Retrieval Practice Final

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What is attribute substitution and how is it related to heuristics? *Judgement & Decision-Making*

using one attribute (like fluency or similarity) to make a judgement about a different attribute (like frequency or probability) - ex: how often do you think you will go to the hospital in the next year? - you actually don't have this information - so you substitute a prediction of how often you are going to go with an estimate of how often you went in the past rather than really using information about how frequently something occurs, we might instead rely on how easily we can think of examples or how similar this example resembles to what we think is typical of that category when I ask you about one attribute (fluency, etc), you're basing you judgement on a different attribute (frequency, etc). the reason why heuristics tend to be wrong

How do we segment a continuous speech stream into separate words? Explain why a foreign language may sound like a continuous stream of sounds, while your native language sounds like separate words to you. *Language*

we aren't listening for silencing we are using top down knowledge

What is categorical perception? How is our perception of speech sounds influenced by visual information? *Language*

we tend to perceive hard boundaries between sounds when they're isn't when we produce sounds there's a lot of variability but we don't hear those differences all the time we tend to perceive phonemes categorically - ex: when hearing the word "pa" and there is a smooth transition, we don't perceive the smooth transition, there is a sudden switch to sounding like "ba" - we are very sensitive to differences between categories (difference between 'p' and 'b') but not sensitive to differences within categories (different ways that 'p' can sound)

What is the misinformation effect? *Memory*

when you contaminate people's memories by providing misleading information - someone else introduced misleading info when you are recalling a memory - plant a fake memory *how do people do this?:* - misleading questions - false suggestions - fake evidence

How is attention like a spotlight? How is it not like a spotlight? *Attention*

you can focus your attention on different areas and you can have a broad spotlight and a narrow spotlight is it based on objects & features or regions of space? --> BOTH - spatial attention to bias a region - object-based attention to focus the spotlight *how is it NOT like a spotlight?*

What is the problem of induction? How do confirmation bias and illusory correlation affect our inductive reasoning? *Judgement & Decision-Making*

In many causes we can't rely on deductive inferences - we can't guarantee to be right (can't guarantee the correct answer) - ex: all swans are white Swan #1 = white Swan #2 = white Swan #3 - white so are they all white? (no) we can't guarantee to be correct UNLESS we have experienced ALL POSSIBLE STANCES there are black swans! *how do confirmation bias and illusory correlation affect our inductive reasoning?* - *confirmation bias:* tendency to seek out evidence that confirms one's beliefs and discount disconfirming evidence - confirmation bias leads to --> *illusory covariation:* certain kids of experienced are more memorable then others and we tend to discount the less memorable data when we don't take into account all possible outcomes, and just make inferences based on our beliefs, this is how these influence inductive inference because we let our beliefs cloud facts without seeking out possible disconfirming data

What is the Wason 4-card task? What does it demonstrate about our logical reasoning ability? What can we do to improve reasoning in this kind of task? *Judgement & Decision-Making*

Shown 4 cards, each have a number on one side and a letter on the other - there is a RULE we want to test - RULE: if there is a 'G' on one side, then it has a '3' on the other side - which cards would you flip over to test to see if the rule is true or not? ANSWER: the 'G' and the '7' *what does it demonstrate about our logical reasoning ability?* there pertain to modus ponens and modus tollens - these are logical syllogisms that test reasoning ability

How is the "theory" theory of categorization different from probabilistic theories of categorization? How it is different from the classical theory? *Knowledge*

*"theory" theory* idea that we know a lot more about categories beyond just what they look like (beyond features in some sort of dimensional space) - categories provides an explanation (things belong in category bc it explains something about how the world works) - ex: being a dog explains something about what dogs do - theres a reason a dog is a dog - categories include causal explanations *probabilistic theory* based on some probability of being a category member or not - prototype - exemplar *how are they different?*

What are the 3 models of forgetting? How do they differ? *Memory*

*1. Memory Decay Hypothesis* -earliest theory every memory you have has a memory trace in the brain (some pattern of activation/nodes activated) and if you don't recall/study the information for a period of time it will loose its strength - use it or loose it hypothesis - BUT, there can be memories that you haven't thought about for a while but you can still recall (NOT WHOLE STORY) *2. Interference Theory* old memories can interfere with our ability to access new information, and new information can interfere with our ability to access old information - learning new info thats somewhere related to old info, can make it somewhat confusable (IS EVIDENCE FOR THIS) *3. Retrieval Failure* forgetting is simply a result of temporarily being unable to locate the stored information - temporarily insufficiently activated - if able to reactivate, that you would then have access to the memory - about whether or not we have sufficient activation

What factors might help us avoid memory errors? *Memory*

*1. Personal Relevance* better memory for information that is personally relevant to you *2. Emotion* amygdala activation is related to better memory consolidation, narrowing of attention, and increased rehearsal - events that are emotional tend to be less influenced by memory errors *3. Consolidation* memories are cemented into place by the hippocampus and amygdala - facilitated by SLEEP

What are the five key properties of language that we discussed in class? Define them and provide an example of each. *Language*

*1. symbolic:* made up of arbitrary relations between sounds and meaning (e.g., "dog") *2. discrete infinity (generativity):* a finite set of elements can generate a (potentially) infinite set of "meanings" *3. structure dependence:* meaning is conferred through a specific arrangement of symbols *4. displacement:* language allows referring to ideas/elements that are not "there" *5. organized at multiple levels:* sounds, words, sentences, paragraphs, text - discourse - syntax - semantics - morphology - phonology

What are the major functions of the brain? *The Brain*

*1.* Creating a sensory reality - gather sensory information from the environment and body *2.* Integrating information - send information to a central processor (the brain) and integrate that information to make a decision *3.* Producing a motor output - respond to the environment according to the information received - motor outputs --> speaking, pointing, writing, button pressing, etc.

What are some criticisms of probabilistic theories of categorization? *Knowledge*

*1.* both rely heavily on the idea of similarity - this is a problem because "In what way do we mean that they're similar?" - similarity is relative (infinite number of ways two things can be similar) -similar along which dimension? (How are they similar?) - similarity requires some assumption that aren't always met (degree of similarity between A and B may not be the same as the similarity between B and A--> son resembles father but father does not resemble son) *2.* similarity or typicality is not always a good indicator of category membership - things that appear to be in a category but are not - ex: take a lemon and paint it blue, smash, it and set it on fire --> changing appearance doesn't change what it is--> there is some essence of what makes a lemon a lemon, and changing the appearance doesn't change its essence - ex: counterfeit money is made to look similar but its not actually money (essential properties vs. superficial features)

Describe the organization of the cerebral cortex and what functions are localized where. *The Brain*

*CEREBRAL CORTEX:* - bumps = gyre - valleys = sulci - major valleys = fissures - *commissures:* connect the two hemispheres (largest = corpus callosum) *CORTICAL LOBES:* - *frontal lobe:* motor function, executive function - *parietal lobe:* somatosensory, spatial information - *temporal lobe:* audition, speech, emotion - *occipital lobe:* vision *SUBCORTICAL SATRUCTURES:* - *thalamus:* relay station for sensory information - *hypothalamus:* controls motivated behaviors such as eating, drinking, & sexual activity - *hippocampus:* involved in memory formation

How do different neuroimaging techniques differ? How would a researcher decide which technique to use in a given study? *The Brain*

*Computed Tomography (CT):* - better for showing bony structure *Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI):* static images of the brain (just show the STRUCTURE of the brain) - better for soft tissue *Positron Emission Tomography (PET):* tracking isotopes as they move around the brain (tells us about metabolic activity-- where the blood is being directed to support brain function) - shows brain activity - relies on subtraction method * functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI):* measuring volume of the oxygenated blood *Electrical Encephalography (EEG):* measure electrical activity (e.g., neurons firing action potential) --> *BEST TEMPORAL RESOLUTION* *Event Related Potential (ERP):* avg. of wave form in EEG's *Single Cell Recording:* record electrical signals - how an individual neurons responds to specific stimuli in environment *subtraction method:* - if we want to know what regions are involved in a particular task - observe what the brain looks like when completing a specific task, and then you compare (or subtract) what the brain looks when completing a different task - remainder tells us what areas are more/less active than usual

What is the difference between a concept and a category? *Knowledge*

*Concept* mental representations - are stable - very rich representations of our world - are interrelated - described in single word *Category* way of grouping things together on the basis of something - not always stable/ CAN change *why can it be difficult to differentiate between concept and category?:* - you can have one word represent both of these things - ex: concept of "lion" but they can also be a category of things - ex: "tallness" is a concept and can be a category

What different types of long-term memory do we have? How do they differ from each other? *Memory*

*Declarative memory (explicit):* memories that can be verbally expressed - episodic: event memory - semantic: fact memory *Non-declarative (implicit):* memories that cannot be verbally expressed - procedural: demonstrated by doing - classical conditioning: associations b/w stimuli - priming: implicit memory for recent/frequent stimuli *how do they differ?:* declarative memory can be verbally expressed whereas non-declarative memory is not verbally expressed

Describe the flow of information from the retina to the cortex. What kinds of information are detected in each layer? How is information from lower levels of the visual system aggregated at higher levels? *Perception & Recognition*

*Describe the flow of information* front: *cornea*(light passes thru) --> *pupil*(light passes thru) --> *lens*(focuses light)--> *iris*(controls pupil size + how much light enters the eye) back: *retina*(contains sensory receptors+ photoreceptors)--> *photoreceptors* (point of transduction that send action potential and stimulate next cell) --> *rods and cones* (rods: sensitive to light+detect luminance, cones: detect light + responsible for color vision)--> *bipolar cells* (synapse onto ganglion cells) --> *ganglion cells* (send axes out of eye into the brain) *How is information at lower levels aggregated at higher levels?*

What is the difference between excitation and inhibition? How do those processes work together to produce complex signals (i.e. why do we need both)? *The Brain*

*Excitation:* neurotransmitter that makes the receiving neuron more likely to fire an action potential (aka: cause the receiving neuron to take in positive ions) *Inhibition:* neurotransmitter that makes the receiving neurons less likely to fire an action potential (aka:cause the receiving neurons to take in negative ions when a cell is firing it is trying to communicate to the next neuron either "you should fire too" or "you should stop firing"--> this lets us differentiate signals like "go" and "don't go" - control inputs and outputs

How are experts different from novices, when it comes to solving problems? How might expertise help with problem solving, and how might it hurt? *Problem-Solving, Creativity, Expertise, & Intelligence*

*How are they DIFFERENT when solving problems?* - better schemas - well-organized knowledge in specific domain - spend more time determining how to represent a problem - select more appropriate strategies - faster at solving problems - are more accurate - perceptual learning

What is the difference between inductive and deductive inference? *Knowledge*

*Inductive inference* reaching a general conclusion based on specific examples - ex: if you are shown a set of objects and tell you that all of the objects belong to the same category, you can make a general conclusion about what is it that makes these things belong to the same category *Deductive inference* reaching a specific conclusion about a given instance, based on general principles - *ex:* once you know an object belongs in a specific category you can make assumptions about what might be true about the object *ex:* young kids can infer, without prior knowledge, something they cant see directly (what kind of food does this BIRD feed its babies?--> when you use the word BIRD they will infer that they unknown BIRD will feed its babies the same food and another bird but NOT A BAT) *categorization is an inductive inference* - if I show you an object and ask you what is it, you are inferring something about its commonalities with other objects and why they go together and why it's in that category

What are the general components of a problem? *Problem-Solving, Creativity, Expertise, & Intelligence*

*Initial state:* resources that you have *goal state:* the end product *operators:* a set of operations or actions that ca be taken to reach the goal state *constraints:* rules that cannot be violated

What is a flashbulb memory? What do flashbulb memories tell us about memory errors? *Memory*

*What is a flashbulb memory?:* vivid memory of something that was important, exciting, or devastating, recent or remote, but ARE highly emotional memories - can be for public events - can be personally relevant *What do they tell us about memory errors?:* - they're often revisited frequently, and each time it is recalled there is a possibility that you introduce intrusion errors Less vulnerable to forgetting, but NOT completely resistant to forgetting Confidence can be a good indicator or accuracy the first time you recall it - when asking eye witness, if they are recalling it for the first time and are very very confident, theres a good chance that they're right - analogous to a DNA test (you wouldn't believe a DNA test if it was contaminated)

What is an intrusion error? What kinds of things lead to intrusion errors? *Memory*

*What is an intrusion error?:* when you falsely recall something as part of the memory that wasn't really there *What kinds of things lead to this?:* if memory is stored in a network that means that very well connected memories (one thats have a lot of connections between nodes), those will be easy to retrieve and will be connected to nodes not originally part of the original experience) - when memories are densely connected (after repeated exposure) - when relying on prior knowledge to understand or remember - info on schemas can influence whether you get an intrusion error

How are algorithms different from problem-solving heuristics? *Problem-Solving, Creativity, Expertise, & Intelligence*

*algorithm* a procedure for inspecting every possible move in the space - some set of operations you can apply over the entire problem space, can do over and over - slow - requires a lot of resources - guaranteed to produce CORRECT solution *heuristic* an informal, intuitive strategy that sometimes leads to an effective solution (and sometimes doesn't) - use them because they wok a lot - can get a fast solution *how are they different?* - algorithms are guaranteed to be correct and heuristics are not

How does the attenuation model differ from early/late selection theories? *Attention*

*attenuation model* when we filter things we don't actually shut out info, what we do is turn the volume up or down (the filter happens early with physical characteristics, but what happens when info reaches the filter, the attended ear gets amplified and the unattended ear gets dampened - when we do semantic analysis we take into account the fact that some stimuli out there are primed (have lower response threshold and require less input to signal something is out there) - ex: hear name (unattended ear), comes thru in sensory analysis and gets dialed down (weak signal), but name is especially primed (you will turn to look), even though the signal is turned down you will probably still report hearing it *argument:* we don't completely block info, and even when signal is weak if the detector for that info is well primed, we may still notice it how are they different: - everything gets processed to some degree - everything gets through but it might be dampened

How are automatic and controlled processes different? *Attention*

*automatic processes* require very little attentional resources, can do automatic processes at the same time, and they are resistant to interference - ex: reflexes, reading words *controlled processes* require attention, can only do one at a time, and they are interfereable (these require control) - ex: brain surgery, taking quizzes

Describe 3 common heuristics and how they can lead to errors. Explain why we would rely on these heuristics, if errors can (and do) occur. *Judgement & Decision-Making*

*availability* basing judgement on how easily things come to mind - ex: making a judgement on how frequent something is but you're substituting for frequency the fluency *representativeness* basing judgement on what you believe is typical or representative of a situation or category - ex: how likely is this event, you will substitute that likelihood judgement with a judgement of how typical that event is (if it is more typical you'll judge it as more likely, and vice versa) *anchoring and adjustment* when asked to make an estimate, you are basing your judgement on the first number presented and adjusting from there - rather than relying on knowledge you will substitute a starting place and start from there

Compare and contrast the use of fMRI and TMS and describe their applications in psychology. What sort of information does each approach give us? Which technique can be used to make causal statements about the link between brain activity and behavior? *The Brain*

*functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI):* - only gives us correlational evidence (no good evidence of cause) *Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS):* - allows us to test causal claims - because we can intervene in region of the brain and prevent it from functioning as it normally would (if you zap the brain area and you can no longer perform the function in question, then it's pretty good evidence that that part of the brain is responsible for that function"

What is the difference between general intelligence (g) and specialized intelligence? What evidence supports the existence of these types? *Problem-Solving, Creativity, Expertise, & Intelligence*

*generalized intelligence (g)* just one capacity (intelligence is one mental capacity) - ex: processing speed, executive control *specialized intelligence* you have different capacities for different kinds of skills (linguistic, numerical, etc)

What is the difference between hill climbing and means-ends analysis? *Problem-Solving, Creativity, Expertise, & Intelligence*

*hill-climbing* trying to reduce distance between current state and goal state - always want to take the move that will move you closest to what the ultimate goal state is going to be - making decision that will always move you closer to the goal position strengths: - good when there is a straight-forward path to solution weaknesses: - if you're trying to climb a path that has "two hills" and need to move away from it before climbing back up again, this may cause you to get stuck - if you're only ever trying to get closer to what you think it should look like in the end, you might get stuck - ex: rubix cube: people always try to only get the same colors on each side but in reality you need to mix them up before you can solve it *means-ends* not always to take a step moving forward from the initial state to the goal state, but to try to reduce the distance between the initial state and goal state by *breaking down the problem into smaller parts* 1. divide the problem into smaller problems 2. solve the smaller problems in any order - ex: how to get two friends apartment in New York 1. fly from SD to NY 2. get from ucsd to airport 3. how to get to NY airport to friends apartment 4. how to get from gate to curb 5. how to get to ride share strengths: - allows you to move away from the goal to solve the problem weaknesses:

Describe two of the strategies for problem solving that were included in the chapter/lecture. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each approach. *Problem-Solving, Creativity, Expertise, & Intelligence*

How are experts different from novices? How are they similar? *Problem-Solving, Creativity, Expertise, & Intelligence*

*how are experts DIFFERENT from novices?* - experts knowledge is highly organized and interconnected - experts are skilled problem solders in their domain (spend a lot of time thinking about HOW to solve the problem, whereas experts tend to jump into it; knowledge contains the conditions in which the knowledge applies or doesn't apply), - experts literally see different things (see things that movies don't see) *how are experts THE SAME as novices?* -

In what ways are facial and word recognition similar? In what ways are they different? *Perception & Recognition*

*how are they similar?* - neurons do the work of defining particular features (ones that prefer certain things) and this is the same for features or objects or words (similar) - you're visual cortex doesn't know what its looking at, its just looking for features (similar) - perception of features are using the same brain structures (similar) *how are they different?* - in word recognition, single letter of the alphabet is recognized faster in the context of the word, but in faces we have a tendency look at the face as a whole - features matter mores in facial recognition compared to words - context makes it harder to recognize size features in face but easier in objects and words (different).

How do people reason by analogy? What makes people more likely to use analogies? *Problem-Solving, Creativity, Expertise, & Intelligence*

*how do people reason by analogy?* using structural similarities between a well-known base and an unfamiliar target domain to make inferences about the target domain - these two things are analogous, and one of these systems I am very familiar with and the other I don't understand very well but because I recognize that they are similar structures, I am able to infer something about this less known domain - requires slower and deeper processing difficulty with transfer: - when asked to solve problems that have same underlying structure and they are solved int he same kind of way but you fail to recognize that *support for analogical reasoning* *1.* comprehending the deep structure (understanding) allows the expert to focus on broad strategies without getting bogged down in the details *2.* paying attention to a problem's structure promotes analogy use *3.* prompting participants to compare two problems, or explain a problem can also promote analogical reasoning *what makes people more likely to use analogies?* - when they're experts in some kind of domain (they're good at thinking in terms fo sleep structure)

How do we evaluate the capacity of working memory? What's the difference between a digit span and an operation span? *Memory*

*how do we evaluate?:* can measure in different ways *what is the difference between digit span and operation span?:* *digit span:* the number of numbers you can recall (what's the longest string of numbers that you can repeat back to someone) --> can be forward or backward (backwards is better measure of WM) *operation span:* requires the person to determine if an equation is true or false, and then also remember a letter associated with each equation - hold some info in memory and manipulate information at the same time (better approximate working memory)

How does a feature net work? How does it resolve ambiguity? How does it produce errors? How is this related to priming? *Perception & Recognition*

*how does it work?* edges -->letters -->bigram detectors --> words *how does it resolve ambiguity?* if we are given a word such as 'corn' and the top of the 'c' was covered, you can use bigrams (two pairs of letters) you can make the assumption that the mystery letter is 'co' rather than 'cq' because 'co' occurs more frequently (more likely that 'co' will he fired because it's more common) *how does it produce errors?* if we are given a word 'CQRN' we might mistake the 'q' for an 'o' because 'co' is more common *how is it related to priming?* one detector that is primed takes less stimulation than normal to produce a signal - how does seeing the letters 'c' or 'k' stimulate the word 'clock'

What are some impediments to creative thinking? How might we overcome them? *Problem-Solving, Creativity, Expertise, & Intelligence*

*impediments to creative thinking* *how can we overcome these impediments?*

Compare and contrast implicit and explicit memory. Include in your discussion a description of the various testing methods that are used to assess each type of memory. *Memory*

*implicit memory* memories that cannot be verbally expressed - *procedural:* memory for skills and habits (demonstrated by doing) - *classical conditioning:* associations between stimuli that co-occur frequently - *priming:* implicit memory for recent and frequent stimuli *explicit memory* memories that can be verbally expressed - *episodic:* memory for specific events, with spatial and temporal context - *semantic:* memory for facts and general knowledge

What is the difference between implicit and explicit memory? How do we know that these types of memory exist? *Memory*

What is the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning? *Judgement & Decision-Making*

*inductive reasoning* start with many example of something and then you make an inference about a general principle - general proposition derived from examples - essentially making a guess about hat is true about a category based on what you've seen start with many examples of something and then make an inference about a general principle (making a guess) - *NOT* guaranteed to be correct - ex: if you're told --> all members of this category are dogs, and then you would loo at them and say "ok all of these dogs have fur, four legs, a tail" you would make an inductive inference that this is true of all dogs --> but not all dogs are like this so, inductive reasoning is not always correct think: Sherlock Holms *deductive reasoning* process of reasoning from more general statements (premises) to reach a logically certain conclusions if we assume this is true, what can we logically conclude (based on these premises) - if this is true, what else has to be true? general knowledge and then making an inference

Describe the major historical approaches to studying the mind: introspection, behaviorism, and cognitive. How do these approaches differ? *Intro to Cognitive Psychology*

*introspection* observing your own thoughts *behaviorism* focus on behavior and how it changes in response to stimuli *cognitive* the study of mental processes -- perception, attention, memory, language, knowledge, problem-solving, decision making, consciousness, etc.

How does lateral inhibition lead to "edge enhancement"? Explain the "Mach bands" phenomenon by describing the role of lateral inhibition in edge detection. *Perception & Recognition*

*lateral inhibition* bipolar cells inhibit each other - ex: they're like little kids screaming to be heard, when a bipolar cells gets info from photo receptors that there's something out there it tells the ganglion cells "theres something out there!" BUT at the SAME TIME they're telling their neighbors to be quiet ("shh, theres something out there") bipolar cells communicate signal but ALSO inhibit the people next to them - degree of inhibition is proportional the strengths of the signal - ex: more strongly activated, the louder you yell and the more i tell people next to me to be quiet and vice versa for less activation *V1:* detecting edges - fires maximally when it sees that there is an edge first time visual info hits the cortex in occipital lobe - neurons in V1 are considered "edge detectors" - a lot of dot detectors can integrate onto a single neuron to tell whether there is an edge present (dots integrate to become an edge) - edge detectors are tuned to different orientations (prefer horizontal edges or vertical, etc) refer to picture on phone—> edges appear lighter when contrasted against a dark table (this is edge enhancement) the neurons at the edges are getting less inhibition from the rest of the neurons on the white paper *mach bands:* the strips of grey and each grey strip seems to be getting lighter or darker (and mach bands explains lateral inhibition)

What is the difference between linguistic determinism and relativism? *Language*

*linguistic determinism* - strong version language determines what types of concepts and categories are available to us which therefore shapes how we think/perceive the world BUT...no solid evidence that says language forbids someone from thinking a certain way *linguistic relativism* - weak version language influences how we think and our behavior - language guides our thought

How are mental sets and functional fixedness related? How are they different? *Problem-Solving, Creativity, Expertise, & Intelligence*

*mental sets* frame of mind that involves a certain representation of a problem and its context or a procedure for solving it - when engaging in mental sets you're engaging in reproductive thinking (approaching a problem in same way as approached recent problems) - can sometimes cause you to adopt an ineffective strategy, and inhibit problem solving if you're relying on mental sets to figure out what to do but you really just need to change strategies - often means wrong assumptions without realizing and find it hard to approach problems in new way - ex: mental sets (statistics), one week you learn t tests then correlation, and you can get into a mental set where you think they these things are solved in the same way (so mental sets are counter productive here) *functional fixedness* the inability to realize that something has a certain use might also be used for performing other functions - ex: using a hammer for only hammering purposes when it COULD be used for other things *how are these the same?* *how are these different?*

What is the difference between monocular and binocular depth cues? Give examples of each. What are the advantages and disadvantages to having so many different cues for depth? *Perception & Recognition*

*monocular depth cues* only require one eye - motion parallax: when moving, things closer to you move faster than things farther away - occlusion: if one objects occludes the other, the occluding object is closer to me - linear perspective: parallel lines appear to converge in the distance *binocular depth cues* these are cues that we get as a result of having two eyes - retinal disparity: each eye has a slightly different view - convergence: the eyes move inward to focus on near objects *what are the advantages of having so many cues?* *what are the disadvantages of having so many cues?* -

What is the difference between necessary and sufficient features? *Knowledge*

*necessary features* must have this feature to be a member of this category - if you are missing this feature, you are not in the category *sufficient features* features that a re enough by themselves - some set of features are sufficient for category membership

What are serial position effects? How are they related to WM and LTM?*Memory*

*primacy effect:* tendency to recall the first items on a list - the first words are rehearsed MORE so they make it into LTM *recency effect:* tendency to recall the last items on a list - these last words are still in our working memory so thats why we remember them (having these items accessible in WM) *how are they related to WM and LTM?:* see above

What is the difference between productive and reproductive thinking? *Problem-Solving, Creativity, Expertise, & Intelligence*

*productive thinking* insights that go beyond the bounds of existing associations - ex: when you restructure a problem and think about it in a new way *reproductive thinking* based on existing associations (existing knowledge and strategies) - ex: if all you've been doing is reproducing a method you've been using

How are the prototype theory and the exemplar theory similar? How are they different? *Knowledge*

*prototype theory* categories or concepts in your mind are represented by the average of all members of the category - ex: bird, is represented by avg. of all birds you've encountered - judge category membership based on how similar that example is to the avg. of that category *exemplar theory* concepts represented by all exemplars you've experienced - people make category judgement based on similarity but are comparing it to an example you have actually experienced - ex: is this animal a dog? --> compare to specific example of a dog *TAKES ACCOUNT FOR VARIANCE* *how are they different?* - prototypes *DO NOT* have to exist in the world, whereas exemplars *DO* exist in the world - prototype theory is *abstract* (don't store specific examples, only represent with average), whereas exemplars are *concrete* - prototypes are *averages* while exemplars are actual examples of *real things* - prototype theory --> judge typicality by *feature overlap* - exemplar theory --> judge typicality by *frequency* of feature (how often the feature appears in the category) - exemplar theory takes variance into account but prototype theory does not

What is a receptive field? How is the receptive field determined for a given neuron? *Perception & Recognition*

*receptive field* the region and type of stimulus to which a specific neurons responds (every individual neurons has a receptive field) - if you poke a neuron in LGN, it responds to a particular region of visual space and only responds to certain stimuli *how is the receptive field determined for a given neurons?* the receptive field of a neuron is determined by its position in the visual stream - neurons lower in the visual stream may have a small receptive field (in computers, it's a pixel) but neurons higher may integrate multiple pixels

Explain how rehearsal, depth of processing, and mnemonics are related to memory retention. Does "intention to learn" matter? *Memory*

*rehearsal* helps to keep the information in our STM (maintenance) also by using connections to remember them (elaborative) - what were doing is actively trying to get info into long term memory *depth of processing* your intention to learn doesn't matter for LTM, but when we process deeply (think of meaning rather than say if it's monosyllabic), we will have greater retention *mnemonics* techniques to impose structure/organization on disorganized material - can use existing structure (mnemonics) and connect new material to it in order to remember info better - ex: mental imagery uses mental imagery in order to remember things better *does intent to learn matter?:* there is little difference between trying to learn and 'happening' to learn - intent to learn has little effect on how well we remember the information later saying "Oh, I need to remember this later" won't actually help you remember it later

What is the difference between retrograde and anterograde amnesia? *Memory*

*retrograde amnesia* loss of memory from before the disruption *anterograde amnesia* inability tp form new long-term memories

What is a syllogism? How do we judge whether a syllogism is true? How do we judge whether a syllogism is valid? *Judgement & Decision-Making*

*syllogism* three statements that evaluate if the conclusion has to be true based on whether the premises are true --> is this argument valid? it's valid if the conclusion has to be true if the premises are true we aren't evaluating whether the conclusion is true or not, we are evaluating whether it HAS to be true IF the two premises are true *how do we judge if a syllogism is true?* the truth of that argument depends on the relationship between the assertion and the real world *how do we judge if a syllogism is valid?* start by saying, "ok the premises are true, the conclusion is valid if it has to be true and is invalid if it doesn't necessarily have to be true - could give false statements about the world but could still be a valid argument - valid: if it has to be true - invalid: if it doesn't necessarily have to be true

What is syntax? How do people parse sentences that are syntactically ambiguous? *Language*

*syntax* rules for combining different types of words to create meaningful sentences and phrases

Compare and contrast Type 1 and Type 2 reasoning. Include in your discussion the benefits and drawbacks to each system. *Judgement & Decision-Making*

*system 1/type 1* system of intuitive, automatic, and fast reasoning - gut instinct, intuition benefits: - fast drawbacks: - not always accurate *system 2/type 2* system of judgement and reasoning that is slow (analytical, controlled, and cognitively demanding) - basically thinking about things really hard benefits: - most accurate - flexible - monitors drawbacks: - cognitively demanding

How are task-general resources and task-specific resources different? What evidence supports the existence of each of these "pools"? *Attention*

*task general resources* some of our attentional resources don't belong specifically to linguistic, spatial or visual information evidence: - *response selector:* use attention to decide how to respond to things--> the cognitive resource that decides what response you give - *executive control:* planning part of the brain --> dedicated to setting goals, priorities, overcoming habits *task specific resources* evidence:

What factors affect dual task performance, and how? *Attention*

*task similarity* it's harder to do tasks that are similar to each other, so it's easier to do tasks that are dissimilar - its harder to do two tasks that are similar because they use the same modality-specific resources *task difficulty* the harder the task, the more resources that will be used *practice* the more you practice, the fewer resources they require

What is the difference between bottom-up and top-down processing? *Perception & Recognition*

*top-down processing* influence of prior experiences (knowledge, expectations of things) *bottom-up processing* taking sensory input and integrating it into some meaningful representation (not sufficient)

What is the transcendental method in cognitive psychology? Why is cognitive psychology sometimes called an "indirect" science? *Intro to Cognitive Psychology*

*transcendental method* *why is cognitive psychology called an "indirect science"* - we can directly assess the brain (that's unethical)

What makes a problem well-defined or ill-defined? *Problem-Solving, Creativity, Expertise, & Intelligence*

*well-defined* all four aspects of the problem (initial state, goal state, operators, constraints) are defined and clearly specified - ex: maze, how to get to New York *ill-defined* one or more of the aspects of the problem are not well specified - ex: world peace

Considering the influence of encoding specificity and context dependence on learning and memory, provide three tips for students (or yourself!) who are studying for an upcoming exam. *Memory*

- study in way you plan to be tested (quiz yourself) - study in frame of mind you - study in the same room as you're being tested

What is Recognition by Components (RBC)? How is it related to feature nets? How does it differ? *Perception & Recognition*

Can recognize objects by their individual components (geons help us recognize an object) Geon theory --> these are lego blocks, have a unique shape and geons represent all types of objects *how is RBC related to feature nets?* - both have unique subcomponents that make up the big picture - geon detector(individual geons), geon assembled detector (combination of geons) *how does RBC differ from feature nets?* - RBC is for shapes while feature nets is words - view-point dependent recognition for RBC (matching current view with views stored in memory)

Why do we categorize? *Knowledge*

Categories let us make inferences about the world - inductive - deductive

Our language affects how we categorize things. Do these mental categories affect perception (e.g. color perception)? If so, how? *Language*

Color categories are properties of our visual system and this is shared (universal) - however, some languages may develop certain terms at a higher level because it is more important to that culture

Explain the expected utility model of decision-making. Why are humans' decisions often considered "irrational"? *Judgement & Decision-Making*

a basic assumption that humans are rational actors and they're going to choose the option that provides the most value (utility) *how do they do this?:* Expected value = (probability of an outcome) x (value of the outcome) *ex:* When playing roulette, you have a 1/20 chance of willing $100 EV= (0.05) x ($100) = $5 - it doesn't mean you're going to win $5, you're either going to win $100 or nothing - this doesn't describe what WILL happen, it combined on avg. what the outcome of this bet will be If humans are rational actors they should always pick the option that has the highest expected value *why are humans decisions considered "irrational"?* - people clearly have preferences for options that have the same expected value

What is spreading activation? *Memory*

a way of explaining how one ideas can bring to mind other related ideas *diagram* - brightness of the yellow fades as we move from the main idea (faint yellow have weakest association with "yellow") activation gets *WEAKER* as it spreads

Differentiate between the "what" and the "where" streams by describing the function and location of each stream. What evidence do we have that these two streams are separate and serve separate functions? *Perception & Recognition*

Visual information splits into two pathways - hierarchical organization (further down stream = integrates more info) we are separating information based on *"what"* things are and *"where"* things are - if a ball moves past you, V4 notices that it's red and MT notices the movement *WHAT pathway* - inferotemoral cortex (what) - fixes on what things are - VENTRAL stream *WHERE pathway* - occipital partetal cortex (where) - fixes on where things are in space - DORSAL stream Mnemonics: Out on a boat, you see a fin, if you want to know WHERE that animal is you looks for the DORSAL fin, if you want to know WHAT that animal is, then you look under the water (VENTRAL) *how to tell if these streams are separate* agnosia - two types: associative (trouble naming objects), and apperceptive (difficulty assembling features into meaningful whole) - people with associative agnosia have damage in their what pathway, but they're totally fine copying images (unlike apperceptive) and vice versa - this tells us these streams process different kinds of information

What is working memory? What sub-systems does it include? How is the idea of working memory different from short-term memory? *Memory*

Working memory holds things that we are actively aware of in the present moment But, people don't talk about short term memory any more, we call it working memory *how are working memory and short-term memory different?:* working memory is how we describe what is in conscious awareness and STM is thought of as a place to hold information we now think of WM as actively processing information NOT just holding the information *what are sub-systems of working memory?:* - visuospatial sketch pad - phonological loop - episodic buffer - central executive *phonological loop:* maintains linguistic information in a speech based form (*INFORMATION HEARD*) - ex: repeating a phone number in your head until you dial it *visuospatial sketchpad:* maintains visual and/or spatial information (*INFORMATION SEEN*) - ex: glancing at a map and holding the route in mind when you look up at the road *episodic buffer:* temporarily holds and integrates information from the PL, VS, and LTM (integrates the info *HEARD* and *SEEN*) (creates a coherent representation of conscious awareness) *central executive:* set, goals, sequences thoughts and actions, actively manipulates information stored in PL, VS, EB - same as executive control

What evidence do we have that attention is object-based? *Attention*

participants given a photo of a face over a top of a house - told to pay attention to either the faces or houses - can't be spatial here because the images cover the same region of space BUT when people were attending to faces they showed more activation in the FFA (face recognition area of the brain) and when they were attending to house they showed more activation in the PPA (object recognition area of the brain) - clearly paying attention to different objects even though the photos occupy the same area

Describe the dichotic listening procedure and two studies that have manipulated the basic paradigm. What does the body of dichotic listening evidence tell us about the nature of attention? *Attention*

participants wear headphones and each ear hears something different - left ear: "the horses galloped across the field" - right ear: "president lincoln often read by the light of the fire" participants are asked to shadow one of the ears (repeat what they hear on one side and ignore the other main question: what happens to the info you're not paying attention to? do they have awareness of the unattended ear? *results:* - they *ARE aware* of low level information (can tell if they're non-speech sounds, if the gender of the voice changes, if it's a human or robot voice speaking) - they are *NOT aware* of high level information (the meaning of what is being said, can't tell if the channel they're not paying attention to changes from normal sentences to repeated words, switching from one language to another)

What evidence do we have that people really use prototypes? *Knowledge*

people are good at classifying prototypes but not good at classifying new distortions - implies that there is some average. mental representation - there is some mental representation of this average.

What is perceptual constancy? Give at least 2 examples of perceptual constancy in the visual system. *Perception & Recognition*

perceiving things as having same shape, size color even though the retinal image is always changing (what is being projected onto retina) what we perceive is a constant world (objects have shape size and color that don't change even though that isn't the sensation that we perceive) *examples of perceptual constancy* - *size constancy:* depth effects the way we perceive the size of objects even though they are the same size - *color constancy:* our experience with light and shadows effects the way we perceive the colors (if we have two square that are the same color, they may not look like it due to light/shadows)

What do we mean when we say memories are stored in an associative network? *Memory*

all ideas are represented with concepts that are linked to other concepts each node is connected to other nodes that are semantically related (related in meaning), links occur when two ideas occur together

Why is classical theory a poor description of how we define categories? *Knowledge*

almost impossible to give adequate definitions of categories - can often remove any particular feature and some object will still be a category member (e.g., shave a dog and it's still a dog) peoples judgements reflects more of a graded membership - borderline cases (e.g., is a lamp furniture?) - typicality effects (i.e., a robin is more typical of a bird than penguin)

What are some different ways of measuring creativity? *Problem-Solving, Creativity, Expertise, & Intelligence*

alternative uses test (divergent thinking) - how many uses you can think of for an object incomplete figures (divergent thinking) - given some weird line(a doodle) and have to make a picture out of it circles or x's test (divergent thinking) - create pictures out of circles or x's

How are insight problems different from other kinds of problems? *Problem-Solving, Creativity, Expertise, & Intelligence*

any problem that occurs when the solution to the problem seems to come suddenly - "aha!" moment *how are they different from other kinds of problems?* - the solutions just comes to mind and we don't know the cue that caused you to solve the problem - you don't know how close you are to solving the problem (in calculus, you might have a good sense of how close you are to the answer + warm fuzzy feeling, but this isn't the case for insight problems)

What does the Stroop task tell us about automatic and controlled processes? *Attention*

automatic processes: reading words is automatic, once it has become automatic it can't be controlled anymore and because naming a color and reading a word are both linguistic tasks (modality-specific resources), they interfere with each other (this is why the troop task is hard)

How does chunking affect WMC? *Memory*

chunking allows us to remember more information memory span isn't limited to "digits" but rather "chunks" chunking increases how much we can hold on to (these smaller numbers of meaningful segments enhances our *recall*) as you become an expert in something it allows you to take in more information you increase amount of overall info by decreasing amount of unique info (chunking)

Is confidence a good indicator of memory accuracy? Why or why not? *Memory*

confidence is separate from memory accuracy - just because you're confident doesn't mean you're memory is accurate and vice versa *experiment:* - pick suspect out of lineup - rate confidence - one group not given feedback, other group given feedback ("great, thats our suspect too") - ratings of confidence differ dramatically, but confidence doesn't tell anything (more confident memories aren't more accurate, just influenced by the feedback) BUT, confidence can be a good indicator of memory accuracy ONLY IF the memory isn't contaminated

How does extra-linguistic context affect our ability to understand language? Give at least two examples. *Language*

context from body language for example can help us to interpret the meaning of words

How does context aid (or hinder) retrieval? *Memory*

contextual cues can be used to retrieve information later the situation that you're in when you learn information provides additional retrieval cues (if you don't consciously remember some things, those things in your environment are connected to the learning of the information the more overlap in context between when you learn and when you try to remember that info, the more successful the retrieval will be encoding context can provide retrieval cues (gives pathway to the information you're trying to remember) *context can be many different things:* - environmental cues (i.e., odors, sounds) - internal mental state at the time of encoding - type of processing used at the time of encoding *context-dependent memory* the context provides retrieval cues --> experiment done under water --> when studying under water and being tested underwater, you'll remember more then if you studied underwater and tested on land

What evidence do we have that people really use exemplars? *Knowledge*

early learning categorization is only composed of exemplars - first time were exposed to a category we may only have specific instances of that category stored - ex: overgeneralization in kids --> learn their cats name is "Micky" and now every cat is "Micky"

What do studies of physics experts tell us about expertise? *Problem-Solving, Creativity, Expertise, & Intelligence*

experts group problems differently - they see different things than noses (have a different understanding of how information is organized)

What do studies of chess experts tell us about expertise? *Problem-Solving, Creativity, Expertise, & Intelligence*

experts tried to find patterns and memorize those patterns

How is deliberate practice different from "regular" practice? *Problem-Solving, Creativity, Expertise, & Intelligence*

focusing on a particular skill at a time and practicing intentionally to improve that skill - not just doing something over and over, its focusing on a specific aspect of a skill you want go improve, and practicing that until you feel comfortable and then moving onto another subsoil of that task

What is the binding problem? How does our nervous system overcome that problem to create a coherent visual experience? *Perception & Recognition*

if visual features are processed in separate areas of the brain, how do we "bind" them together into a coherent visual experience? - we have a unitary sensory experience (ex: ball, you don't experience the redness of the ball separate from the ball-ness) so how does this information get bound together? *How does the nervous system overcome the problem to create a coherent visual experience?* attention required to inspect objects (bind them together by using attentional spotlight) *spatial information* - could be that we are always encoding where int he visual field things are (spatial map) *synchronous neuronal firing* - if two neurons fire together its because they're coding the same thing, and if they're off sequence then they don't go together *attention* -what binds things together is attention.

What is a "tuning curve"? Give an example of a likely tuning curve in V1. *Perception & Recognition*

important for understanding cells in V1 bc every neurons has a preference for orientation of edge it likes to see and fires maximally for - on y axis is cells response (firing rate) x axis is orientation of the bar tells us about the firing rate of a neuron given a particular stimulus that it refers

What is the testing effect? Why does this effect happen? *Memory*

is it more effective to test yourself or just to re-read material? when retention interval is 5 min (take final test right after final study) there is a small advantage (same with cramming), but once there is a week break between final study and final test, people who were frequently tested did better *why does it happen?:* - testing boosts memory because retrieval is a form of learning - when you actively retrieve information you are probably in a new context from when first learned (learning) - you're reactivating memory trace (pattern of activation that info has in brain) (learning) - weaving new context details into memory (learning) - have to think carefully about what you're studying (learning) - and testing is same type of processing as when you take a later test

How is priming related to attention? What are the two different types of priming and how are they different? *Attention*

lower response threshold (the amount of input needs to detect what you're looking for) leads to easier recognition - attended channel + frequent stimuli have *LOWER* threshold --> what this means is, the function of paying attention is to lower the threshold for that channel --> things that are personally meaningful have allowed threshold whether we are attending to them or not types of priming: expectation-based priming: what we use to selectively attend - requires effort and draws on a limited resource - what we are using to attend - effortfully focusing on attention on something - ex: in class, we expect the professor to give us meaningful info so that we may effortfully attend to that info - *IS effortful* - ENDOGENOUS CUES stimulus-driven priming: does not require attention - ex: someone calls your name and you look. - something in the environment is catching your attention - *NOT effortful* - EXOGENOUS CUES

What is viewpoint-dependent recognition? How does it differ from RBC? *Perception & Recognition*

matching current views with views stored in memory - object detectors represent what the object looks like from a specific angle evidence: - recognition is faster for some viewing angles than others *how does it differ from RBC?* - includes faster/slower recognition from a specific angle

What is semantics? How is it different from syntax? *Language*

meaning of words and phrases *how is semantics different from syntax* syntax is the rules for how your structure sentences and semantics is the *meaning* of the words

What do we mean when we say memory is a reconstructive process? *Memory*

memories don't preserve detail very well (remember only the gist) when you recall info you're using "gist-type" recall to activate nodes - we are rebuilding the memory as we try to remember it - active reconstruction of memories - we almost NEVER experience an exact replay of the event - often include errors

Does the passage of time or interference have a larger impact on forgetting? Support your answer by providing empirical evidence, or by considering the challenges of answering such a question. *Memory*

memory decay probably isn't what's happening most of the time (its just not active enough for you to retrieve) pro ably interference is doing more than decay but if you want to study decay you hav to wait a long time but things happen during this time, so its hard to know what actually happened time has a larger impact the challenge of answering the question is that its hard to get info from passage of time because you will probably have interference (rare that you could go 6M without interference)

Describe the modal model. How does information get into long-term memory? *Memory*

memory is composed of 3 separate stores/locations (sensory, working, and long-term) *Sensory memory:* raw sensations *working memory:* holds things we are actively aware of in the moment (attention is responsible for this) *LTM:* stores pretty much everything else Information makes its way into long term memory by *encoding*

What is "transfer-appropriate processing"? *Memory*

retrieval cues beyond being part of the environment (internal state), retrieval cues could be related to the way you're thinking about the information - in you're studying the info the same way you're going to need to access the info on the test then we have some more overlap of cues you can use to access that information have better recall when the environment in which you encoded matches the recall environment *FOCUSES ON:* how it matches + ALSO how it was *INITIALLY ENCODED* (where as encoding specificity only talks about how it matches) *experiment:* - have participants in study phase make "yes/no" judgements (sentences with blank) -had to say yes or no for each word depending on if the word fit well in the sentence - or had to decide if a word rhymed with another word during test, people tested in different ways: - recognition test (shown word and had to respond if they saw it before or if it rhymed with word in study phase) - did they see the word - did the word rhyme with something i studied (half get studied in semantic way and half in rhyming way) *findings:* - people do better when the test processing matches the study processing

Describe how schematic knowledge can influence memory. Include in your answer an explanation of how schematic knowledge can be both helpful and damaging to memory. *Memory*

schematic knowledge describes what is typical or frequent in a particular situation - each situation is stored as a schema *how are schemas helpful?* - we can make sense of what is happening - we can fill in gaps in our memory with what "must have" happened *how are schemas not helpful?* - the tendency to fill in gaps can lead to intrusion errors when what is typical is not what really happened

What is a morpheme? How are morphemes and phonemes different? Is it possible for something to be both a morpheme and a phoneme? *Language*

smallest unit of meaning within a language "dog" - single morpheme "dogs" - 2 morphemes (dog + plural) "studied"- 2 morphemes "restudied" - 3 morphemes

What is "typicality"? What are some of the ways we can measure typicality? *Knowledge*

some members of a category are more "typical" than others - verified them to a category more quickly - differences are related to non-necessary features *How to measure typicality:* - rating task: shown examples of something and asked to are how "good" of an example of the category it is (ex: how bird-y is this bird?) - production task: how many examples can you think of a particular category (things that are more typical of the category are thought of FIRST)--> typicality is strongly correlated with position not he list - sentence verification task: response time, ask people to rate true/false statements and rate how fast they were to determine the category membership (measure response time between typical and atypical examples)

What is "graded membership"? *Knowledge*

some members of this category are better or more typical members of the category than others - membership is a matter of degree - greater number of typical features = more likely to belong in that category - category membership may be probabilistic rather than deterministic

What is the spacing effect? Why does this effect happen? *Memory*

spaced practice leads to better LONG-TERM retention than massed study people who study spaced out remember more of the material than those who mass their study sessions together *Why it works:* - when massing study, the encoding context is the same for all repetitions of material - if you repeat info over and over there is only one context that is encoded with that information, - BUT in spaced study the context might differ (lighting, how tired you are, time of day), you're more likely to include more contextual cues so when we get to exam the number of contextual cues associated with the info is greater than if you massed your studying - the chances the cues in the exam room match the cues in the environment in which you studying are higher if you space it (leads to better performance)

What is confirmation bias, and what are some ways it can manifest in our judgements? *Judgement & Decision-Making*

tendency to be more responsive to evidence that confirms one's beliefs and less responsive to evidence that challenges one's beliefs *how can it manifest in our judgements?* *1.* seeking out evidence that confirms what you already believe *2.* failing to adjust your belief after seeing disconfirming evidence *3.* taking confirming evidence at face value but scrutinizing disconfirming evidence (and reinterpreting it to diminish its impact) *4.* better memory for confirming than disconfirming evidence *5.* failure to consider alternate hypotheses that are just as plausible

What is belief bias? How does it influence our ability to reason logically? *Judgement & Decision-Making*

tendency to: - accept invalid conclusions if they are believable and - reject valid conclusions if they are not believable *how does it influence out ability to reason logically?* - we may make incorrect conclusions just based on believability the truth of that argument depends on the relationship between the assertion and the real world

What is a basic level of categorization? *Knowledge*

the most instinctive level of categorization - instinct of how to categorize an object is probably based on its basic level - ex: chair - category that has its own word - not too general and not too specific - easy to explain commonalities - spontaneous level at which people make "instinctive" categorizations - used in speaking and reasoning - children learn these categories first - not fixed (can be influenced by knowledge and context) *has levels above and below "basic":* - superordinate: above the order of basic level --> ex: furniture - subordinate: more specific --> ex: swivel chair the more expert you are the more likely you are to shift basic level understanding to subordinate category

What is a phoneme? How can we tell if a sound is phonemic in a given language or not? *Language*

the smallest unit of speech that can be use to distinguish an utterance from another (in a given language) *how can we tel if a sound is phonemic in a given language or not?* - if you can distinguish between utterances

What are framing effects? Give at least 2 examples of framing effects and how they tend to affect people's decisions. *Judgement & Decision-Making*

the way that you ask the question can shape the preferences that people have - the way that you frame the problem, independent of what the expected outcome is, shapes the way that people make a choice people are risk-averse for gains - if you frame something in terms of "gains" people like to pick the sure bet rather than take risk *BUT* frame something as loss people are risk seeking there more likely to take the bet and possibly not lose anything rather than a sure loss of some smaller amount when people interpret the choices you present to them, the choice they prefer is influenced by the frame of reference also, see photo for "permission vs. prohibition"

What do we mean when we say categories are defined by "family resemblance"? *Knowledge*

there isn't a single/multiple defining feature that everyone must have but there are *COMMON* or *TYPICAL* features - members are in that category belong in that category because they have a family resemblance not every member has to share the exact same feature, but *PAIRS* of that family may share the same feature

What is Feature Integration Theory? What does it reveal about how attention works? *Attention*

theres two stages to attention: we get sensory info and there is a... - *pre-attentive stage* (process features separately), and - *focused attention stage* (where features are are combined) and the function of attention is to glue those features together

Describe Dot Detectors. *Perception & Recognition*

Ganglion Cells (on center-off surround/ off center-on surround) - pattern of black and white represents that neurons preferred stimulation on center-off surround: - that cell is at maximum firing rate (prefers light in the center only) off center-on surround: - that cell is at maximum firing rate (prefers light only in the surround) when we have varying levels of illumination the firing rate of the neurons changes - for example: in on center-off surround, when we have partial illumination in center we get an increased firing rate BUT not as much as if you'd cover entire center AND if you have a little illumination in surround but not center, you will get a decreased firing rate each neuron will have a preferred stimulus thats out there

What 3 fallacies are related to the representativeness heuristic? How are they connected to the idea of representativeness? *Judgement & Decision-Making*

*base-rate neglect* tendency to ignore the "prior probability of an event" (the baseline/base-rate of this kind of event occurring regardless of what kind of evidence is given) - ex: "Steve is very shy and withdrawn, invariably helpful, but with little interest in people, or in the world of reality. A meek and tidy soul, he has a need for order and structure and a passion for detail. Is Steve more likely to be a salesperson or a librarian?" --> people are inclined to say librarian but he is 83x (base-rate) more likely to be a salesperson how is this connected to 'representativeness?: - not judging the probability that a person is a salesperson, they're judging how *representative* he is of librarians *conjunction fallacy* - ex: "Linda is 31 years old; she's single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy. As a student, she was deeply consumed with issues of discrimination and social justice, and participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations." How likely are the following statements (1 very likely - 7 not at all likely): - Linda works in a bookstore and takes yoga classes - Linda is a bank teller - Linda is a member of the League of Women Votes - Linda is an insurance salesperson - *Linda is a bank teller who is active in the feminist movement* (people MOSTLY pick this one) --> it is not logically possible for it to be more likely that Linda is a bank teller and feminisms its that to just be a bank teller (being two things could not possibly be more likely that just being one thing) how is this connected to 'representativeness'?: - they are looking at the description of someone and says they sound like this (Linda sounds like she is a feminist), she sounds representative of a specific category and so they decide this is the most likely answer *gamblers fallacy* failure to take into account that probabilistic events are independent - people often think chance is a self-correcting process - ex: coin flips: If you flip a coin 6 times, which of the following sequences is more likely? HTHTTH or HHHHHH? THHTHT or TTTHHH? - these are *equally likely* because coin flips are *independent* how is this connected to 'representativeness?: - when people are playing roulette, when red has been coming for a long time, people feel like black is due to happen (no relationship between what has just happened and what is going to happen)

How is convergent thinking different from divergent thinking? *Problem-Solving, Creativity, Expertise, & Intelligence*

*convergent thinking* thinking that requires you to come up with specific answer that satisfies given constraints - ill-defined problem --> not clearly specified - insight problems essentially have one solution *divergent thinking* occurs when there are almost no constraints on the possible solutions - measure creativity using divergent thinking --> interest in how many different solutions can be thought of, how much variety is there among those solutions, how different are they from other peoples solutions

What are some different ways we can measure memory? How do they differ? *Memory*

*direct tests* - *recall:* ask participants to report what they remember - *recognition:* ask participants whether the item is "old" or "new", or to indicate which of several options they remember seeing *indirect tests:* - *relearning:* measuring how long it takes participants to relearn a skill - *priming:* measuring response time to a previous stimulus

What is a double dissociation? How do double dissociations help us understand localization of function in the brain? *The Brain*

*double dissociation:* if you see that brain area 1 is active for one task but not active for another task and brain area 2 shows the opposite pattern of activation - it is strong evidence that brain area 1 is involved in task 1 and brain are 2 is involved in task 2 in an important way *important when you want to localize function in the brain* if you see that one task and one region of the brain happen to be correlated, this is *NOT* sufficient evidence that that function is localized to that area of the brain

What is the difference between early selection and late selection? What evidence supports each of these approaches? *Attention*

*early selection* all incoming info is processed at a sensory level -after its processed, the info is filtered --> only things you're attending to get past this filter where semantic analysis occurs (understand meaning), then goes to working memory (conscious awareness) what you're not paying attention to does NOT get processed --> *failure to PERCEIVE* - no perception of the message evidence: - when recording EEG data (neural activity) we can see that in the attended channel theres a greater neural response for the side that you're attending to versus the side you're not attending to --> selection is happening a primary auditory level (focus on physical characteristics) problems: - sometimes subjects do become aware of meaning in the unattended channel *late selection* all information gets processed as sensory level and at the semantic level but at the semantic level is where the filtering occurs - so, we processed the meaning of the words at the semantic level, but we realized that this isn't what were paying attention to so we filter that information out and it doesn't enter conscious awareness --> *failure to REMEMBER* - don't remember long enough to get into conscious awareness evidence: - when participants are shown a display with lines(had to decide which line was longer) and dots are flashed so quickly that they weren't consciously aware of them - if we are only perceiving the early selection (the lines and ignoring the dots), if you can block dots then you shouldn't be influenced by the dots - but they ARE influenced by the dots (the brain siding some interpretation of the dots and it's influencing the interpretation of the line length

Explain how top-down and bottom-up processing contribute to the complicated effect that priming has on attention. *Attention*

*expectation-based priming* what we use to selectively attend - *TOP-DOWN* activation of detectors based on the features in the stimulus - requires effort and draws on a limited resource - there is a cost if you're wrong (most primed if thing expecting actually came up) but if you were primed to see one thing and something else came up you would be wrong *stimulus-driven priming* does not require attention - *BOTTOM-UP* activation of detectors based on the features in the stimulus - does not require effort and does not incur a cost - any detector for features in env, will have lower threshold if you have recently seen that thing

How is intelligence different from expertise? *Problem-Solving, Creativity, Expertise, & Intelligence*

*expertise* - domain-specific *skills* (knowledge in skill) - extensive knowledge or ability based on research, experience, or occupation in a particular area of study *intelligence* - domain-general mental *capacity* - ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills

Consider the word "HARP." Using a classic feature net model, describe how you might recognize this word, even if it was only shown for a few milliseconds. *Perception & Recognition*

*feature nets* 1. you would look at the features of the potential letters, if you look at the features then *feature detectors* will fire (recognizing the edges of the letters in the word) 2. if you think that these edges could be letters, *letter detectors* will fire from feature detectors (each detector has a level of activation and if they receive enough input it may or may not reach response threshold to determine the letter) 3. bigram detectors 4. then word detectors fire

What do we mean when we say neurons use electrochemical signals? Explain how a signal would be processed and sent through a neuron. Include in your answer a description of the relevant components in the cell. *The Brain*

Electrochemical signals are taken in by *dendrites* (INPUT) and is INTEGRATED in the *cell body* and then the signal is sent down the *axon* until it reaches the *axon terminals* where the signal is then passed onto another neuron (OUTPUT) the sending neurons releases neurotransmitters into synapse --> neurotransmitters are chemicals and function like a key to activate the next cell (they drift across synapse and bind to receptors on the following cell and the receptors open channels that let in charged ions) when neurons want to talk they send little chemical signals across the synapse to the next cell *electrochemical signals:* - all or none signals - either happens or it doesn't - "electrical" --> happens within the cell - "chemical"--> happens between cells *action potential:* - size: how different is the charge inside and outside - AP: spike when inside becomes positively charged relative to outside (chain reaction) *basically like doing the wave* --> individual ions dont move but the signal does *Relevant Components of Cell:* - *neuron:* cells that do the functional work of communicating through electrochemical signals to produce sensation, perception, thought, and behavior - *glial cells:* support system of cells that do not use electrochemical signals - *soma:* cell body - *dendrites:* little branches, place on cell that receives input from other neurons (the listeners) - *axon:* output place of cell, signal travels down axon to axon terminals - *myelin sheath:* insulator of electrical signals - *synapse:* gap between neighboring neurons, the sending neurons releases neurotransmitters into the synapse

Can you explain with an example why some say that linguistic determinism is too strong of a claim? *Language*

Eskimo's have many terms for the concepts of snow - but it's probably not the case that eskimo's would be able to tell finer differences in snow compared to someone who only really has one or a few terms for Snow (it's not that these people wouldn't be able to tell the difference between different types of snow compared to Eskimo's) - it's PROBABLY the case that having more terms draws your attention to certain aspects of the experience it's also probably that it reflects the difference of relevance of that term in daily life --> Eskimo's encounter many type of snow more frequently then say someone in tropical climates so they have to talk about it more

What is prospect theory? How does it address some of the apparent problems with expected utility theory? *Judgement & Decision-Making*

Expected value does not explain the difference in psychological value between a gain and a loss *What does it address that Utility Theory does not?:* expected value (in Utility Theory) doesn't explain what it *FEELS* like to win/loose money - doesn't capture the fact that people hate losing more than they like winning the impact of a gain or loss depends on its relative value, and utility depends on subjective value and subjective probability *graph:* curve: the subjective value of winning $200 is smaller than the subjective value of losing $200 - if you were to increase my gain or loss by same amount in other direction, the subjective gain/loss is smaller (hurts a lot to lose some amount)

Describe the Gestalt principles that guide form perception. *Perception & Recognition*

describe the ways in which we tend to interpret ambiguous information *similarity* tendency group things that are similar to each other, together *proximity* grouping things that are close to each other *good continuation* when it looks like something continues on behind another object we are likely to interpret that as a whole object *closure* tendency to close figures all the way - naturally want to close edges *simplicity* tendency to assume that shapes are as simple as is reasonable

What evidence do we have that attention is spatial? *Attention*

during posner task (valid cues and invalid cues, response time) - endogenous cues bias where we are attending to in space hemispatial neglect - ignore stimuli on the contralesional side of space - attention can be biased toward a specific side

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