Social Psychology Exam 2

Propaganda

"Systematic propagation of a given doctrine" -Ads are designed intentionally to mislead consumers into believing that a product with a brand name is better than a generic

Education

"The act of imparting knowledge or skill"

Robber's Cave Experiment, Muzafer Sherif

- Aimed to study inter-group relations in natural setting and study origins/reduction of prejudiced btw groups three stages group formation, friction, and integration - Findings (Stage 1 Both groups had leader and hierarchies, Rattlers more hostile when told of eagles existence) Stage 2- Group members overestimated ingroup abilities and underestimated outgorup abilities, Eagles burned rattlers' flag and rattlers raided eagles' cabin, stage 3-Integration, Rattlers said 36.4% of eagles were their friends (1st = 6.4%) eagles said 23.2% of rattlers were their friends (1st= 7.5%)

Experiment: Children's awareness of persuasion

-12% of 6th graders believed TV commercials told the truth most to all of the time - By 10th grade, only 4% believed ads were truthful most of the time -By adulthood most to all of them believed advertisements contained untruthful arguments

Experiment: Credibility -Carl Hovland and Walter Weiss (1951) -Asked people to evaluate a claim that building nuclear powered submarines was a feasible undertaking' -Some were told this argument came from a highly credible and respected atomic physicist -Others were told the same information came from a less credible source (Pravada) the official newspaper of the Communist Party in the Soviet union which was known to be very subjective and untruthful

-Almost everyone who believed the source was the highly credible physicist changed their opinion -Very few from the other group shifted their opinions -Aristotle said we believe "good men" meaning credible and trustworthy

Experiment: Credibility based on attributes -Burton Golden -6th graders listen to a speech about usefulness of arithmetic by a highly credible and accomplished engineer or someone who washes dishes -Varied the race of the engineer -Weeks prior children filled out a survey to determine their degree of prejudice against black people

-Among the most prejudice children, the black speaker was less influential than the white speaker -Children who were less prejudice found the black speaker as more influential than the white speaker

Order of Presentation -Primacy vs Recency

-Amount of time is critical: -Between first and last communication -Last communication and decision -Primacy is best when the two communications are close in time (Inference) -Recency is best if the decision comes quickly after the communication

Attitude

-An opinion that includes and emotional and an evaluative component -Much more difficult to change than an opinion

Persuasion in politics

-Candidates that spend the early part of their campaign defining themselves against their opponent are able to define the narrative of the campaign -TV commercials are most effective when the campaign is centered around highly charged issues that arouse strong emotions in voters

Effect of Fake News

-Comes from so many, often unknown, sources and it is easy to present as real news -People tend to rely on social networks and their existing ideas to form their opinions -Creates the tendency to categorize information that we agree with as education and information we don't agree with as propaganda

Propaganda or Education

-Depends on a persons moral value or ideologies -Political consultants display their candidate in a manner that could be considered an attempt to educate the public on the policies and virtues of a candidate -Often distort or omit facts in favor of promoting an specific doctrine -Schools struggle to establish the line between education and propaganda when it comes to history or biology -When dealing with emotionally charged and controversial issues, there is no form of communication that could be considered fair and impartial

Why are people more likely to take action against immediate threats (Terrorism) over gradual threats (Global Warming)?

-Evolutionary feature to identify clear and present danger -Respond more to human threats (Terrorism) because it arouses a sense of moral responsibility

Logic vs Emotional appeal

-Fear and Self-esteem -Delayed effect for those with low self-esteem and those who feel a high threat -Feel they can take action later -Specific instructions are effective with Fear -Context specific effects of fear (death, AIDS, etc) -The more frightened a person is by a communication, the more likely they are to take preventative action

Experiment: Political Consultants -Hired to conduct research on the words, phrases and terms names that influence the public most -Fred Luntz

-Found that referring to a new "estate tax" on people who inherit immense amounts of wealth as the "death tax" would conjure images of being unfairly penalized for dying

One-sided vs Two-sided arguments

-Informed group wants two-sided - one-sided if the initial group position is in your favor

Nature of Communication (What)

-Logic v.s. Emotional appeal -Vaccination Study -Fear of a painful disease overrides a fear of needles -Consensual statistical evidence vs a single person -One-sided vs Two-sided -Order of Presentation (Primacy vs recency) -Message discrepancy and the latitude of acceptance

When is information most effective in politics?

-Most effective when facts that scare or anger people are tied to solutions to the problems people are most concerned about

Message discrepancy and the latitude of acceptance

-Motivation to relieve discomfort of a discrepant message -Change opinion -Change others opinion -Find support for your position - Highly credible source can give a more discrepant message

Persuasion through mass media

-Not always obvious -Main goal is attracting viewers -News has become a form of entertainment -Focus on negative aspects of society -Negativity Bias -Altering the perception of society influences peoples behavior

Persuasion and wording -Affordable Care Act

-Opponents to Obama's ACA created phrases that insighted fear in people. They reffered to meetings about the ACA as "Death Panels" and discredited the purpose of the bill as "Pulling the plug on grandma"

Experiment: Advertisement of toys to persuade children -Use fast paced, colorful ads depicting familiar characters, promotional offers and the promise of fun to persuade kids to have their parents buy it for them

-Over 90% of preschoolers asked their parents for toys and food the saw advertised on television - 2/3 of parents say they often hear their young children singing advertising jingles they heard on TV -When given a choice of candy bars, children tend to choose the one they've seen on advertisements or in shows

Obvious attempts at persuasion -Robert Zajonc

-People often set aside skepticism even when attempts to persuade is obvious -The move familiar we are with a product, the more attractive it is, even if there is no difference in effectiveness - We prefer faces we have seen 10 times over equally attractive faces we have seen 5 times -We prefers words and faces that mirror ourselves rather than our friends

Aspects of Audience (Whom)

-Self-esteem -Prior experience -Mood of the audience -Warning of intent to persuade -Pressure can not be to strong or too clumsy -Reactance Theory -Inoculation Effect -Use of names can increase happiness

Experiment: Phone Distraction -Bill Thorton -College students take a test of difficult or easy cognitive tests -One group asked to put their phones out of sight and the other asked to keep them visible

-Students who kept their phones in view did 20% worse on the difficult task than those who could not see their phone

Filtration of information

-Technology that allows us to choose our sources of information has exacerbated the issue of education vs propaganda -Social media tracks our activity and filters information to show us what we already believe -We are less likely to encounter stories and information that may change, broaden, or challenge our views -"Filter Bubble" - Eli Pariser

Immunity to Persuasion

-Thinking we are too educated and skeptical to be persuaded makes us more susceptible to persuasion

Consensual statistical evidence vs a single person

-Vividness of a single example can outweigh baseline data -Single instance becomes a prototype rather than baseline rate

Brand loyalty

-We associate the availability of an advertised brand with superiority -Once we try the product and like it, we will continue to buy it instead of a less familiar brand

Opinion

-What a person believes to be true -Primarily cognitive -Transient: Can be changed by good evidence to the contrary

Experiment: Distraction in face-to-face interaction -Pairs of strangers interacted in meaningful conversations -Experimenter left his phone or a notebook on the table -Participants asked to rate the interaction and their partner

-When the phone was present, partners seemed less understanding and trustworthy -Similar study shows the presence of a phone leads to less eye contact, engagement, empathy, and enjoyment of the conversation

Filter Bubble

-a state of intellectual isolation that can result from personalized searches when a website algorithm selectively guesses what information a user would like to see based on information about the user, such as location, past click-behavior and search history.

Two routes to persuasion

-central route and peripheral route -most persuasions contains elements of both

Similarity and liking effect experiment, Hunter Gelbach

-teachers and students filled out surveys about their preferences -researchers randomly told teachers and students about 5 of their similarities -knowing about the similarities increased mutual feelings of liking and respect(even higher among minority students)

failure and attractiveness experiment, Ben Willerman and Joanne Floyd

-told male college students to evaluate candidates trying out for a quiz show evaluated candidates based on how likable they seamed -listened to recording of an interview candidate came across in different ways in the 4 different versions 1) candidate was virtually perfect 2) candidate of average ability 3) "perfect" and "average" candidates spilled spilled coffee on themselves -results confirmed the pratfall effect-

Interdependence...

...when individuals need one another to succeed; this is key to overcoming prejudice between groups (e.g., the Robber's Cave Study).

What are four basic social-psychological causes of prejudice?

1) Economic/political competition/conflict 2) Displaced aggression 3) Maintenance of status or self-image 4) Conformity to existing social norms

Stereotypes have two distinct purposes: They provide...

1) Energy saving informational shortcuts 2) After-the-fact rationalization for prejudiced feelings

Ingroup Bias

A biological survival mechanism that makes us prefer our own "tribe" and be wary of outsiders. Rooted in a fear of people who are "others" in general, not necessarily in a prejudice against a particular race.

Prejudice

A negative attitude to all members of a distinguishable group based solely on their membership in that group. Can be partly: -Cognitive -Emotional -Behavioral

Jigsaw Classroom

A teaching method that requires the interdependence of group members to ensure mutual success; students in a group are each given a necessary piece of information that must be taught to the other members of their group. This approach requires cooperation and mutual respect for all members to succeed, so it reduces prejudice.

attributional ambiguity

An extra difficulty experienced by minority groups; members of these groups may be placed in a position where they have to wonder if the way they are being treated can be attributed to racism, overcompensation out of fear of racist behavior, or some other cause. This is particularly problematic when a member of a minority group receives any form of feedback.

Experiment: Persuasion through phrasing -Mathew McGlone

College students were more persuaded by unfamiliar sayings that rhyme over the same idea phrased in an non rhyming way

Prejudice

Communication from one person changes the opinions, attitudes or behavior of another person

Aspects of the "Who" of communication

Credibility of the source -Expert or perceived expert -Confidence increases credibility Trustworthiness -Argue against their own interests -Conflict with expectations -We are sure they are not trying to influence us Attractiveness -Can override credibility and trust -Usually matters to trivial issues

Central route to persuasion

Involves weighing arguments and considering relevant facts, thinking about issues in a systematic fashion and coming to a decision

Stereotype

Labels we apply to groups to sum up their essence; stereotypes reflect the belief that a particular attribute is characteristic of a group as a whole, regardless of actual variation within the groups members.

We are more suseptable to persuasion when we are using ___________ route to persuasion

Peripheral -when a person responds to simple, often irrelevant cues that suggest the rightness or wrongness of an argument without giving it much thought

Inoculation Effect

Process of making people immune to attempts to change their attitude, by initially exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position

Influences of technology

Pros: -Cognitive abilities have grown -Crime rate among teens has decreased -Powerful tools for learning and productivity Cons: -Detrimental to social skills -Laziness -Narcissism -Fixation on fame, wealth and popularity over friendships, generosity, and community

_______ are often used as an excuse for treating black children unfairly in school

Stereotypes

Scapegoating

The process of blaming innocent and powerless others for our troubles; a form of displaced aggression

Contact Hypothesis

The theory that close contact with members of a minority group can lead to mutual understanding and friendship; contact allows members of the minority group to be seen as real people, not stereotypes. (However, this only works if the members of both groups have equal status when they interact.)

Discrimination

Unfair treatment of members of a stigmatized group.

opinion

What a person believes to be true -Primarily cognitive -transient

stereotype threat

When fear of confirming a stereotype leads to anxiety, causing poor performance, thus paradoxically confirming the stereotype.

Emotional Contagion

When one person's emotional behaviors triggers similar emotions and behaviors in observers

Reactance Theory

When the sense of freedom is threatened and we attempt to restore it

Sources of Communication

Who, What, and Whom -Who is communicating? -Nature of the communication -Audience

straight talk

a clear statement of a person's feelings and concerns without accusing, blaming, judging, or ridiculing the other person

passionate love

a love characterized by strong emotions, sexual desire, and intense preoccupation with the beloved

companionate love

a love that is a milder. more stable experience marked by feelings of mutual trust, dependability, and warmth typically lasts longer than passionate love

pratfall effect

a phenomenon in which, even though a person has a high degree of competence, some evidence of fallibility increases his or her attractiveness

Stereotypes are not always bad; they can sometimes be ....

adaptive (e.g., most violent crimes are committed by young men, so it makes sense to be more nervous if you run into a young man in a dark ally compared to an old woman)

anxious lovers

always agitated about their relationships, want to be close but worry their partners will leave them

People may be biased to see the action of shoving someone else as more agressive when it is done by a _________________ rather than ____________ man

black, white

comparison level for alternatives

calculating a person's value as a friend/romantic partner partly by comparing what they bring us with what we might get from other potential friends or romantic partners

Some prejudice is largely cognitive, rooted in misinformation, which means it can be ______ fairly easily

changed

Prejudice is part ____ part ____ and part ____

cognitive, emotional, behavioral

Elaine Walster, self-esteem

college students asked to evaluate people they liked, and attractive stranger they just met while waiting for personality results people with low self-esteem are less picky about who they date

When we believe someone has _________ of their situation, we use this to justify our biases/prejudice (e.g., fat shaming)

control

porcupine's dilemma

desire to achieve deep intimacy while remaining invulnerable to hurt

hostile criticism

each person always blames the other in angry "you always" or "you never" terms

implicit theory of love

governs behavior and how romances play out other cultures and couples have different implicit theories

Even positive stereotypes (e.g., assuming an Asian student is good at math) can be very ....

harmful, robbing people of their individuality, culture, and humanity

What is the biggest determinate of whether or not couples will go on a second date? Elaine Walster

incoming students matched for blind date after taking personality test answer physical attractiveness

People may be particularly attracted to information that allows them to ______________________ because this means they no longer have to use the effort to supress them

justify their prejudices/biases

"Morning people" are more likely to resort to stereotypes when thinking of people...

later in the day, when they are tired

stonewalling

listener withdraws refusing to talk to or be in same room as their partner

proximity

makes it likelier that we will have repeated exposure to a person and they will become more attractive to us as they become more familiar

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

measures the speed of people's positive and negative associations to a target group.

contempt

one partner mocks the other with ugly names/sneers in disgust/uses belittling language

authenticity

our ability to give up trying to make a good impression and begin to reveal honest things about ourselves

attachment theory of love

people's attachment styles as adults derive in large part from how their parents cared for them

An emotional, gut feeling that resists rational argument is part of many .....

prejudices. Often, these gut feelings run the show and can't be impacted by logical arguments to the contrary.

securely attached lovers

rarely jealous/ worried about rejection, more compassionate and helpful

defensiveness

recipient of criticism replies with a counter-complaint instead of trying to see the other person's concern

communal relationships

relationships in which neither partner is keeping score; feeling that over the long haul some semblance of equity will take place

exchange relationships

relationships in which people involved want to make sure some sort of equality is achieved and rewards/costs to each of the partners is fairly distributed

Attractiveness and personality, Karen Dion

showed students photos of attractive, average looks or unattractive people students gave more positive traits to person the more attractive they were

When people are tired, mentally fatigued, drunk, distracted, angry, or scared, etc, they are more likely to fall back on ...

stereotypes, even when motivated to get things right

similarity and attractiveness, Gregory White

students asked to rate their attractiveness, couples with similar ratings were more likely to stay together

Categorization

the fundamental cognitive process that involves the grouping of objects or people by key characteristics

similarity

the more similar a person seams to you in attitudes/opinions/interests the more you like the person it is enough for us to perceive similarity with another person

gain-loss theory

the theory that increases in positive, rewarding behavior from another person has more impact than constantly rewarding behavior; and that losses in positive behavior have more impact than constant negative behavior from another person

competence(smartness and ability to get things done)

we like to be around competent people but if they are too competent they make us uncomfortable because they make us look bad by comparison

Harold Sigall experiment

woman(attractive/unattractive) evaluated men like woman more when she was attractive and gave them complements

Hostile sexism believes that...

women are inferior to men and inherently less intelligent, competent, brave, etc. These are completely negative stereotypes

Benevolent sexism believes that...

women are more empathetic, kinder, more nurturing, better at housework, etc., and in need of protection. Women are idealized. Like hostile sexism, benevolent sexism sees women as weaker than men.