RM Final Exam

The notation "p < .05" indicates which of the following? A. Mark conducted the study correctly. B. Mark's finding is statistically significant. C. Mark can conclude that it's unlikely he obtained his result by chance. D. Both B and C E. All of the above

D

When using inferential statistics, researchers calculate a/an _____ to determine the statistical significance. A. Effect size B. Coefficient of importance C. Curve value D. Probability estimate E. Replication value

D

Which of the following is a primary goal of debriefing? A. To prevent researchers from being sued. B. To give participants insight into the nature of psychological science. C. To inform participants about the presence & purpose of deception. D. Both B and C E. All of the above

D

Which of the following is another term for ecological validity? A. Mundane realism B. Ordinary application C. Everyday extrapolation D. Experimental realism E. Cultural application

A

Generalization mode

-frequency claims Goal: to make a claim about a population -Real world matters ***External validity is essential! Examples: -opinion polls -epidemiological estimates

Describe which sampling techniques allow generalizing from a sample to a population of interest, and which does not

**Biased sample can not be generalizable **Representative sample can be generalizable Cluster sampling- A probability sampling technique in which clusters of participants within the population of interest are selected at random, followed by data collection from all individuals in each cluster. Convenience sampling- Choosing a sample based on those who are easiest to access and readily available; a biased sampling technique. Multistage sampling- A probability sampling technique involving at least two stages: a random sample of clusters followed by a random sample of people within the selected clusters. Oversampling- A form of probability sampling; a variation of stratified random sampling in which the researcher intentionally overrepresents one or more groups.

Quasi Experiments: Repeated measures

-interrupted time series design -nonequivalent groups interrupted time series design

Explain why psychologists value research based calculations over beliefs based on experience, intuition, or authority

-Power of systematic comparison -In a controlled study scientists can set up the conditions such that they include at least one comparison group, thereby avoiding confounds -Comparison groups

Appreciate how an understanding of psychological research methods is crucial not only for producers of information but also for consumers of information

-Think about how often you encounter news stories or look up information -Could be crucial to your future career, you need to be able to interpret published research with a critical eye -Read research to see whats been effective -Predict the future

Theory testing mode

-association and causal claims Goal: to test a theory rigorously, isolate variables -Prioritize internal validity -Artificial situations may be required -Real world comes later -External validity is not the priority Examples: -Harlows studies -Parent as grammar coach

Internal validity in quasi experiments

-design confounds -order effects -selection effects -maturation -history -attrition -regression to the mean -instrumentation -testing -observer bias -experimental demand -placebos

The American Psychological Association's ethical guidelines have _____ principles and _____ standards. A. 3, 10 B. 3, 8 C. 3, 5 D. 5, 10 E. 5, 8

D

Quasi experiment: Independent groups

-nonequivalent control group design (Posttest-only) -nonequivalent control group design (pretest/posttest)

The Belmont Report

1) Respect for persons - informed consent -protection of vulnerable populations 2) Beneficence - cost benefit analysis for participants -cost benefit for society 3) Justice - how are the participants selected? Do they represent people who will benefit from the study

Replication studies

1. Direct replication 2. Conceptual replication 3. Replication-plus-extension

Three small N designs

1. Stable baseline design 2. Reversal design 3. Multiple baseline design

Which of the following is NOT a major type of replication? A. Statistical replication B. Direct replication C. Replication-plus-extension D. Conceptual replication E. All of the above are major types of replications

A

Which of the following is NOT a small-N design? A. Interrupted time-series design B. Stable-baseline design C. Multiple-baseline design D. Reversal design

A

Which of the following is a difference between true experiments and quasi-experiments? A. Quasi-experiments do not use random assignment. B. Quasi-experiments do not involve any manipulated variables. C. Quasi-experiments cannot have comparison groups. D. Quasi-experiments cannot have pretest measures. E. All of the above are differences between true experiments and quasi-experiments.

A

Describe five processes that shape psychological science

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Describe how researchers can make observations with good construct validity

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Describe the kinds of evidence that support the construct validity of a measured variable

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Interrogate the construct validity of a study variables

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Locate research based information, and read it with a purpose

?

According to the textbook, what's the problem with WEIRD samples? A. They're not very representative of the world's population. B. They're not good for theory-testing mode. C. They're not used frequently enough. D. Both A and B E. Both B and C

A

In conducting quasi-experimental designs, researchers tend to give up some _____ in exchange for _____. A. Internal validity; external validity B. Internal validity; statistical validity C. Construct validity; external validity D. External validity; internal validity

A

If a researcher is concerned about external validity, which of the following would you recommend with regard to conducting small-N designs? A. Do not conduct small-N designs if you're concerned about external validity. B. Compare the results of small-N designs with other studies. C. Conduct only reversal designs. D. Use inferential statistics. E. Use only one's own clients/patients/students

B

In addition to being an ethical violation, why are data falsification & fabrication problematic? A. They are impossible to discover. B. They impede scientific progress. C. They are federal crimes. D. Both A & B are problematic. E. All of the above are problematic

B

In which of the following ways are correlational designs similar to quasi-experimental designs? A. They both use nonrandom samples. B. They both suffer from possible threats to internal validity. C. They both use random assignment. D. They both use small numbers of participants. E. None of the above.

B

When an experiment is run in an artificial lab setting it A.must be replicated in a field setting to be generalizable. B. may have high experimental realism despite its setting. C. Is said to have ecological validity.

B

The degree to which a quasi experiment supports a causal statement depends on: random assignment design number of participants results B and D

B and D

Explain why external validity often matters for a frequency claim

Because you usually cannot directly check accuracy when interrogating a frequency claim, the best you can do it interrogate the sampling technique used, asking how the researchers obtained the sample. As long as they used random sampling you can be more confident in the external validity of the result

All of the following are true of IRBs in the US EXCEPT: A. They can be found in settings other than colleges and universities. B. They are mandated by federal law. C. They must have a psychologist as a member. D. They must have at least 5 members. E. They tend to have detailed applications for researchers to complete.

C

Responsible journalists do which of the following as it pertains to discussing replicability? A. They report only on studies that have been directly replicated. B. They report findings only from meta-analyses. C. They provide readers with a sense of the entire literature as well as recent studies. D. They do both A and B. E. They do all of the above.

C

The need to balance the potential costs and benefits to participants taking part in a research study is to address which principle of the Belmont Report? A. The Principle of Respect for Persons B. The Principle of Justice C. The Principle of Beneficence D. The Principle of Fidelity E. The Principle of Integrity

C

Which of the following ethical violations proposed by the Belmont Report was NOT committed in the Tuskegee Study? A. Participants were harmed. B. Participants were not treated respectfully. C. Participants were not treated by actual physicians. D. Participants were from a disadvantaged social group. E. All of the violations above were committed.

C

Which of the following is an independent-groups quasi-experimental design? A. Interrupted time-series design B. Nonequivalent control group design C. Nonequivalent groups interrupted time-series design D. Stable-baseline design E. All of the above

C

Stable baseline design

Can we conclude that the expanded rehearsal technique works?

Multiple baseline

Can we conclude that the overcorrection technique helps this little girl manage her behavior?

Reversal design

Can we conclude that the therapy caused her symptoms to improve?

Ask appropriate questions to help you interrogate each of the four big validates: construct validity, statistical validity, external, and internal

Construct validity- How well has the researcher measured the variable in question? Statistical- What is the margin of error of the estimates? Is there a difference between groups and how large? Statistically significant? Internal- Was the study an experiment? Temporal precedence? Alternative explanations? External- Is it generalizable? How representative is it?

_____ psychology is a subdiscipline of psychology that works primarily in the generalization mode. A. Clinical B. Experimental C. Evolutionary D. Social E. Cultural

Cultural

Cumulative Part

Cumulative Part

In small-N designs, each participant is treated: A. With multiple interventions B. By a clinical psychologist C. As a data point D. As a separate experiment E. All of the above

D

In which of the following situations would written informed consent NOT necessarily be required? A. An observational study that measures walking speed of people entering & exiting buildings. B. An anonymous study that measures the relationship between time spent in grocery stores & money spent on groceries. C. A confidential study examining income level and voting behavior. D. Neither A nor B need written informed consent. E. None of the studies above would require written informed consent.

D

Which of the following is a reason that psychologists especially value meta-analyses? A. Meta-analyses can examine conceptual and direct replications. B. Meta-analyses allow researchers to examine the strength of a relationship. C. In meta-analyses, moderators of relationships can be examined. D. All of these are reasons psychologists especially value meta-analyses.

D

Which claim is most likely to be tested in generalization mode? Frequency claim Association claim Causal claim

Frequency claim

Explain which validates are most relevant for each of the three types of claims

Frequency claim- external validity Association claim- statistical?? Causal claim- internal validity

Differentiate the three types of claims: frequency, association, and casual

Frequency claims- describe a particular rate or degree of a single variable Ex: 44% of Americans struggle to stay happy Association claims- argues that one level of a variable is likely to be associated with a particular level of another variable. Must involve at least two variables, and the variables are measured, not manipulated. Positive, negative, zero. Ex: shy people are better at reading facial expressions or people who multitask the most are the worst as it or screen time not linked to physical activity in kids Casual claims- goes even further, arguing that one of the variables is responsible for changing the other Ex: music lessons enhance IQ, whiff of rosemary gibes your brain a boost, family meals curb teen eating disorders

Independent groups design

Independent groups design in which different groups of participants are placed into different levels of the independent variable

Explain what it means to reason empirically

Involves using evidence from the senses (sight, hearing, touch) or from instruments that assist the senses (such as thermometers, timers, photographs, weight scales, and questionnaires) as the basis for conclusions. - Aim to be systematic, rigorous and to make their work independently verifiable by others

Explain how carefully prepared questions improve the construct validity of a poll or survey

Leading question- A type of question in a survey or poll that is problematic because its wording encourages only one response, thereby weakening its construct validity. Double-barreled question- A type of question in a survey or poll that is problematic because it asks two questions in one, thereby weakening its construct validity. Negatively worded question- A question in a survey or poll that contains negatively phrased statements, making its wording complicated or confusing and potentially weakening its construct validity.

The Belmont Report includes all of the following EXCEPT The principle of respect for persons The principle of integrity The principle of beneficence The principle of justice

Principle of integrity

A small-N design that involves providing treatment and then removing treatment is known as a/an: A. Interrupted time-series design B. Stable-baseline design C. Multiple-baseline design D. Reversal design

Reversal

Which of the following is NOT one of the reasons why someone would conduct a quasi experiment To take advantage of an opportunity Ethical standards To prevent selection effects To maximize external validity

To prevent selection effects

Within groups design

Within groups design there is only one group of participants and each person is presented with all levels of the independent variable Advantage ensures the participants in the two groups will be equivalent Within groups covariance, temporal precedence, internal validity Disadvantages of within group designs 1) repeated measured designs have the potential for order effects which can threaten internal validity 2) Might not be possible or practical 3)When people see all levels of independent variable and then change the way they would normally act

Possible obscuring factors of a null effect

chart

External validity

comes from how, not how many; we can generalize to other people as well as to other settings

Validity in Small N designs

construct and statistical

Validity in quasi experiments

construct and statistical

With a quasi experiment you look at both the

design and the results to evaluate the validity of a causal statement

A replication study will NOT help to support external validity when it is a: conceptual replication replication-plus-extension study direct replication None of the above

direct replication

Dirty Dozen (threat to internal validity)

maturation threat a change in behavior that emerges more or less spontaneously over time -people adapt to strange environments, children get better at walking etc. preventing maturation: adding a comparison group history threats result from a historical or external event that affects most members of the treatment group at the same time as the treatment, making it unclear whether the changing in the experimental group is caused by the treatment received or by the historical factor -to be a history threat the external factor must affect everyone or almost everyone in the group not just a few people -ex: why did the campers behavior improve? it could have been the low-sugar diets but maybe they all started difficult swimming lessons in the middle of the week and the exercise tired them out Prevent this: by adding a comparison group regression threat refers to a statistical concept called regression to the means: when a performance is extreme at time 1, the next time that performance is measured (time 2) it is likely to be less extreme- that is closer to a typical or average performance -regression works at both extremes -unusually good performance or outcome is likely to regress downward the next time and an unusually bad performance or outcome is likely to regress upward the next time. -regression pulls an extreme group closer to the mean but regression alone will not cause a group to cross back over the mean to the other extreme preventing this: comparison groups help ALSO along with careful inspection of the pattern of results attrition threat in studies that have a pretest and a posttest, attrition is a reduction in participant numbers that occurs when people drop out before the end -can happen when a pretest and posttest are administered on different days and some people cant make the second day -becomes a problem for internal validity when attrition is systematic that is when only a certain kind of participant drops out - easy to identify and correct -when people drop out of a study most researchers will remove those participants scores from the pretest average -another approach is to check the pretest scores of the drop outs. if they have extreme scores on the pretest, their attrition is more of a threat to internal validity than if their scores are closer to the group average testing threats a specific kind of order effect, refers to the change in participants as a result of taking a test more than once -include practice effects and fatigue effects preventing this: - might abandon the pretest altogether and use a posttest only design - if they do use a pretest they might opt to use alternative forms of the test for the two measurements -comparison group can help too instrumentation threat also called instrument decay, occurs when a measuring instrument changes over time -in observational research the people who are coding behaviors are the measurement tool and over a period of time they might change their standards of judging behavior by becoming more strict or more lenient -another example is when a researcher uses different forms for the pretest and posttest but the two forms are not sufficiently equal preventing this: use a posttest only design -if a pretest/ posttest design is required for other reasons, researchers should take steps to ensure that the pretest and posttest measures are equal -for behavioral coders, researchers might retrain their coders throughout the experiment, establishing their reliability and validity -to control problem for different forms, could also counterbalance the versions of the test

How would a researcher quantitatively summarize a scientific literature? Review article Literature review Meta-analysis Both a and b

meta analysis

Deception in psychology studies should never be done is unethical must be followed with a debriefing

must be followed with a debriefing

Federally-funded animal experimentation Sadly, does not have to worry about ethical violations Must comply with IACUC guidelines Must be approved by an IRB Both b and

must comply with IACUC guidelines

Replication-plus-extension

same variables, plus some new variables

Conceptual replication

same variables; different operationalizations

Direct replication

same variables; same operationalizations

Inferential statistics

statistically significant results are considered "replicable"