Safety Awareness
contributory negligence
If the actions of employees contributed to their own injuries, the employer was absolved of any liability. This was the doctrine of contributory negligence.
Negligence
Negligence means failure to take reasonable care or failure to perform duties in ways that prevent harm to humans or damage to property.
What were the findings of Herbert W. Heinrich's 1920s study of the causes of industrial accidents?
88 percent of industrial accidents are caused by unsafe acts committed by fellow workers. 10 percent of industrial accidents are caused by unsafe conditions. 2 percent of industrial accidents are unavoidable.
What are the leading causes of death in the United States?
Accidents are the fourth leading cause of death in this country behind heart disease, cancer, and strokes.
Describe the process for appealing an OSHA citation
The first step is to notify OSHA's area director in writing. This is known as filing a notice of contest. It must be done within fifteen working days of receipt of a citation or penalty notice. The notice of contest must clearly describe the basis for the employee's challenge and contain all of the information about what is being challenged. Once OSHA receives a notice of contest, the area director forwards it and all pertinent materials to the Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission (OSHRC).
Summarize briefly the role organized labor has played in the advancement of the safety movement.
Organized labor has fought for safer working conditions and appropriate compensation for workers injured on the job.
List the warning signs of clinical depression
Persistent dreary moods Signs of too little sleep Sleeping on the job or persistent drowsiness Sudden weight loss or gain General loss of interest, especially in areas of previous interest Restlessness, inability to concentrate, or irritability Chronic physical problems Forgetfulness or an inability to make simple decisions Persistent feeling of guilt Feeling of low self-worth Focus on death or talk of suicide
Explain the types of problems modern safety and health managers can expect to confront in attempting to implement their programs.
Lack of commitment Top management may go along with having a company-wide safety and health program because they see it as a necessary evil. Production versus Safety Industrial firms are in business to make a profit. Anything that interferes with production or processing is likely to be looked on unfavorably.
What is the difference between a staff and a line position?
Line authority means the safety and health manager has authority over and supervises certain employees. Staff authority means the safety and health manager is the staff person responsible for a certain function, but he or she has no line authority over others involved with that function.
What must management do if it is serous about providing a safe and healthy work environment for employees?
Management must establish expectations, provide training, evaluate employee performance with safety in mind, and reinforce safe and healthy behavior.
2. Explain the significance of the Code of Hammurabi in terms of the safety movement
What is significant about the code from the perspective of safety and health is that it contained clauses dealing with injuries, allowable fees for physicians, and monetary damages assessed against those who injured others.
What impact do stressors have in the systems theory?
When stressors are introduced between points 1 and 2 the likelihood of an accident increases
Tort
- A tort is an action involving a failure to exercise reasonable care that may, as a result, lead to civil litigation.
List five different college majors that can lead to a career as a safety and health manager.
1. Industrial safety 2. occupational safety 3. environmental technology 4. safety health management 5. industrial hygiene.
What types of positions might be included in a modern safety and health team?
Engineers, physicists, industrial hygienists, occupational physicians, and occupational health nurses.
Explain the systems failure component of the accident/incident theory
First, it shows the potential for a causal relationship between management decisions/management behavior and safety. Second, it establishes management's role in accident prevention as well as the broader concepts of safety and health in the workplace.
Liability
Liability is a duty to compensate as a result of being held responsible for an act or omission.
When death rates are classified by industry type, what are the three leading industry types?
Mining/quarrying, agriculture, construction
What are the five leading causes of work deaths
Motor vehicle related, falls, electric current, drowning, and fire-related
How can safety and health managers use the competitiveness issue to gain a commitment to their programs?
Resources invested in safety and health can actually improve a company's competitiveness. Productivity, quality, cost, image, and response time can go a long way in helping to gain management commitment to safety and health.
Explain how todays's rate of accidental work deaths now compares with the rate of the early 1900s
Between 1912 and 1989, accidental work deaths per 100,000 population were reduced 81 percent, from 21 to 4.
What are the leading causes of death in the United States of people between the ages of 25 and 44?
Accidents, motor vehicle, poison (solid, liquid), drowning, falls, firerelated, cancer, and heart disease
Name three chemicals that frequently cause chemical burns in the workplace.
Acids and alkalies; soaps, detergents, and cleaning compounds; solvents and degreasers; calcium hydroxide; potassium hydroxide; and sulfuric acids
What are OSHA's reporting requirements?
All occupational illnesses must be reported, regardless of the severity. Work-related injuries must be reported if they result in one or more of the following: Death of one or more workers One or most lost workdays Restricted motion or restrictions to the work an employee can do Loss of consciousness of one or more workers Transfer of an employee to another job Medical treatment beyond in-house first aid
Failure to Correct Prior Violation
Failure to correct a prior violation may bring a civil penalty of up to $7,000 for each day the violation continues beyond the prescribed abatement date.
What are the five leading causes of work injuries by type of accident?
Overexertion, impact accidents, falls, bodily reaction, and compression.
Explain how to achieve the following certification: Certified Occupational Health Nurse-Safety Manager.
Pass COHN-SM certification Exam Meet Academic Requirements Meet Work Experience Pass Additional Subspecialty Testing
Describe the job of the occupational health nurse.
To adopt the nursing program to meet the specific needs of the individual company. To give competent nursing care for all employees. To ensure that adequate resources are available to support the nursing program. To seek out competent medical direction if it is not available on-site. To establish and maintain an adequate system of records-relating to workplace health care. To plan, prepare, promote, present, and broker educational activities for employees. To establish and maintain positive working relationships with all departments within the company. To maintain positive working relationships with all components of the local health care community. To monitor and evaluate the nursing program on a continual basis and adjust accordingly.
Briefly explain the rationale for the OSH Act.
To assure so far as possible every working man and woman in the nation safe and healthful working conditions and to preserve our human resources.
Explain how the design process can affect safety
With a poorly designed seat belt installed in 10,000 automobiles, the engineer has inadvertently endangered the lives of as many as 40,000 people (estimating a maximum of four passengers per car).
Appealing a Standard
An appeal must be filed with the U.S. Court of Appeals serving the geographic region in which the complainant lives or does business. Appeal paperwork must be initiated within 60 days of a standard's approval.
Repeat Violation
- A violation of any standard, regulation, rule, or order where, upon reinspection, a substantially similar violation is found
Other than Serious Violation
- A violation that has a direct relationship to job safety and health, but probably would not cause death or serious physical harm. A proposed penalty of up to $7,000 for each violation is discretionary
List five factors to consider before making workplace decisions that involve risk.
1) Job requirements, 2) the worker's abilities and limitations, 3) what is gained if the task is successfully accomplished, 4) what is lost if the task is attempted but fails, and 5) what is lost if the task is not attempted.
Describe the job of the industrial hygienist
1) To recognize environmental factors and to understand their effect on humans and their well-being. 2) To evaluate on the basis of experience and with the aid of quantitative measurement techniques, the magnitude of these stresses in terms of ability to impair human health and well-being, and 3) to prescribe methods to eliminate control, or reduce such stresses when necessary to alleviate their effects.
Explain the following concepts in the domino theory: preceding factor; central factor. Heinrich's theory has two central points:
1) injuries are caused by the action of preceding factors; and 2) removal of the central factor (unsafe act/hazardous condition) negates the action of the preceding factor and, in so doing, prevents accidents and injuries.
Explain the principles of behavior-based safety. There are seven basic principles of BBS:
1. Intervention that is focused on employee behavior 2. Identification of external factors that will help understand and improve employee behavior 3. Direct behavior with activators or events antecedent to the desired behavior, and motivation of the employee to behave as desired with incentives and rewards that will follow the desired behavior 4. Focus on the positive consequences that will result from the desired behavior as a way to motivate employees 5. Application of the scientific method to improve attempts at behavioral interventions 6. Use of theory to integrate information rather than to limit possibilities 7. Planned interventions with the feelings and attitudes of the individual employee inmind
Explain how to achieve each of the following certifications: Certified Safety Professional, Certified Industrial Hygienist, and Certified Professional Ergonomist: Certified Safety Professional
Apply to the Board of Certified Safety Professionals o Meet an academic requirement o Meet a professional safety experience requirement o Pass the Safety Fundamentals Examination o Pass the Comprehensive Practice Examination Certified Industrial Hygienist o Technical Knowledge - Review courses; Professional reference questionnaire o Pass Review and Exam given by the American Board of Industrial Hygiene o Certification Maintenance Certified Professional Ergonomist o Meet Academic Requirements o Meet Work Experience o Work Product
What specific strengths might chemical engineers bring to the safety and health team?
A broad background has made the chemical engineer extremely versatile and capable of working in a wide variety of industries: chemical, petroleum, aerospace, nuclear, materials, microelectronics, sanitation, food processing, and computer technology.
Willful Violation -
A violation that the employer intentionally and knowingly commits.
List five of Heinrich's Axioms of Industrial Safety
Accidents result from a completed series of factors, one of which is the accident itself. An accident can occur only as the result of an unsafe act by a person and/or a physical or mechanical hazard. Most accidents are the result of unsafe behavior by people. An unsafe act by a person or an unsafe condition does not always immediately result in an accident/injury. The reasons why people commit unsafe acts can serve as helpful guides in selecting corrective actions. The severity of an accident is largely fortuitous and the accident that caused it is largely preventable. The best accident prevention techniques are analogous with the best quality and productivity techniques. Management should assume responsibility for safety since it is in the best position to get results. The supervisor is the key person in the prevention of industrial accidents. In addition to the direct costs of an accident (i.e., compensation, liability claims, medical costs, and hospital expenses) there are also hidden or indirect costs.
What is Frederick Taylor's connection to the safety movement?
Although safety was not a major focus of his work, Taylor did draw a connection between lost personnel time and management policies and procedures. This connection between safety and management represented a major step toward broad-based safety consciousness
Name three professional societies a safety and health manager may join.
American Academy of Industrial Hygiene American Industrial Hygiene Association American Occupational Medical Association American Society of Safety Engineers National Safety Council Society of Toxicology
Describe the job of the occupational physician.
Appraisal, maintenance, restoration, and improvement of the workers' health through application of the principles of preventive medicine, emergency medical care, rehabilitation, and environmental medicine.Promotion of a productive and fulfilling interaction of the worker and the job, via application of principles of human behavior. Active appreciation of the social, economic, and administrative needs and responsibilities of both the worker and work community. Team approach to safety and health, involving cooperation of the physician with occupational or industrial hygienists, occupational health nurses, safety personnel, and other specialists.
assumption of risk
Assumption of risk was based on the theory that people who accept a job assume the risks that go with it.
Rank the following body parts according to frequency of injury from highest to lowest:neck, fingers, trunk, back, and eyes.
Back, fingers, trunk, eyes, and neck
Explain the term integration as it relates to modern safety and health
By working together and drawing on their own respective areas of expertise, safety and health professionals are better able to identify, predict, control, and correct safety and health problems.
Explain the role of the ergonomist.
CPE must meet the following requirements: Must have a master's degree in one of the correlative fields of ergonomics, such as biomechanics, human factor/ergonomics, industrial engineering, industrial hygiene, kinesiology, psychology, or systems engineering. Appropriateness of work experience and evidence of participation in projects requiring ergonomic expertise. A work sample that demonstrate a breadth of ergonomic knowledge and the ability to use ergonomic methods successfully.
Explain the difference between RSI and carpal tunnel syndrome
Carpal tunnelsyndrome (CTS) is an injury to the median nerve inside the wrist. CTS is typically caused by repeated and cumulative stress on the median nerve. RSI is a broad andgeneric term that encompasses a variety of injuries resulting from cumulative trauma to the soft tissues of the body.
List five employee rights.
Complain to an employer, union, OSHA, or any other governmental agency about job safety and health hazards. File safety or health grievances. Participate in a workplace safety and health committee or in union activities concerning job safety and health. Participate in OSHA inspections, conferences, hearings, or other OSHA-related activities. Expect employers to make review copies available of OSHA standards and requirements.
Identify three factors that contribute to heat burn injuries in the workplace.
Employer has no safety and health policy regarding heat hazards. Employer fails to enforce safety procedures and practices. Employees are not familiar with the employer's safety policy and procedures concerning heat hazards. Employees fail to use or improperly use personal protection equipment. Employees have inadequate or worn personal protection equipment. Employees work in a limited space. Employees attempt to work too fast. Employees are careless. Employees have poorly maintained tools and equipment.
Explain what employers are required to do in order to keep employees informed.
Employers are required to keep employees informed about safety and health issues that concern them. They are required to post the following material at locations where employee information is normally displayed: a) OSHA poster 2203; b) summaries of variance requests; c) copies of all OSHA citations received for failure to meet standards; and d) the summary page of OSHA form 200
6. Briefly describe OSHA's record-keeping requirements.
Employers are required to keep injury and illness records for each location where they do business. Records must be maintained on an annual basis using special forms prescribed by OSHA. Records are not sent to OSHA. Rather, they must be maintained locally for a minimum of five years. However, they must be available for inspection for OSHA at any time.
Request for a Temporary Variance
Employers must demonstrate that they are making a concerted effort to comply and taking the steps necessary to protect employees while working toward compliance. The requirements are as follows: 1) identification of the parts of the standard that cannot be complied with; 2) explanation of the reasons why compliance is not possible; 3) detailed explanation of the steps that have been taken so far to comply with the standard; and 4) explanation of the steps that will be taken to fully comply.
What is OSHA's mission or purpose?
Encourage employers and employees to reduce workplace hazards Implement new safety and health programs Improve existing safety and health programs Encourage research that will lead to innovative ways of dealing with workplace safety and health problems Establish the rights of employers regarding the improvement of workplace safety and health Monitor job-related illnesses and injuries through a system of reporting and record-keeping Establish training programs to increase the number of safety and health professionals and to continually improve their competence Establish mandatory workplace safety and health standards and enforce those standards Provide for the development and approval of state-level workplace safety and health programs
What is meant by the statement "If a physician makes an error he might harm one person, but an engineer who errs might harm one hundred"?
Engineers can make a significant contribution to safety. Correspondingly, they can cause, inadvertently or through incompetence, accidents that result in serious injury and property damage.
Explain the various components of OSHA's enhanced enforcement policy. Components of the enhanced enforcement policy include:
Follow-up inspections - OSHA's area directors are empowered to conduct follow-up inspections to verify compliance. Programmed inspections - OSHA's site specific targeting process uses objective selection criteria to schedule programmed inspections. Public awareness - when an organization receives a high gravity violation, OSHA makes the public aware of the fact and all applicable enforcement actions by issuing press releases through local and national media. Settlements - provisions for high gravity violation settlement agreements require the organization to hire consultants to develop a feasible process for changing the safety and health culture in the facility. Section 11(b) summary enforcement orders - once an order has been entered, organizations that fail to comply may be held in contempt of court—an action OSHA pursues.
Explain the primary reasons behind the passage of OSHA
Generally, the state legislated safety requirements only in specific industries, had inadequate safety and health standards, and had inadequate budgets for enforcement. The injury and death toll due to industrial mishaps was still too high. In the late 1960s, more than 14,000 employees were killed annually in connection with their jobs. Work injury rates were taking an upward swing.
What is a health physicist
Health physicists are concerned primarily with radiation in the workplace. Their duties include monitoring radiation inside and outside the facility, measuring the radioactivity levels of biological samples, developing the radiation components of the company's emergency action plan, and supervising the decontamination of workers and the workplace when necessary.
1. To what cause(s) can the improvements in workplace safety made to date be attributed?
Improvements in safety up to now have been the result of pressure for legislation to promote safety and health, the steadily increasing costs associated with accidents and injuries, and the professionalization of safety as an occupation
Describe the circumstances that led to the development of the first organized safety program
In 1892 in a Joliet, Illinois, steel plant the first recorded safety program was established in response to a scare caused when a flywheel exploded. Following the explosion a committee of managers was formed to investigate and make recommendations.
How can safety and health managers become certified in their profession?
In order to qualify to sit for a certification examination, safety and health managers must have the required education and experience and submit letters of recommendation as specified by the certification board.
. Explain the importance of ongoing in-service training for modern safety and health managers and how to get it
In-service training, ongoing interaction with professional colleagues, and continued reading of professional literature are effective ways to stay current. This means joining the appropriate professional organizations, becoming familiar with related government agencies, and establishing links with relevant standards organizations.
Why is the title safety engineer sometimes a misnomer
It implies that the person filling the position is a degreed engineer with formal education and/or special training in workplace safety. Typically, the title is given to the person who has overall responsibility for the company's safety program or to a member of the company's safety team who is responsible for the traditional aspects of the safety program.
List five employer responsibilities.
Meet the general duty responsibility to provide a workplace free from hazards that are causing or are likely to cause death or serious physical harm to employees, and comply with standards, rules, and regulations issued under the OSH Act. Be knowledgeable of mandatory standards and make copies available to employees for review upon request. Keep employees informed about OSHA. Continually examine workplace conditions to ensure they conform to standards. Minimize or reduce hazards. Make sure employees have and use safe tools and equipment (including appropriate personal protective equipment) that is properly maintained. Use color codes, posters, labels, or signs as appropriate to warn employees of potential hazards. Establish or update operating procedures and communicate them so that employees follow safety and health requirements. Provide medical examinations when required by OSHA standards. Provide the training required by OSHA standards. Report to the nearest OSHA office within forty-eight hours of any fatal accident or one that results in the hospitalization of five or more employees. Keep OSHA-required records of injuries and illnesses, and post a copy of the totals from the last page of OSHA No. 200 during the entire month of February each year. (This applies to employers with eleven or more employees.) At a prominent location within the workplace, post OSHA poster 2203 informing employees of their rights and responsibilities. Provide employees, former employees, and their representative access to the Log and Summary of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses (OSHA No. 200) at a reasonable time and in a reasonable manner. Give employees access to medical and exposure records. Give the OSHA compliance officer names of authorized employee representatives who may be asked to accompany the compliance officer during an inspection. Do not discriminate against employees who properly exercise their rights under the act. Post OSHA citations at or near the work site involved. Each citation or copy must remain posted until the violation has been abated, or for three working days, whichever is longer. Abate cited violations within the prescribed period.
What are the five leading causes of accidental deaths in the United States?
Motor vehicle, poison (solid, liquid), drowning, falls, and fire-related
Briefly explain the impact such issues as workers' compensation and the environment have had on the commitment of corporate management to safety and health
OSHA Standards, on-site inspections, and penalties have encouraged a greater commitment to safety and health than was evident in the past as has the growing awareness that providing a safe and healthy workplace is the fight thing to do from both an ethical and a business perspective.
Passage of a New Standard
OSHA must publish its intentions in the Federal Register in either a notice of proposed rule making or an advance notice of proposed rule making. After publishing notice, they must conduct a public hearing if one is requested. After the close of the comment period and public hearing, if one is held, OSHA must publish in the Federal register the full, final text of any standard amended or adopted and the date it becomes effective, along with an explanation of the standard and the reasons for implementing it.
Explain the difference between an OSHA standard and an OSHA regulation
OSHA standards address specific hazards such as working in confined spaces, handling hazardous waste, or working with dangerous chemicals. Regulations do not apply to specific hazards. Regulations do not require the rigorous review process that standards
What are the three broad factors that lead to human error in the human factor theory?
Overload - Overload amounts to an imbalance between a person's capacity at any given time and the load that person is carrying in a given state. Inappropriate Response/Incompatibility - How a person responds in a given situation can cause or prevent an accident. If a person detects a hazardous condition but does nothing to correct it, he or she has responded inappropriately. Inappropriate Activities - Human error can be the result of inappropriate activities. An example of an inappropriate activity would be a person undertaking a task he or she doesn't know how to do.
List those who are exempted from coverage by OSHA
Persons who are self employed Family farms that employ only immediate members of the family Federal agencies covered by other federal statutes (in cases where these other federal statutes do not cover working conditions in a specific area or areas, OSHA standards apply) State and local governments (except that in order to gain OSHA's approval of a state-level safety and health plan, states must provide a program for state and local government and employees that is at least equal to its private sector plan)
Explain the reasons for high accident rates in developing countries.
Rapid development and the pressure of global competition Missing safety and health infrastructure
Explain the concept of risk management.
Risk management consists of the various activities and strategies in an organization to protect itself from situations, circumstances, or events that might undermine its security
What is the role of the safety and health professional with regard to handling employees who might be drug or alcohol abusers?
Safety and health professionals should be aware of the workplace problems that can be caused by alcohol and drug abuse. Should also be a member of the cross-functional team of representatives who develop a drug-free workplace program.
Explain the development of the National Safety Council.
The Association of Iron and Steel Electrical Engineers (AISEE), formed in the early 1900s, pressed for a national conference on safety. As a result of the AlSEE's efforts, the first meeting of the Cooperative Safety Congress took place in Milwaukee in 1912. A year after the initial meeting of the Cooperative Safety Congress, the National Council of Industrial Safety was established in Chicago, Illinois. In 1915, this organization changed its name to the National Safety Council.
Demonstration Program
The Department of Labor describes the Demonstration Program as follows: "for companies that provide Star-quality worker protection in industries where certain Star requirements can be changed to include these companies as Star participants."
Merit Program
The Merit Program is less strenuous than the Star Program. It is seen as a stepping-stone to recognize companies that have made a good start toward Star Program recognition.
Describe the purpose and organization of NIOSH.
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) is part of the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). NIOSH has two broad functions: research and education. The main focus of the agency's research is on toxicity levels and human tolerance levels of hazardous substances. Each year NIOSH publishes updated lists of toxic materials and recommended tolerance levels.
Explain the systems theory of accident causation
This theory views a situation inwhich an accident might occur as a system comprised of the following components: person (host), machine (agency), and environment. The likelihood of an accident occurring is determined by how these components interact. Changes in the patterns of interaction can increase or reduce the probability of an accident occurring.
Describe how a hypothetical OSHA workplace inspection would proceed from the first step to the last.
The OSHA compliance office presents his or her credentials to a company official. The compliance officer conducts an opening conference with pertinent company officials and employee representatives. The compliance officer makes the inspection tour. The compliance officer holds a closing conference, which involves open discussion between the officer and company/employee representatives. OSHA personnel advise company representatives of problems noted, actions planned as a result, and assistance available from OSHA.
Star Program
The Star Program recognizes companies that have incorporated safety and health into their regular management system so successfully that their injury rates are below the national average for their industry.
Ability to Pay
The concept of ability to pay applies when there are a number of defendants in a case, but not all have the ability to pay financial damages. It allows the court to assess all damage against the defendant or defendants who have the ability to pay.
What typed of engineers are most likely to work as design engineers?
Those that are most likely to be designers are aerospace, electrical, mechanical, and nuclear engineers.
Explain the Three E's of Safety.
Three E's of Safety: Engineering - involves making design improvements to both product and process; Education - ensures that employees know how to work safely; and Enforcement - involves making sure that employees abide by safety policies, rules, regulations, practices, and procedures.
Explain how workplace tragedies have affected the safety movement. Give examples.Safety and health tragedies in the workplace have greatly accelerated the pace of the safety movement.
Three of the most significant events in the history of the safety and health movement were the Hawk's Nest, asbestos menace, and Bhopal tragedies
What specific strengths might industrial engineers bring to bear as safety engineers?
Their knowledge of industrial systems, both manual and automated, can make them valuable members of a design team, particularly one that designs industrial systems and technologies.
Explain the domino theory of accident causation, including its origin and its impact on more modern theories.
There are five factors in the sequence of events leading up to an accident: 1) ancestry and social environment, 2) fault of person, 3)unsafe actimechanical or physical hazard, 4) accident, and 5) injury.
When the overall cost of an accident is calculated, what elements make up the cost?
These costs include such factors as lost wages, medical expenses, insurance administration, fire-related losses, motor vehicle property damage, and indirect costs.
What specific strengths might chemical engineers bring to the safety and health team?
The coursework they take is particularly relevant since all of it relates either directly or indirectly to health.
What are the key components of the epidemiological theory and how does their interaction affect accident causation?
The key components are predisposition characteristics and situational characteristics. These characteristics, taken together, can either result in or prevent conditions that might result in an accident.
What impact did labor shortages in World War II have on the safety movement
The loss of a skilled worker due to an injury or for any other reason created an excessive hardship.
Explain the connections between obesity and injuries
The most common causes of injuries to obese people were the result of overexertion and falls. Efforts to promoteoptimal body weight may reduce not only the risk of chronic diseases, but also the risk of unintentional injuries.
servant rule
The most important contributions of organized labor to the safety movement was their work to overturn anti-labor laws relating to safety in the workplace. The fellow servant rule held that employees were not liable for workplace injuries that resulted from the negligence of other employees
Briefly explain what a company must do in order to succeed in today's competitive global marketplace
The most productive company is the one that generates the most output with the least input.
