory of Planned Behavior

the idea that people's intentions are the best predictors of their deliberate behaviors, which are determined by their attitudes toward specific behaviors, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control

locus of control

the tendency for people to assume that they either have control or do not have control over events and consequences in their lives (internal or external)

Fiedler's Contingency Theory definition and components

theory stating that leadership effectiveness is dependent on the characteristics of the leader and the characteristics of the situation. Like all contingency theories, it proposes that the success of a leader depends on the interaction between characteristics of the situation and characteristics of the leader. According to Fiedler, situation favorability depends on leader-member relations, task structure, position power. Fiedler argues three factors determine situation favorability: leader-member relations, task structure, and position power. Based on these situational factors, Fiedler proposed two types of leaders: task-oriented and relationship-oriented. In some theories (e.g., Fiedler, 1967), it is proposed that leaders have a predetermined leadership style that is not subject to a great deal of modification

Contigency Theory

this approach holds that with respect to organizing, managing, and motivating that there is no one best way to go about it. also assumes that all approaches to a situation are equally appropriate. approach argues that different management styles depend on the context and that adopting one style is inefficient long-term The contingency approach is based on the assumption that the relationship between leader behaviors and traits and effectiveness depends on characteristics of the particular situation the leader is in. Most leadership theories developed during the past 30 years are contingency theories. Thus, it is accurate to say that the field of leadership has accepted the general premise behind contingency theories. Less consensus, however, has been given to many of the specifics of the contingency approach. For example, there is not a great deal of consensus regarding the specific aspects of the situation that leaders must "read" in order to adjust their behaviors. For example, several contingency theories propose that "subordinates" are one such factor, but there is not a great deal of agreement on what specific aspects of subordinates are the most important.

counterproductive work behaviors

types of behavior that harm employees and the organization as a whole

abusive supervision

variety of forms of abuse of subordinates at the hands of supervisors

Gruy and Sackett's 11-Factor Model

•1.Theft and related constructs• 2. Destruction of property• 3. Misuse of information (Edward Snowden)• 4. Misuse of time and resources 5. Unsafe behaviors 6. Poor attendance 7. Poor quality work •8. Alcohol use• 9. Drug use •10. Inappropriate physical action• 11. Inappropriate verbal action