SOCIAL PSYCH FINAL EXAM

social categorization

(us vs. them) -Strong tendency to categorize people similar to you and people who are not similar to you -Also Ingroup vs. Outgroup -Favorability differs -Variability differs -They are all alike (outgroup homogeneity) -We are all different (ingroup heterogeneity) The Ultimate Attributional Error -Illusory Correlation (based on selective attention) -Probably has genetic component: the tendency to favor people who are similar to us might advance our genes. We evolved to be suspicious of other people (Evolutionary with different tribes against other tribes)- Something we have to be educated on to overcome suspicions We see "us" as more human, more intelligent, more caring, Example: "We love our children" Other group: doesn't love children

Intimacy

"Sharing that which is innermost with others" Definition in our book Seek verification of who we think we are ¨Inclusion of others in one's self concept ¤Self-expansion ¨Erik Erikson. Intimacy is "The ability to experience open and supportive relationships without fear of loosing one's own identity." -said that if the child develops trust during their infancy - A child that does not get strong attachment during their infancy (Example: 1 year old), develop mistrust Trust sets the child up for independence, initative, and can later set them up for an identity Parent-Child Attachment Attachment refers to the strong emotional bond between infancy and primary caregivers

realistic conflict theory

(Bobo, 1983)- As competition escalates, groups will have increasingly negative views of each other. Part of Direct intergroup conflict The idea that limited resources lead to conflict between groups and result in increased prejudice and discrimination

Adult Attachment styles

Based on two dimensions: 1) Whether the self is viewed positively or negatively (self-esteem) 3) Whether others are seen as trustworthy or not Adult Attachment may be: ¤Secure (self and others viewed positively) ¤Preoccupied (self negative, others positive) ¤Dismissing-avoidant (self positive, others negative) ¤Fearful-avoidant (self and others negative) Secure and Preoccupied are high in trust while, Dismissing-Avoidant and Fearful-avoidant high in mistrust High Self-Esteem = Secure and Dismissing-Avoidant ****Childhood attachment shapes adult attachment***

Sternberg's Triangular Model of love

Corners: Intimacy commitment Passion Lines: I-C =Companionate P-C= Fatuous (Silly, Pointless) P-I= Romantic Middle of triangle: Consummate Passion can be associate either with physical arousal or emotional stimulation. Intimacy is described as the feeling of closeness and attachment to another person. Commitment involves the conscious decision to stick with another person.

Unpriming

Effects of schemas persist until expressed, then diminish. a process by which thoughts or actions primed by a recent experience dissipate once they find expression

Correlation ≠ Causation

Just because two things have a shared relationship (i.e. they are correlated), that doesn't necessarily mean that one caused the other. A correlation exists when 2 things vary together; as one measure changes, so does the other Simply put, when two things are related Correlation does NOT imply that one causes the other... just that they seem to happen together Two variables are related (correlated), there is a natural tendency to assume that one causes the other, but correlation does not allow us to infer causality. ¨I call it The Cause-and-Effect Illusion. (Astrology again) However, there are problems in assuming a particular causal structure. ¤The Third Variable Problem ¤The Directionality Problem or Reverse causality problem ¨Correlation is necessary, but not sufficient for causality.

Dismissing-avoidant style

Little trust in other people, so avoid intimacy. -Withdraw when conflicts arise. -Experience little interpersonal anxiety. -Sex is enjoyed or used for bragging to others. -Desire social relationships but avoid intimacy.

The Discounting Principle

The importance of one particular explanation for a given behavior is reduced to the extent that there are other possible explanations for that behavior. The behavior was Expected. Importance of behavior reduced due to expected behavior: A Democrat endorses a Democrat A Democrat criticizes a Republican Political spin is all about augmenting and discounting.

Fearful-Avoidant (Low trust, low self-esteem)

The most damaged type ¨Self-worth based on own physical attractiveness, so is obsessed with own appearance. -Loads of negative interpersonal relations -Often drug abuse -History of physical, psychological or sexual abuse -In my opinion this is probably associated with one type of Narcissistic Personality Disorder.

Parent-Child attachment

The particular attachment style that we learn as infants becomes our relationship schema for adult life Attachment refers to the strong emotional bond between infancy and primary caregivers ¨Evolutionary advantage: protection of the young and vulnerable -Attachment provides child with a secure base for exploration of the environment.(Autonomy, Initiative, Industry)

Social Perception

The process through which we seek to know and understand other persons (also called Person Perception). the study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about other people

third variable problem

the concept that a correlation between two variables may stem from both being influenced by some third variable. In other words, it is possible that the relationship between two variables is actually being caused by a third variable that is related to both variables. Example: The relationship between ice cream consumption and crime rates, it is possible that a third variable, such as hot weather, is causing both ice cream consumption and crime rates to increase. Third Variable: Hot weather

Social Cognition

the manner in which we interpret, analyze, remember, and use information about the social world. the mental processes that people use to make sense of the social world around them Just as we are fooled by visual illusions we are fooled by cognitive illusions.

The Speaker (Persuasion)

•1. *Experts are more persuasive •2. *Attractive speakers are often more persuasive •3. *Familiarity and liking matter (Humor) •4. *Credibility of speaker matters -Sleeper effect - (delayed persuasion by an initially rejected message) with low-credibility source •5. *Rapid speakers can be more persuasive, prevents central route •*Con artists use some of this against us -Antisocial Personality Disorder (sociopath)

Genetics plays a role in Attitudes:

•Attitudes may be influenced by genetics •Twin studies Conclude a high % of the variability in personality is due to genetics. •Personality influences attitudes -Suspiciousness, distrustful, fearful, trusting, relaxed -Intelligence, religiosity

Correlational method

two different variables are observed to determine whether there is a relationship between them Measure two variables Calculate relationship (Example +0.9) Support for hypothesis but CANNOT infer causality

Fundamental attributional error

when someone does something we don't like, we tend to use overuse internal attributions (attributing it to them) We over use internal-attributions (the tendency for observers, when analyzing others' behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition)

Hendrick & Hendrick, 2003

¨The two most fundamental types of love are Passionate love and Companionate love. ¨Over the course of a relationship, passionate love might start out very strong, but soon give way to companionate love that grows and grows over time. Relationships change over time

Attributional Errors (3 of them)

1) Actor-Observer Effect 2) Fundamental Attribution Error 3) Self Serving Bias Definition: attributing bad intent to another party

Social Learning of prejudice

1) Child hears views of parents, friends, teachers etc. Children hearing views of important people shape their beliefs 2) Mass media project images like the helpless female doing nothing, or the wrong thing and then falling as she runs away. Woman always fall and doesn't know how to fight back Mass media also shapes beliefs about prejudice

Persuasive Messages

1. More persuasive if message appears not intended to persuade 2. Message that evokes strong emotion (especially fear) more persuasive. 3. 1-sided vs 2-sided messages Easier to persuade distracted audience (sometimes). Knowledge.The more the audience knows, the more difficult to persuade. Audience with low self-esteem- more easily persuaded. If audience initially opposed, present- Two-sided argument If initially in favor, present- One-sided argument

stereotypes

A cognition or belief that all members of a group share certain traits or characteristics including behaviors. They all act, and think alike When a person has a prejudice against a group its because of one or more stereotypes. Example of a stereotype: Jews are all lawyers and doctors Stereotypes are wrong, but there may be an ounce of truth such as cultural factors. All groups differ on all variables. (they are not all alike) ***Each specific prejudice is made up of one or more such stereotype.*** Group membership tells us nothing about individual Performance or ability

affect-centered model of attraction

A conceptual framework in which attraction is assumed to be based on positive and negative emotions. These emotions can be aroused directly by another person or simply associated with that person. The emotional arousal can also be enhanced or mitigated by cognitive processes. Affect (or mood/emotions) affects many things like motivations, cognitions, perceptions, decision making and Interpersonal attraction. Positive affect leads to liking, negative affect leads to disliking.

representativeness bias

A faulty heuristic strategy based on the presumption that once people or events are categorized, they share all the features of other members in that category. A cognitive bias resulting from the tendency to generalize inappropriately from a small sample or from a single vivid event or episode.

Strange Situation Test

A parent-infant "separation and reunion" procedure that is staged in a laboratory to test the security of a child's attachment

quasi-experimental research

A research technique in which the two or more groups that are compared are selected based on predetermined characteristics, rather than random assignment

Priming

A situation that occurs when stimuli or events increase the availability in memory or consciousness of specific types of information held in memory. Direct effects of priming may wear off by the next day, but indirect effects may persist indefinetely Our own stereotypes and categorizations may prime us spontaneously

Representative Heuristic

a mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case make best guess based on similarity to typical patterns or geneal types. Assume people fit neatly into a relatively few clear-cut categories. Base-rate Fallacy Base-rate Fallacy-using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information assumption that any object (or person) sharing characteristics with the members of a particular category is also a member of that category Make best guess based on similarity to typical patterns or general types. Assumes people fit neatly into a relatively few clear-cut categories. If she looks like a librarian, she is probably quiet, intelligent, serious, and unpopular.

the bogus pipeline

a phony lie-detector device that is sometimes used to get respondents to give truthful answers to sensitive questions Machine that "supposedly" reads minds -When people believed that the machine could actually read their minds and then you asked them to rate themselves they would rate themselves more in the "unfavorable position" When you believe something (or someone) can read your mind, you become more honest Survey people for their ratings of their own racism, prejudice, etc, put you in front of a mind reading machine, and threaten to test you while someone shares their attitude by flipping a switch. Participants were far more likely to admit that they held negative, possibly racist, views when they were hooked up to this alleged mind reading machine. The machine did not really read minds, hence "bogus".

The Directionality Problem

a problem encountered in correlational studies; the researchers find a relationship between two variables, but they cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other variable Cannot determine which variable caused changes in the other variable In summary, the directionality problem is concerned with the direction of causality between two variables, while the third variable problem is concerned with the potential influence of a third variable on the relationship between two variables.

Operant/Instrumental Conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher Example: When a child receives praise from their parents for getting good grades in school. The praise serves as a positive reinforcement, which increases the likelihood that the child will continue to work hard and get good grades in the future. On the other hand, if the child is scolded or punished for getting bad grades, the punishment serves as a negative reinforcement, which decreases the likelihood that the child will get bad grades in the future.

Classical Conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a learned response. Here is an example of classical conditioning: Imagine a dog that salivates when it sees food. In this scenario, the unconditioned stimulus is the food, and the unconditioned response is the dog's salivation. If a bell is repeatedly rung before the food is presented, the dog will eventually learn to associate the sound of the bell with the presence of food. Eventually, the sound of the bell alone will elicit salivation, even without the presence of food. In this example, the sound of the bell has become a conditioned stimulus, and the dog's salivation in response to the sound of the bell is a conditioned response.

Mary Ainsworth

- Student of John Bowlby (Did Strange Situation Test) Strange Situation Test- Sees how attached a baby is to their mother Identified three kinds of secure attachment Securely attached babies cry when their mothers leave the room Securely attached children are better at making friends, and will have marital success and life success Insecurely attached children are the opposite, can be jealous, can think everyone is misleading them, and are suspicious Securely attached children are usually better at things in general, including marriage Next Baby born too soon If next baby comes too soon then the other child may feel left out or excluded This can lead the baby to have lifelong attachment issues Father attachment - Still has a big impact There can be all different kinds of attachments ___________________________________________________________________ ¨Based on childhood experiences, children develop a secure or insecure attachment style. ¤Secure attachment develops from responsive caregiving. ¤Insecure attachment stems from inattentive or abusive parenting. ¨Insecurely attached children exhibit less social competence and self-esteem than securely attached children. Insecurely attached children exhibit less social competence and self-esteem than securely attached children. May have fewer friends, do less well in school and struggle with intimacy later in life.

Companionate Love

-(Note: not "compassionate love") -The growing affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply intertwined. ¤Develops from a certainty of each other's love and respect. -Stable and enduring, even improving with age -2014 Meta-analysis of 126 studies over 50 years: high companionate love led to physical health. Good health benefits

Passionate Love

-A state of intense longing for union with another ¨Changes in brain chemistry (Caudate Nucleus) ¤A pleasure center that processes dopamine PASSIONATE LOVE IS TEMPORARY -quickly diminishes ¨Schachter and Singer's 2-factor theory of emotion from 1962 Suproxin study where participants waited with happy or angry strangers. (Phys. Arousal + Cog. Label) ¨Love could result from excitation transfer ¤Arousal from one stimulus can be misattributed to a second stimulus. (e.g Fear or embarrassment) Excitation from one situation gets transferred to another situation When arousal from one stimulus transfers over to another stimulus

preoccupied attachment style

-They have a negative view of themselves -Sex is seen as a way to attract a partner and to make that person like them more. -They trust others, so low on avoidance, but high on anxiety . -Desperately seek out intimate relationships but tend to be obsessed and preoccupied with those relationships. Higher avoidance means, the less you trust others.

Can we reduce Prejudice?

-A. Breaking the cycle. Parents and Children Do not pass on your trauma's prejudices from your child rearing to your children or to others at all -B. Direct intergroup contact. Becoming friends can lessen the misunderstanding and create more humanization Don't put rich and poor together in small amounts Uniforms don't work due to quality often We need to improve intergroup contact, -C. Recategorization. Muslims or extremists Muslims or extremists -> consistently blamed extremists for terrible acts of hate, despite muslimness. -> Was focused on radicals and psycho individuals, why does their group matter at all? Extremists, not Muslims -D. Cognitive interventions. -Collective Guilt -Just saying no to stereotypes with attributional training (external attributions) Some programs make one group feel guilty for their own sins, their ancestors' sins, make well. Say no to stereotypes -E. Social Influence What others think about "them" affects what we think about "them". Saying "love your enemy" reduces prejudice When a leader sets a good example it greatly reduces prejudice (Especially when they're in a position of leadership)

Affect influences many things:

-Perceptions -Cognitions -Motivations -Decision Making (like voting- correlates with emotional feelings) -Interpersonal Attraction (Liking another person) •(generally Pos. affect leads to liking/Neg. affect leads to disliking) •Positive and Negative emotion may be separate dimensions, not opposite ends of one dimension. •(Stop(BIS)/Start(BAS)) or (Approach(BAS)/Avoidance(BIS)) -Fear (or anxiety) triggers BIS Anger triggers BAS (flight or fight?) •Perhaps novel stimuli activate BIS (a step back) •While familiar stimuli activate BAS (a step forward) •We like familiar and dislike or avoid unfamiliar.

The Robber's Cave study (Sherif)

-Phase 1: creating ingroups -Phase 2: instilling intergroup competition -Phase 3: encouraging intergroup cooperation with superordinate goals Got 11 year old boys (mostly middle class from inner city) - go to 2 week summer camp experiment Phase 1 of Robber's Cave: Kids were randomly divided into two groups and were in different camps Camps didn't even know the other group existed The groups made their own names and made their own flags and got to know each other Phase 2 of Robber's Cave: Groups were put against each other in competition such as baseball, canoeing etc. Example: Lord of the flies Kids within the study call each other "babies" and do name calling Had to stop study early because they were raiding other people's camps and were burning flags Boys were set to hate each other Phase 3 of Robber's cave: Tried to fix this by making a goal that requires both groups to work together Truck that delivered water to camp, when on off it into a ditch and all the boys had to get the water from the truck to all work together. Overall, the Robber's Cave study demonstrated that intergroup conflict can be overcome through cooperation towards a shared goal. The study also showed that group identity and competition can lead to negative attitudes and behaviors towards outgroups. The findings of the study have been widely cited and have contributed to our understanding of social identity, intergroup conflict, and cooperation.

Proximity

A. Proximity (also called Propinquity) -1. Bossard, 1932 residential propinquity in Philadelphia marriages. 33% lived within 5 blocks (Before they got married). 50% in 20 blocks. -2. Festinger, Schachter and Back, 1950 Student housing and proximity. DV was "name your 3 closest friends" 41% chose next door neighbor People who lived close to the elevator or mailroom would make more friends 22 ft likely, 80 ft unlikely Why proximity works b. Classical Conditioning (more opportunities for positive interactions) c. Possible genetic roots through increased familiarity. Familiar is safer than strange or novel. Proximity Leads to Attraction - Repeated Exposure What about Internet proximity- Online Romance -Generally follows the same patterns as traditional dating ¤Deepening of self-disclosure ¤Self-presentation management ¨The Internet provides proximity and intimacy.

ABC model

ABC MODEL OF Attitudes - Affective Component (Emotional, might like or hate something of an effect) Behavioral Component (Action) Cognitive Component (Thought) Attitudes - Social Psychology (First thing researched) Pseudo-attitudes (Republican/Democrat) Belief in something but don't know what it means, (ALSO pertains to Religions, Astrology etc.) -Feelings Affective component- person's feelings about the thing Behavioral component- The influence that attitudes have on behavior Cognitive component- Beliefs/knowledge about a specific object of interests

CAUDATE NUCLEAUS

ASSOCIATED WITH LOVE

Racism

Belief that observable differences among races are genetic. (The Nature-Nurture issue) Prejudice/discrimination based on racial background (more general/typical) -"Old fashioned," overt racism has declined in American society. But Afrocentric appearance evokes implicit racial stereotypes in many societies. -If they have biases then implicit racial stereotypes -Any group of people can be racist - especially when they're in competition for scarce resources Nature-Nurture issue the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture Example: of racism More Jews are doctors and lawyers which is due to their own genetic component of being jewish which shapes their personality. Blame their personality on genetics Example: African-americans have darker skin then white americans African Americans are "Black" -Not true, they are all different shades of brown

Consequences of Adult Attachment

Choice of romantic partner -Willingness to forgive transgressions -Degree of jealousy and possessiveness Adult Attachment styles are generally stable but can change under certain circumstances Come across as being very self-satisfied but underneath it, they have very low self-esteem

How attitudes form

Classical Conditioning- a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events Operant Conditioning- a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher subliminal conditioning- classical conditioning that occurs in the absence of conscious awareness of the stimuli involved Observational Learning- learning by observing others Some are gained by direct experience (still learned)

Schemas

Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information. are Mental Frameworks, which result in both Automatic & Controlled Processing and are Sources of Error in Social Cognition. Mental frameworks centering around a specific theme that help us to organize social information. Schemas influence -Attention (selective attention) -Encoding (selective memory) -Retrieval (selective recall) Priming, unpriming, perseverance effect, reasoning by metaphor Schemas can help us organize and process Schemas can also distort -Self-Fulfilling Prophecy -Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968 False IQ info for elementary students in San Francisco -Prejudice Examples of Schemas: -Restaurants typically have menus with food and drink options -You usually wait to be seated by a host or hostess -You are expected to tip your server at the end of the meal Related ideas from PSY110: Piaget: Assimilation and Accommodation Elizabeth Loftus: Memories are reconstructed around existing schemas.

balance theory

Heider's theory that people prefer harmony and consistency in their views of the world a theory holding that people try to maintain balance among their beliefs, cognitions, and sentiments Explains the similarity-dissimilarity effect Rushton, 1989- suggests similarity of attitudes helps us find genetic similarity - Helping similar others helps advance one's own genes (RH FACTOR).

counterfactual thinking

Imagining alternative scenarios Bringing alternate outcomes to mind. Also "the ease of counterfactual thinking" varies in different situations.

Manipulation of the Independent Variable

In true experiments the independent variable is manipulated, in correlation studies, it is not, and the relationship is instead, calculated. ***CORRELATIONAL STUDIES OFTEN HAVE DIRECTIONALITY OR THIRD-VARIABLE PROBLEMS***

Example of Independent or dependant variable

Independent variable: The type of praise given to participants (e.g., effort-based praise vs. ability-based praise) Dependent variable: The participants' motivation levels to engage in a challenging task (e.g., persistence in completing a difficult puzzle) In this example, the researcher is manipulating the type of praise given to participants and measuring the effect on their motivation levels. The independent variable (type of praise) is expected to cause changes in the dependent variable (motivation levels).

cognitive dissonance

Says our behavior sometimes changes our attitudes. •"The Cognitive Consequences of Forced Compliance" •The "less is more" study •Or the "$1/$20" study Some details Step 1. Everyone did a very boring task Step 2. Everyone agreed to recruit fellow students by telling them the task was very interesting (a lie). Some were paid $1, others $20 Step 3. Everyone rated how interesting step 1 was People who got $1 tried to say that it was interesting to whilst people who got paid $20 said it was boring but needed the money so they justified being lied to when asked if it was interesting If you engage in behavior that goes against your attitude, You try to justify the change in attitude Leon Festinger (and perhaps Carl Smith) developed the theory of cognitive dissonance Some tactics that can reduce dissonance: change attitude, change behavior, seek external justification, acquire new information, trivialize, the role of free choice

Methods of Impression Management (Self-presentation)

Self-enhancement -Appearance -Achievements -Positive qualities (social media) -credentials Other-enhancement. -Flattery, favors, eye contact, smiling, nodding -May backfire if over done. Target may feel manipulated.

Dependant Variable/Responding Variable

That factor that may change in response to the manipulated variable. outcome or behavior that is measured in response to changes in the independent variable.

Today we say that a true attitude has 3 components:

The ABC Model: •Affect (emotion) • Behavior (action) • Cognition (thinking)

Illusory Correlation

The belief that two things are related when they are not. A pattern that does not really exist. Selectively attending to data to make them feel that their idea is correct They can support stereotyped thinking Example: if an individual has a bad experience with a lawyer and they immediately assume all lawyers are bad people. Formed when: -Perceiver already assumes the relationship exists -Selective attention and recall, Priming

Inclusion of Self in Other

The degree to which our partner is included in our self-concept. Brain studies. Recognizing own name or image and that of loved ones involves same part of brain. Not so for people in general. Speed of processing quicker for traits we share with a partner than for unshared traits. Loss of a close relationship causes self concept to become smaller and less clear. ¨When a close relationship ends, one's self concept becomes smaller and less well defined. Actor-Observer Effect Self-other discrepancy is reduced from intimate Discrepnancy dissapears with a significant other, because we treat significant others like ourselves Social Exchange- Carefully balance costs and rewards ¨Inclusion of others in one's self concept ¤Self-expansion

Independent Variable (Manipulated Variable)

The variable that the experimenter decides to change to see if there is or is not an effect.

Persuasion (Attitude Change)

Things that people are influencing on another person Traditional approach; the so-called Yale group (Hovland, Janis & Kelley, 1953)Communication and Persuasion: Psychological Studies in Opinion Change Identified many factors associated with persuasion Traditional Approach (Yale group, early 1950's) •Looked at the speaker (source) •Looked at the message •Looked at the audience (target) •They were concerned about propaganda in Germany. •Propaganda thrives when rational discourse dies. As it has in the USA throughout and since the 2016 presidential race.

self-serving bias

We over-use external attributions (a readiness to perceive oneself favorably) Example: the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors

Social Exchange Theory Thibaut & Kelly, 1959

We seek out and maintain those relationships in which the rewards exceed the costs. •We then terminate relationships when costs become greater than rewards. •It is hedonistic •What about social commitments and obligations?

augmenting principle

When a factor which might facilitate a behavior and one which might inhibit the same behavior are both present and the behavior occurs, we add weight to the behavior. The behavior was Unexpected. When unexpected behavior happens, we add more weight to it Importance of behavior increased due to unexpected behavior: Example: Republican endorses a Democrat A Republican criticizes a fellow Republican

Repeated Exposure

Zajonc's finding that frequent contact with any mildly negative, neutral, or positive stimulus results in an increasingly positive evaluation of that stimulus The more times a stranger attended class, the more she was liked More times she sat in class the more people found her attractive (Familiarilty)

meta-analysis

a "study of studies" that combines the findings of multiple studies to arrive at a conclusion "Analysis of analyses" ¨A way of calculating the overall Effect size. ¤Example: Are there gender differences in communication? ¤Researchers seek unpublished as well as published works. ¤Each study is treated like a participant in the meta-analysis. -Means and standard deviations for the samples are used to calculate estimates of the overall effect size. -Effect sizes can be averaged across studies. -Effect Size- Size could be small that there is no practical significance -Significance- does not mean large, could be small but very significant ¨Improvement over "majority rules" literature reviews Meta-Analysis example- 1000 studies found that violent video games lead to aggression

self-fulfilling prophecy

an expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true. You can make a person behave the way you expect that person to behave. ¤You don't need to know you are doing it. ¤The other person doesn't need to know you are doing it. -Think about the expectations you hold about others: your roommate, your sibling, your instructor, people from another social group. -¤Those expectations have power even if you give them very little thought. "The process by which someone's expectations about a person or group lead to the fulfillment of those expectations." possibly erroneously leading the first person to falsely believe that their prediction was accurate and that they understand the world, when they don't. Excellent example: Trump's relationship with the news media. Another example: Let's say that Jane is a teacher who has low expectations for one of her students, Tom. Jane believes that Tom is not very smart and will not perform well in her class. As a result, Jane gives Tom less attention and fewer opportunities to participate in class. She also grades his work more harshly than she does for other students. Tom picks up on Jane's low expectations and begins to doubt his own abilities. He stops participating in class and stops trying as hard as he did before. He receives poor grades on his assignments and tests, which confirms Jane's original expectations. This scenario illustrates how Jane's low expectations became a self-fulfilling prophecy for Tom. Her behavior towards him was influenced by her expectations, and Tom's behavior was influenced by Jane's treatment of him. As a result, Tom's performance in class suffered and Jane's expectations were ultimately confirmed. _________________________ •Illusion of transparency: We overestimate the extent to which others can detect our thoughts, feelings, and emotions. •If I believe others can see my nervousness, I get even more nervous. •I expect, look for, and react to any hint of rejection in the environment. •Therefore, I act strange and jittery, the encounter goes poorly, and my beliefs are confirmed.

Heuristics

are Mental Shortcuts and Potential Sources of Error (they include Fallacies and Biases) Mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that often lead to a solution (but not always). ***Heuristics are decision-making rules or principles used to make quick/easy conclusions or inferences.***** They are more often right than wrong, but they're often wrong.

Fallacies & Biases

are errors or distortions that crop up in the way people process social information.

Attitude

are lasting general evaluations of people (including self), objects, or ideas

Sexism

belief that observable differences between sexes are genetic. (Nature-Nurture again)

need for affiliation

desire to associate with others, to be part of a group, to form close and intimate relationships (both a STATE and a TRAIT) Remember the distinction? Trait- long term characteristic of an individual that shows through their behaviour, actions and feelings State- temporary condition that they are experiencing for a short period of time Anxiety increases situational need for affiliation. Need for affiliation leads to attraction Is so basic to humanity that, when it is off, a person is not normal. Schizoid- Very Low need for affiliation Narcisstic- Low need for affiliation Dependent- High need for affiliation •Arousing situations increase need for affiliation, (Arousal) as mentioned above (Schachter, 1959). -snowstorms, earthquakes, hurricanes -like waiting for shock. -Social Comparison is used to help us manage stress social anxiety reduces desire to affiliate with others. (Remember that arousal can lead to increase in situational need for affiliation.)

Reactance

doing the opposite when freedom is threatened. -Doing the opposite of what you're told to do

social comparison

evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others Example: Imagine a student who receives a B grade on a test. This student might compare their grade to the grades of their peers in order to evaluate their performance. If the student discovers that most of their peers received A grades, they might feel disappointed and believe that they did not perform well. On the other hand, if the student discovers that most of their peers received lower grades, they might feel better about their own performance and believe that they did well. In this example, the student is using social comparison to evaluate their own performance relative to others.

central route persuasion

high elaboration, hence degree of persuasion depends on quality of arguments. occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts

quasi-independent variable

in a non-experimental study, the "independent variable" that is used to create the different groups of scores

prejudice

is an attitude, usually negative, toward the members of some group based solely on their membership in that group. (old) Currently in text: Negative emotional responses [or affect] based on group membership.(new) Prejudging someone based on being in some group Three components- Affect, Behavior, Cognition Prejudice associated with the affective component of an attitude You can have positive prejudices, but most importance is focused on NEGATIVE prejudices Three types of Prejudices Contemptuous Prejudice- Low Social Status - Competition Envious Prejudice- High Social Status - Competition Paternalistic Prejudice- Low status group that is cooperative or non competitive with mainstream. the elderly, the disabled, women, adolescents What causes Prejudice -A. Direct intergroup competition -B. Social Learning like other attitudes -C. Social Categorization (us vs. them) -Strong tendency to categorize people similar to you and people who are not similar to you -D. Threats to self-esteem -When your self-esteem is threatened you criticize others to gain your self-esteem -E. Authoritarian Personality Type -Associated with bigotry

Interpersonal attraction

liking or having the desire for a relationship with another person (Liking another person)- Attitudes about people Emotions/Affect

impression management

looks at things we do to present ourselves favorably. Another definition: the attempt by people to get others to see them as they want to be seen Reasons we use impression management: - to boost others reaction to us - to improve our own mood - evolution? there may be survival advantages

Peripheral route

low elaboration, hence distraction allows attitude change with weak arguments and shallow processing. a method of persuasion characterized by an emphasis on factors other than the message itself occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness Example: Trump's entire 2016 campaign used the peripheral route. " build the wall", "lock her up", "drain the swamp", "bring back the jobs" and loads of distractions. He did it for 4 yrs. He never made a detailed, reasoned argument for anything. There were several new distractions every week. Not the best way to govern.

availability heuristic

making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind -More readily available information carries more weight. Priming increases availability -Which is more common in English, words that start with "k" or words with "k" as third letter? Recency

Experimental method / TRUE EXPERIMENT

manipulating one variable to determine if this causes changes in another variable Putting certain people in groups to see whos most talkative infers causality ¨"Experiment" is not just another word for "study"—it has a particular meaning. ¤A true experimenter uses random division to put people (cases) into 2 or more groups or conditions. ¤Manipulates an Independent Variable (IV) ¤Measures a Dependent Variable (DV) ¤Controls all other variables as much as possible ¨Mention quasi-experimental research ¤Quasi-independent variable

attitude similarity

more similar attitudes, high ratings of attractiveness focuses on our perception of the attitudes, beliefs, and values that we hold in common in fall 1954 in dorm at U. Michigan The number of shared attitudes predicted liking. The more you have in common with an individual the more you find them attractive •Byrne & Nelson 1965 noted it was the proportion of similar attitudes that mattered •dissimilar attitudes DO carry a bit more weight than similar ones (Negativity Bias) Balance Theory- Explaining the similarity-dissimilarity effect Rushton, 1989- suggests similarity of attitudes helps us find genetic similarity - Helping similar others helps advance one's own genes.

random assignment

placing research participants into the conditions of an experiment in such a way that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any level of the independent variable is important for the representative sample. assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups refers to the process of randomly selecting participants from a larger population to participate in a study Example: A researcher is interested in studying the effects of group size on conformity. The population of interest is undergraduate students at a large university. The researcher obtains a list of all undergraduate students from the university registrar's office and randomly selects a sample of 100 students from the list. The researcher then invites these students to participate in the study. To ensure that the sample is representative of the larger population, the researcher could stratify the sample by gender or age. For example, the researcher could randomly select 50 male and 50 female students from the list or randomly select 25 students from each of four age groups (18-19, 20-21, 22-23, 24 and above). By using random selection, the researcher can increase the generalizability of the study findings to the larger population of undergraduate students at the university. Random selection helps to ensure that the sample is not biased and that the characteristics of the sample are similar to those of the larger population.

social learning

process of altering behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of others Imagine a young person who is learning how to ride a bicycle. The young person may watch and imitate their older sibling or a friend who is already able to ride a bicycle. Through observation and imitation, the young person learns how to balance on the bicycle, pedal, and steer. In this example, the young person is using social learning to acquire a new skill

Parent-Child Separation

protest, despair, detachment -Bowlby: when separated from caregivers, young children experience protest, despair, detachment. -(crying, quiet, behave independently) Bowlby- Child Development specialist Observed among many animals that we go through three stages when separated from caregivers Kittens Ducks Baby ducks if taken from their mothers would start making noise to make their mother notice In the second stage of being separated baby ducks would stay quiet to not attract other predators Oxytocin- When men and women have a higher oxytocin they have higher intimacy with each other (Also called a love hormone) Bowlby Noticed that children who were orphans after their parents were killed during war the babies still looked shell shocked, after nurses caring for them and doing everything for them Two types of insecure attachment Avoidant- Might resist mother Mary Ainsworth - Student of John Bowlby (Did Strange Situation Test) Strange Situation Test- Sees how attached a baby is to their mother Identified three kinds of secure attachment Securely attached babies cry when their mothers leave the room Securely attached children are better at making friends, and will have marital success and life success Insecurely attached children are the opposite, can be jealous, can think everyone is misleading them, and are suspicious Securely attached children are usually better at things in general, including marriage Next Baby born too soon If next baby comes too soon then the other child may feel left out or excluded This can lead the baby to have lifelong attachment issues Father attachment - Still has a big impact There can be all different kinds of attachments Adult Attachments Based on two dimensions Whether the self is viewed positively or negatively (Self-esteem) Evaluation of your own self-concept Four Adult Attachment

In-group heterogeneity

recognize "we" differ The social tendency to be keenly aware of the subtle differences among the individual members of your group (while believing that all members of out-groups are exactly the same).

Forewarning

reduces persuasion Advance knowledge that one is about to become the target of an attempt at persuasion. Forewarning often increases resistance to the persuasion that follows.

discrimination

refers to behaviors that are based on prejudices. Currently in text: Differential (usually negative) behaviors directed towards members of a different social group.

Elaboration

scrutinizing arguments and developing own arguments in the same direction.

Heuristics and Biases

simplify and reduce the information needed for decision making. Both of these minimize information overload and speed up the decision process. They may be helpful or harmful to objectivity.

Causal Attributions

suspected or inferred causes of behavior Your friend tells you that she got an A on the history test and you make one of the following attributions: Internal/Stable; Ability: she's smart External/Stable: Difficulty: the test must have been easy Internal/Unstable: Effort: she must have worked real hard External/Unstable: Luck: I guess she got lucky Another example: Someone implies that another is not answering the phone is because they don't like them STABLE- Stable causal attributions refer to causes that are relatively enduring or permanent. When we make a stable attribution for someone's behavior, we are saying that their behavior is the result of a characteristic or trait that is unlikely to change. UNSTABLE- Refer to causes that are more temporary or changeable. When we make an unstable attribution for someone's behavior, we are saying that their behavior is the result of a temporary circumstance or situation that is likely to change. For example, if we attribute someone's poor performance on a test to lack of sleep the previous night, we are making an unstable attribution because we believe that their lack of sleep was a temporary situation that may not necessarily influence their future behavior. Internal causal attributions refer to causes that are related to the individual, such as their personality traits, abilities, or attitudes. When we make an internal attribution for someone's behavior, we are saying that their behavior is the result of something within them. External causal attributions- Refer to causes that are related to the situation or environment. When we make an external attribution for someone's behavior, we are saying that their behavior is the result of something outside of them. 2X2X2X2=16 types of attribution.

Recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well Tend to remember more recent information better than older information in performance evaluations. Based on availability

tokenism

the practice of making only a perfunctory or symbolic effort to do a particular thing, especially by recruiting a small number of people from underrepresented groups in order to give the appearance of sexual or racial equality within a workforce. When a single member of a minority group is present in an office, workplace, or classroom and is seen as a representative of that minority group rather than as an individual small benefit/large cost Example of tokenism: Company accused of racism and then hire a black person (not doing it because they want to but because they want to fix their image to improve diversity to think they solve the problem) Small benefit- Big costs to minority to groups Problem still exist

The Ultimate Attributional Error

the tendency to attribute positive behaviors to internal traits within one's own group, but negative behaviors to the internal traits of the out group. example: If my group does something bad, then you say most of us are good but you blame the individual Blame person not group Internal to the group- When someone else in my group does the same bad thing, you blame THE INDIVIDUAL Outside of group: When one person does something bad outside the group, you blame the entirety of the outside group the tendency to attribute positive behaviors to internal traits within one's own group, but negative behaviors to the internal traits of the out group.

Negativity Bias (Automatic Vigilance)

the tendency to focus or remember the negative aspects of experiences Powerful tendency to pay attention to undesirable info or stimuli

actor-observer effect

the tendency to make situational attributions for our own behaviors while making dispositional attributions for the identical behavior of others sometimes we observe others, sometimes we are the actor (the overall tendency to attribute our own behavior to external sources but to attribute the behavior of others to internal sources) TYPE OF ATTRIBUTIONAL ERROR The Ultimate Attributional Error: the tendency to attribute positive behaviors to internal traits within one's own group, but negative behaviors to the internal traits of the out group. Actor-Observer Effect for groups.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

theory identifying two ways to persuade to make attitude changes: a central route and a peripheral route

out-group heterogeneity

they (people from that group) are all the same (if one is bad they all are)

Magical thinking (primitive thinking)

thinking based on assumptions that don't hold up to rational scrutiny At least two kinds: 1) Law of contagion. Hair & clothing contain essence of a person. -2) Law of similarity. Doll, photo or likeness contains the essence of the person. Law of contagion- other words, the Law of Contagion suggests that the properties of an object can be transferred to another object through physical contact, Law of similarity- suggests that things that resemble each other or have a symbolic connection can influence each other. For example, some people believe that if they create a painting or drawing of a person or a situation, they can influence the real-life outcome of that person or situation. another example: A child thinks he can turn into a racecar

physical attractiveness

•Attractiveness leads to Positive Affect. •Possible evolutionary roots here as well to the extent that we find healthy attributes to be attractive. (youth, nice hair, smooth skin, slender, healthy appearance are all indications of health and fitness) What Constitutes Facial Attractiveness ? -Either Childlike features or Mature features -Cute/boyish or Mature masculine - Composite faces more attractive Symmetrical faces = attractive - The color red makes women more attractive. Elliot and Niesta 2008- -Red background better than white for attractiveness (in background color) "No effect" means difference is not significant This study affected men but not women -More Internal Factors in Attractiveness Need for Cognition. If this need is high, less affected by attractiveness -Gender: Many have observed that: •Physical attractiveness is more important to men. •Material resources are more important to women. More External (Situational) Factors -Arousing situations increase need for affiliation, (Arousal) as mentioned above (Schachter, 1959). -snowstorms, earthquakes, hurricanes -like waiting for shock. -Social Comparison is used to help us manage stress