Sociology Exam 1

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Verstehen

"empathic understanding"; Weber's term to describe good social research, which tries to understand the meanings that individuals attach to various aspects of social reality

Anomie

"normlessness"; term used to describe the alienation and loss of purpose that result from weaker social bonds and an increased pace of change

August Comte

(1798-1857) Frenchmen first to provide a program for the scientific study of society developed a theory of the progress of human thinking Positivism Wrote 'Introduction to Positive Philosophy' (1892)

Harriet Martineau

(1802-1876) Journalist and political economist 'Society in America' and 'Retrospect of Western Travel' translated Comte's 'Introduction to Positive Philosophy' into English

Karl Marx

(1818-1863) the inspiration for conflict theory Means of Production Proletariat and Bourgeoisie Critical Theory

Herbert Spencer

(1820-1903) responsible for the establishment of sociology in Britain and America list of "First principles" with evolution driven by natural selection at the top Social Darwinism

Emile Durkheim

(1858-1917) central figure in functionalist theory Solidarity, mechanical solidarity, organic solidarity case studies in individualistic actions and suicides

George Herbert Mead

(1863-1931) Chicago School Pragmatism

Erving Goffman

(1922-1982) Dramaturgy Ethnomethodology Conversation Analysis

Elton Mayo

(1949) sought to examine the effect of varying work conditions on motivation and productivity in the factory Hawthorne Effect

Clifford Geertz

(1973) Thick Description

Development of Self

1. Preparatory Stage 2. Play Stage 3. Game Stage

Existing Sources Disadvantages

1. Researchers drawing on existing sources often seek to answer questions that the original authors did not have in mind 2. it can describe the messages inherent in the media, does not illuminate how such messages are interpreted

Interview Advantages

1. These allow respondents to speak in their own words 2. These may help the researcher dispel certain preconceptions and discover issues that might have otherwise been overlooked

Social Networks Analysis Disadvantages

1. can gloss over important details and diversity in the experiences of social actors 2. Big data is expensive to collect and analyze

Ethnographic Advantages

1. research excels at telling richly detailed stories that contribute to our understanding of social life 2. research can challenge our taken-for-granted notions about groups we thought we knew 3. the detailed nature of this research can help reshape the stereotypes we hold about others and on which social policy is often based 4. much of the pioneering methodological innovation of the last half-century has come from this

Existing Sources Advantages

1. researchers are able to work with information they could not possible obtain on their own 2. they would never be able to enter themselves 3. researchers can use the same data to replicate projects that have been conducted before

Experiment Disadvantages

1. these are applicable only to certain types of research that can be constructed and measured in a controlled setting 2. Achieving distance from the messy realities of the social world is also the major weakness with sociological experiments

Social Network Analysis Advantages

1. these can trace the route of anything as it moves through a social group, community or society 2. contributes to the production of "big data"

Interview Disadvantages

1. these respondents are not always forthcoming or truthful 2. Representativeness

Experiments Advantages

1. this give sociologists a way to manipulate and control the social environment they seek to understand 2. the best methods for establishing causality 3. Much like physics experiments, highly controlled sociological experiments can theoretically be repeated

Survey Disadvantages

1. this research generally lacks qualitative data that might better capture the social reality the researcher wishes to examine 2. comparatively weak on validity 3. generalizability more difficult 4. may be used to make a claim or support a point of view rather than for pure scientific discovery

Survey Advantages

1. this research is one of the best methods for gathering original data on a population that is too large to study by other means 2. this research is also relatively quick and economical and can provide a vast amount of data 3. this research is comparatively strong on reliability 4. there is less concern about interviewer or observer bias entering into the research process

Ethnographic Disadvantages

1. this research suffers from a lack of replicability 2. a major critique has to do with an ethnographic study's degree of representativeness 3. participant observes must also be wary of personal bias

Critique

A detailed analysis and assessment.

Weberian Theory

A sociological perspective, deriving from the work of Max Weber, focused on understanding and explaining social action. Contemporary forms of Weberian sociology are usually expressed as interactionist sociology.

Psychoanalytic Theory

A theory developed by Freud that attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior

Formal Written Communication

Documents such as memos (or e-mails) are the heart of the organization and the most effective way to communicate.

Differential Association Theory

Edwin Sutherland's hypothesis that we learn to be deviant through our associations with deviant peers

Stigma

Erving Goffman's term for any physical or social attribute that devalues a person or group's identity and that may exclude those who are devalued from normal social interaction

Research Methods

Ethnography/Participant Observation Interviews Surveys Existing Sources Experiments Social Network Analysis

McDonaldization

George Ritzer's term describing the spread of bureaucratic rationalization and the accompanying increases in efficiency and dehumanization

Labeling Theory

Howard Becker's idea that deviance is a consequence of external judgments, or labels, that modify the individual's self-concept and change the way others respond to the labeled person

Iron Cage

Max Weber's pessimistic description of modern life, in which we are caught in bureaucratic structures that control our lives through rigid rules and rationalization

Mind, Self, and Society

Mead's theory of the self that develops through three stages (preparatory, play, and game); in role taking the particular or generalized other, we learn to see ourselves as others do

The Stanford Prison Experiment

Philip Zimbardo's study of the effect of roles on behavior. Participants were randomly assigned to play either prisoners or guards in a mock prison. The study was ended early because of the "guards'" role-induced cruelty.

The Macro-Micro Continuum

Society Culture Social institutions Social Inequality Groups Roles Socialization Interaction Self

Basic Research

The search for knowledge without an agenda for practical goal in mind

Rules and Regulations

These are meant to make all operations as predictable as possible

Deviance

a behavior, trait, belief, or other characteristic that violates a norm and causes a negative reaction

Group

a collection of people who share some attribute, identify with one another, and interact with each other

Critical Theory

a contemporary form of conflict theory that criticizes many different systems and ideologies of domination and oppression

False Consciousness

a denial of the truth on the part of the oppressed when they fail to recognize the interests of the ruling class in their ideology

Dysfunction

a disturbance to or undesirable consequence of some aspect of the social system

Autoethnography

a form of participant observation where the feelings and actions of the researcher become a focal point of the ethnographic study

Society

a group of people who shape their lives in aggregated and patterned ways that distinguish their group from others

Institutional Review Board

a group of scholars within a university who meet regularly to review and approve the research proposals of their colleagues and make recommendations for how to protect human subjects

In-Group

a group that one identifies with and feels loyalty toward

Reference Groups

a group that provides a standard of comparison against which we evaluate ourselves

Out-Group

a group toward which an individual feels opposition, rivalry, or hostility

Subculture

a group within society that is differentiated by its distinctive values, norms, and lifestyle

Counterculture

a group within society that openly rejects and/or actively opposes society's values and norms

Stereotype Promise

a kind of self-fulfilling prophecy in which positive stereotypes, such as the "model minority" label applied to Asian Americans, lead to positive performance outcomes for Asian Americans

Stereotype Threat

a kind of self-fulfilling prophecy in which the fear of performing poorly - and confirming stereotypes about their social groups - causes students to perform poorly

Folkways

a loosely enforced norm involving common customs, practices, or procedures that ensure smooth social interaction and acceptance

Content Analysis

a method in which researchers identify and study specific variables - such as words - in a text, image, or media message

Participant Observation (Qualitative)

a methodology associated with ethnography whereby the researcher both observes and becomes a member in a social setting 1. Gain access 2. Establish good relationship 3. collect data

Ethnography

a naturalistic method based on studying people in their own environment in order to understand the meanings they attribute to their activities; also the written work that results from the study

Taboo

a norm ingrained so deeply that even thinking about violating it evokes strong feelings of disgust, horror, or revulsion

Structural Functionalism (Macro)

a paradigm based on the assumption that society is a unified whole that functions because of the contributions of its separate structures

Modernism

a paradigm that places trust in the power of science and technology to create progress, solve problems, and improve life

Symbolic Interactionism (Micro)

a paradigm that sees interaction and meaning as central to society and assumes that meanings are not inherent but are created through interaction

Conflict Theory (Macro)

a paradigm that sees social conflict as the basis of society and social change, and emphasizes a materialist view of society, a critical view of the status quo, and a dynamic model of historical change

Postmodernism

a paradigm that suggests that social reality is diverse, pluralistic, and constantly in flux

Respondents

a participants in a study from whom the researcher seeks to gather information

Simple Random Sampling

a particular type of probability sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

Pragmatism

a perspective that assumes organisms (including humans) make practical adaptations to their environments; humans do this through cognition, interpretation, and interaction

Multiculturalism

a policy that values diverse racial, ethnic, national, and linguistic backgrounds and so encourages the retention of cultural differences within society rather than assimilation

Status

a position in a social hierarchy that carries a particular set of expectations

Saturated Self

a postmodern idea that the self is now developed by multiple influences chosen from a wide range of media sources

Scientific Method

a procedure for acquiring knowledge that emphasizes collecting concrete data through observation and experiment 1. identify the problem or ask a general question 2. Conduct a literature review 3. Form a hypothesis 4. Choose a research design or method 5. Collect data 6. Analyze data 7. Disseminate findings

The Sociological Imagination

a quality of the mind that allows us to understand the relationship between our individual circumstances and larger social forces

Open-ended Questions

a question asked of a respondent that allows the answer to take whatever form the respondent chooses

Closed-ended Questions

a question asked of a respondent that imposes a limit on the possible responses

Causation

a relationship between variables in which a change in one directly produces a change in the other

Culture Shock

a sense of disorientation that occurs when entering a radically new social or cultural environment

Pilot Study

a small-scale study carried out to test the feasibility of a larger one

Structure

a social institution that is relatively stable over time and that meets the needs of society by performing functions necessary to maintain social order and stability

Conversation Analysis

a sociological approach that looks at how we create meaning in naturally occurring conversation, often by taping conversations and examining them

Hawthorne Effect

a specific example of reactivity, in which the desired effect is the result not of the independent variable but of the research itself

Moral Holiday

a specified time period during which some norm violations are allowed

Achieved Status

a status earned through individual effort or imposed by others

Embodied Status

a status generated by physical characteristics

Master Status

a status that is always relevant and affects all other statuses we possess

Ascribed Status

a status that is inborn; usually difficult or impossible to change

Language

a system of communication using vocal sounds, gestures, or written symbols; the basis of symbolic culture and the primary means through which we communicate with one another and perpetuate our culture

Crowd

a temporary gathering of people in a public place; members might interact but do not identify with each other and will not remain in contact

Feminist Theory

a theoretical approach that looks at gender inequities in society and the way that gender structures the social world

Social Identity Theory

a theory of group formation and maintenance that stresses the need of individual members to feel a sense of belonging

Intervening Variable

a third variable, sometimes overlooked, that explains the relationship between two other variables

Social Network Analysis

a tool for measuring and visualizing the structure of social relationships between two or more people

Bureaucracy

a type of secondary group designed to perform tasks efficiently, characterized by specialization, technical competence, hierarchy, written rules, impersonality, and formal written communication

Chicago School

a type of sociology practiced at the University of Chicago in the 1920s and 1930s that centered on urban settings and field research methods

Likert Scale

a way of formatting a survey questionnaire so that the respondent can choose an answer along a continuum

Sociological Perspective

a way of looking at the world through a sociological lens, practical knowledge and scientific knowledge

Theories

abstract propositions that explain the social world and make predictions about the future

Outsiders

according to Howard Becker, those labeled deviant and subsequently segregated from "normal" society

technical competence

all members are expressly trained and qualified for their specific roles within the organization

Specialization

all members of a bureaucracy are assigned specialized roles and tasks

In-Group Orientation

among stigmatized individuals, the rejection of prevailing judgments or prejudice and the development of new standards that value their group identity

Definition of the Situation

an agreement with others about "what is going on" in a given circumstance; this consensus allows us to coordinate our actions with those of others and realize goals

Dramaturgy

an approach pioneered by Erving Goffman in which social life is analyzed in terms of its similarities to theatrical performance

Midrange Theory

an approach that integrates empiricism and grand theory

Life History

an approach to interviewing that asks for a chronological account of the respondent's entire life, or some portion of it

Deductive Approach

an approach whereby the researcher formulates a hypothesis first and then gathers data to test that hypothesis

Inductive Approach

an approach whereby the researcher gathers data first, then formulates a theory to fit the data

The Looking Glass Self

an image of yourself based on what you believe others think of you (Charles Cooley)

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

an inaccurate statement or belief that, by altering the situation, becomes accurate; a prediction that causes itself to come true

Grounded Theory

an inductive method of generating theory from data by creating categories in which to place data and then looking for relationships among categories

Bias

an opinion held by the researcher that might affect the research or analysis

Probability Sampling

any sampling procedure that uses randomization quantitative

Means of Production

anything that can create wealth: money, property, factories, and other types of businesses, and the infrastructure necessary to run them

Beginner's Mind

approaching the world without preconceptions in order to see things in a new way

Covert

appropriate in some cases

Nature Side

argue that behavioral traits can be explained by genetics

Nurture Side

argue that human behavior is learned and shaped through social interaction

Functionalism

attempts to provide a universal social theory, a way of explaining society in one comprehensive model

Traditional Authority

authority based in custom, birthright, or divine right

Legal-Rational Authority

authority based in laws, rules, and procedures, not in the heredity or personality of any individual leader

Charismatic Authority

authority based in the perception of remarkable personal qualities in a leader

Empirical

based on observation or experiment

Id

basic inborn drives that are the source of instinctive psychic energy

Cooling the Mark Out

behaviors that help others to save face or avoid embarrassment, often referred to as civility or tact

Overt

best because it avoids the ethical problem

Hierarchy

bureaucracies always feature the supervision of subordinates by higher-ranking managers and bosses

Feral Children

children who have had little human contact and may have lived in social isolation from a young age

Culture Wars

clashes within mainstream society over the values and norms that should be upheld

Thomas Theorem

classic formulation of the way individuals determine reality, whereby "if people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences"

Aggregates

collections of people who share a physical location but do not have lasting social relations

Social Ties

connections between individuals

Big Data

data sets so large that typical computer and storage programs cannot handle them

Role-Taking Emotions

emotions such as sympathy, embarrassment, or shame that require that we assume the perspective of another person or group and respond accordingly

Role Strain

experienced when there are contradictory expectations within one role

Role Conflict

experienced when we occupy two or more roles with contradictory expectations

The Asch Experiment

experimented how people would rather conform than state their own individual answer even though they know the group's answer is wrong

Positive Sanctions

express approval for adhering to a social norm

Negative Sanctions

express disapproval and may come in the form of a frown, harsh words, or perhaps a fine or incarceration

Expressions Given

expressions that are intentional and usually verbal, such as utterances

Copresence

face-to-face interaction or being in the presence of others

Experiments

formal tests of specific variables and effects, performed in a controlled setting where all aspects of the situation can be controlled 1. Stove to develop precise tools with which to observe record, and measure their data 2. they attempt to control for all possible variables except the one under investigation

Social Influence

group impact on others' decisions

Primary Groups

groups composed of the people who are most important to our sense of self; members' relationships are typically characterized by face-to-face interaction, high levels of cooperation, and intense feelings of belonging

Peers

groups of people who are about the same age and have similar social characteristics

Secondary Groups

groups that are larger and less intimate than primary groups; members' relationships are usually organized around a specific goal and are often temporary

Reflexivity

how the identity and activities of the researcher influence what is going on in the field setting

Objectivity

impartiality, the ability to allow the facts to speak for themselves

Primary Deviance

in labeling theory, the initial act or attitude that causes one to be labeled deviant

Secondary Deviance

in labeling theory, the subsequent deviant identity or career that develops as a result of being labeled deviant

Front

in the dramaturgical perspective, the setting or scene of performances that helps establish the definition of the situation

Groupthink

in very cohesive groups, the tendency to enforce a high degree of conformity among members, creating a demand for unanimous agreement

Innovators

individuals who accept society's approved goals but not society's approved means to achieve them

Ritualists

individuals who have given up hope of achieving society's approved goals but still operate according to society's approved means

Rebels

individuals who reject society's approved goals and means and instead create and work toward their own (sometimes revolutionary) goals using new means

Retreatists

individuals who renounce society's approved goals and means entirely and live outside conventional norms altogether

Total Institutions

institutions in which individuals are cut off from the rest of society so that they can be controlled and regulated for the purpose of systematically stripping away previous roles and identities in order to create new ones

Stereotyping

judging others based on preconceived generalizations about groups or categories of people

Macro World

larger social forces

Expressive Style

leadership concerned with maintaining emotional and relational harmony within the group

Instrumental Style

leadership that is task or goal oriented

Adult Socialization

life constantly presenting us with new situations and roles with unfamiliar norms and values

Technology

material artifacts and the knowledge and techniques required to use them

Existing Sources

materials that have been produced for some other reason, but that can be used as data for social research

The Media

most significant sources of socialization

Informal Norms

norm that are implicit or unspoken

Feeling Rules

norms regarding the expression and display of emotions; expectations about the acceptable or desirable feelings in a given situation

Mores

norms that carry great moral significance, are closely related to the core values of a cultural group, and often involve severe repercussions for violators

Practical Knowledge

not necessarily as coherent, clear and consistent as it could be

The Milgram Experiment

obedience; electrical shocks to incorrect answers; learners were paid actors.

Expressions Given Off

observable expressions that can be either intended or unintended and are usually nonverbal

Bourgeoisie

owners; the class of modern capitalists who own the means of production and employ wage laborers

Category

people who share one or more attributes but who lack a sense of common identity or belonging

Interviews

person-to-person conversations of the purpose of gathering information by means of questions posed to respondents 1. must identify a target population 2. select a sample 3. choose interview method 4. get informed consent 5. transcribe interview for analysis

Coercive Power

power that is backed by the threat of force

Influential Power

power that is supported by persuasion

Passing

presenting yourself as a member of a different group than the stigmatized group you belong to

Deviance Avowal

process by which an individual self-identifies as deviant and initiates her own labeling process

Schools

public elementary and secondary schools were first established in 1800s

Double-Barreled Questions

questions that attempt to get at multiple issues at once, and so tend to receive incomplete or confusing answers

Leading Questions

questions that predispose a respondent to answer in a certain way

Tertiary Deviance

redefining the stigma associated with a deviant label as a positive phenomenon

Surveys

research method based on questionnaires that are administered to a sample of respondents selected from a target population

Unobstrusive Measures

research methods that rely on existing sources and where he researcher does not intrude upon disturb the social setting or its subjects

Quantitative Research

research that translates the social world into numbers that can be treated mathematically; this type of research often tries to find cause-and-effect relationships

Comparative Historical Research

research that uses existing sources to study relationships among elements of society in various regions and time periods

Qualitative Research

research that works with non numerical data such as texts, field notes, interview transcripts, photographs, and tape recordings; this type of research more often tries to understand how people make sense of their world

Impersonality

rules come before people; no individual receives special treatment

Norms

rules or guidelines regarding what kinds of behavior are acceptable and appropriate within a particular culture; these typically emanate from the group's values

Bureacracies

secondary groups designed to perform tasks efficiently, characterized by specialization, technical competence, hierarchy, written rules, impersonality, and formal written communication

Micro World

self and individual psychology

Expressions of Behavior

small actions such as an eye roll or head nod that serve as an interactional tool to help project our definition of the situation to others

Virtual Communities

social groups whose interactions are mediated through information technologies, particularly the internet

Agents of Socialization

social groups, institutions, and individuals (especially the family, schools, peers, and the mass media) that provide structured situations in which socialization takes place

Queer Theory

social theory about gender and sexual identity; emphasizes the importance of difference and rejects ideas of innate identities or restrictive categories

Negative Questions

survey questions that ask respondents what they don't think instead of what they do

Signs

symbols that stand for or convey an idea

Scientific Knowledge

systematic, comprehensive, coherent, clear and consistent

Hegemony

term developed by Antonio Gramsci to describe the cultural aspects of social control, whereby the ideas of the dominant social group are accepted by all of society

Replicability

the ability of research to be repeated and, thus, later verified by other researchers

Power

the ability to control the actions of others

Validity

the accuracy of a question or measurement tool; the degree to which a researcher is measuring what he thinks he is measuring

Spurious Correlation

the appearance of causation produced by an intervening variable

Rationalization

the application of economic logic to human activity; the use of formal rules and regulations in order to maximize efficiency without consideration of subjective or individual concerns

Social Darwinism

the application of the theory of evolution and the notion of "survival of the fittest" to the study of society

Praxis

the application of theory to practical action in an effort to improve aspects of society

Confidentiality

the assurance that no other than the researcher will know the identity of a respondent

Region

the context in which the performance takes place, including location, decor, and props

Solidarity

the degree of integration or unity within a particular society; the extent to which individuals feel connected to other members of their group

Representativeness

the degree to which a particular studied group is similar to, or represents, any part of the larger society

Social Sciences

the disciplines that use the scientific method to examine the social world

Cultural Diffusion

the dissemination of material and symbolic culture (tools and technology, beliefs and behavior) from one group to another

Impression Management

the effort to control the impressions we make on others so that they form a desired view of us and the situation; the use of self-presentation and performance tactics

Culture

the entire way of life of a group of people (including both material and symbolic elements) that acts as a lens through which one views the world and that is passed from one generation to the next

Deception

the extent to which the participants in a research project are unaware of the project or its goals

Dependent Variable

the factor that is changed (or not) by the independent variable

Independent Variable

the factor that is predicted to cause change

Social Control

the formal and informal mechanisms used to elicit conformity to values and norms and thus promote social cohesion

Sacred

the holy, divine, or supernatural

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

the idea that language structures thought and that ways of looking at the world are embedded in language

Non Material or Symbolic Culture

the ideas associated with a cultural group, including ways of thinking (beliefs, values, and assumptions) and ways of behaving (norms, interactions, and communication)

Cultural Imperialism

the imposition of one culture's beliefs and practices on another culture through media and consumer products rather than by military force

Self

the individual's conscious, reflexive experience of a personal identity separate and distinct from others

Authority

the legitimate right to wield power

Latent Functions

the less obvious, perhaps unintended functions of a social structure

Microsociology

the level of analysis that studies face-to-face and small-group interactions in order to understand how they affect the larger patterns and structures of society

Macrosociology

the level of analysis that studies large-scale social structures in order to determine how they affect the lives of groups and individuals

Control Group

the members of a test group who are allowed to continue without intervention so that they can be compared with the experimental group

Experimental Group

the members of a test group who receive the experimental treatment

Real Culture

the norms and values that people actually follow

Ideal Culture

the norms, values, and patterns of behavior that members of a society believe should be observed in principle

Looking Glass Self

the notion that the self develops through our perception of others' evaluations and appraisals of us 1. we imagine how we look to others 2. We imagine other people's judgement of us 3. We experience some king of feeling about ourselves based on our perception of other people's judgments

Response Rate

the number of percentage of surveys completed by respondents and returned to researchers

Material Culture

the objects associated with a cultural group, such as tools, machines, utensils, buildings, and artwork; any physical object to which we give social meaning

Manifest Functions

the obvious, intended functions of a social structure for the social system

Profane

the ordinary, mundane, or everyday

Group Dynamics

the patterns of interaction between groups and individuals

Personal Front

the performance tactics we use to present ourselves to others, including appearance, costume, and manner

Social Loafing

the phenomenon in which each individual contributes a little less as more individuals are added to a task; a source of inefficiency when working in teams

Frontstage

the places where we deliver our performances to an audience of others

Backstage

the places where we rehearse and prepare for our performances

Thick Description

the presentation of detailed data on interactions and meaning within a cultural context, from the perspective of its members

Cultural Relativism

the principle of understanding other cultures on their own terms, rather than judging or evaluating according to one's own culture

Ethnocentrism

the principle of using one's own culture as a means or standard by which to evaluate another group or individual, leading to the view that cultures other than one's own are abnormal or inferior

Social Construction

the process by which a concept or practice is created and maintained by participants who collectively agree that it exists

Cultural Leveling

the process by which cultures that were once unique and distinct become increasingly similar

Emotional Work

the process of evoking, suppressing, or otherwise managing feelings to create a publicly observable display of emotion

Socialization

the process of learning the rules of behavior of the culture within which an individual is born and will live

Role Exit

the process of leaving a role that we will no longer occupy

Resocialization

the process of replacing previously learned norms and values with new ones as a part of a transition in life

Ego

the realistic aspect of the mind that balances the forces of the id and the superego

Class Consciousness

the recognition of social inequality on the part of the oppressed, leading to revolutionary action

Correlation

the relationship between variables

Applied Research

the search for knowledge that can be used to create social change

Alienation

the sense of dissatisfaction the modern worker feels as a result of producing goods that are owned and controlled by someone else

Group Cohesion

the sense of solidarity or loyalty that individuals feel toward a group to which they belong

Role

the set of behaviors expected of someone because of his or her status

The Family

the single most significant agent of socialization in all societies

Ethnomethodology

the study of "folk methods" and background knowledge that sustains a shared sense of reality in everyday interactions

Values

the study of society is intimately linked to a commitment to actively solve social problems

Critical Race Theory

the study of the relationship among race, racism, and power

Sociology

the systematic or scientific study of human society and social behavior, from large-scale institutions and mass culture to small groups and individual interactions

Reactivity

the tendency of people and events to react to the process of being studied

Positivism

the theory that sense perceptions are the only valid source of knowledge

Organic Solidarity

the type of social bonds present in modern societies, based on difference, interdependence, and individual rights

Mechanical Solidarity

the type of social bonds present in premodern, agrarian societies, in which shared traditions and beliefs created a sense of social cohesion

Social Inequality

the unequal distribution of wealth, power, or prestige among members of a society

Dominant Culture

the values, norms, and practices of the group within society that is most powerful (in terms of wealth, prestige, status, influence, etc.)

Gestures

the ways in which people use their bodies to communicate with one another

Social Network

the web of direct and indirect ties connecting an individual to other people who may also affect the individual

Superego

two components (conscience and the ego-ideal) and represents the internalized demands of society

Laws

types of norms that are formally codified to provide an explicit statement about what is permissible or forbidden, legal or illegal in a given society

Hidden Curriculum

values or behaviors that students learn indirectly over the course of their schooling

Representativeness

whether the conclusions of interview research can be applied to larger groups

Macro Sociological Perspective

wide angle lens

Proletariat

workers; those who have no means of production of their own and so are reduced to selling their labor power in order to live

Micro Sociological Perspective

zoom lens


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