Sociology Exam 1
Verstehen
"empathic understanding"; Weber's term to describe good social research, which tries to understand the meanings that individuals attach to various aspects of social reality
Anomie
"normlessness"; term used to describe the alienation and loss of purpose that result from weaker social bonds and an increased pace of change
August Comte
(1798-1857) Frenchmen first to provide a program for the scientific study of society developed a theory of the progress of human thinking Positivism Wrote 'Introduction to Positive Philosophy' (1892)
Harriet Martineau
(1802-1876) Journalist and political economist 'Society in America' and 'Retrospect of Western Travel' translated Comte's 'Introduction to Positive Philosophy' into English
Karl Marx
(1818-1863) the inspiration for conflict theory Means of Production Proletariat and Bourgeoisie Critical Theory
Herbert Spencer
(1820-1903) responsible for the establishment of sociology in Britain and America list of "First principles" with evolution driven by natural selection at the top Social Darwinism
Emile Durkheim
(1858-1917) central figure in functionalist theory Solidarity, mechanical solidarity, organic solidarity case studies in individualistic actions and suicides
George Herbert Mead
(1863-1931) Chicago School Pragmatism
Erving Goffman
(1922-1982) Dramaturgy Ethnomethodology Conversation Analysis
Elton Mayo
(1949) sought to examine the effect of varying work conditions on motivation and productivity in the factory Hawthorne Effect
Clifford Geertz
(1973) Thick Description
Development of Self
1. Preparatory Stage 2. Play Stage 3. Game Stage
Existing Sources Disadvantages
1. Researchers drawing on existing sources often seek to answer questions that the original authors did not have in mind 2. it can describe the messages inherent in the media, does not illuminate how such messages are interpreted
Interview Advantages
1. These allow respondents to speak in their own words 2. These may help the researcher dispel certain preconceptions and discover issues that might have otherwise been overlooked
Social Networks Analysis Disadvantages
1. can gloss over important details and diversity in the experiences of social actors 2. Big data is expensive to collect and analyze
Ethnographic Advantages
1. research excels at telling richly detailed stories that contribute to our understanding of social life 2. research can challenge our taken-for-granted notions about groups we thought we knew 3. the detailed nature of this research can help reshape the stereotypes we hold about others and on which social policy is often based 4. much of the pioneering methodological innovation of the last half-century has come from this
Existing Sources Advantages
1. researchers are able to work with information they could not possible obtain on their own 2. they would never be able to enter themselves 3. researchers can use the same data to replicate projects that have been conducted before
Experiment Disadvantages
1. these are applicable only to certain types of research that can be constructed and measured in a controlled setting 2. Achieving distance from the messy realities of the social world is also the major weakness with sociological experiments
Social Network Analysis Advantages
1. these can trace the route of anything as it moves through a social group, community or society 2. contributes to the production of "big data"
Interview Disadvantages
1. these respondents are not always forthcoming or truthful 2. Representativeness
Experiments Advantages
1. this give sociologists a way to manipulate and control the social environment they seek to understand 2. the best methods for establishing causality 3. Much like physics experiments, highly controlled sociological experiments can theoretically be repeated
Survey Disadvantages
1. this research generally lacks qualitative data that might better capture the social reality the researcher wishes to examine 2. comparatively weak on validity 3. generalizability more difficult 4. may be used to make a claim or support a point of view rather than for pure scientific discovery
Survey Advantages
1. this research is one of the best methods for gathering original data on a population that is too large to study by other means 2. this research is also relatively quick and economical and can provide a vast amount of data 3. this research is comparatively strong on reliability 4. there is less concern about interviewer or observer bias entering into the research process
Ethnographic Disadvantages
1. this research suffers from a lack of replicability 2. a major critique has to do with an ethnographic study's degree of representativeness 3. participant observes must also be wary of personal bias
Critique
A detailed analysis and assessment.
Weberian Theory
A sociological perspective, deriving from the work of Max Weber, focused on understanding and explaining social action. Contemporary forms of Weberian sociology are usually expressed as interactionist sociology.
Psychoanalytic Theory
A theory developed by Freud that attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior
Formal Written Communication
Documents such as memos (or e-mails) are the heart of the organization and the most effective way to communicate.
Differential Association Theory
Edwin Sutherland's hypothesis that we learn to be deviant through our associations with deviant peers
Stigma
Erving Goffman's term for any physical or social attribute that devalues a person or group's identity and that may exclude those who are devalued from normal social interaction
Research Methods
Ethnography/Participant Observation Interviews Surveys Existing Sources Experiments Social Network Analysis
McDonaldization
George Ritzer's term describing the spread of bureaucratic rationalization and the accompanying increases in efficiency and dehumanization
Labeling Theory
Howard Becker's idea that deviance is a consequence of external judgments, or labels, that modify the individual's self-concept and change the way others respond to the labeled person
Iron Cage
Max Weber's pessimistic description of modern life, in which we are caught in bureaucratic structures that control our lives through rigid rules and rationalization
Mind, Self, and Society
Mead's theory of the self that develops through three stages (preparatory, play, and game); in role taking the particular or generalized other, we learn to see ourselves as others do
The Stanford Prison Experiment
Philip Zimbardo's study of the effect of roles on behavior. Participants were randomly assigned to play either prisoners or guards in a mock prison. The study was ended early because of the "guards'" role-induced cruelty.
The Macro-Micro Continuum
Society Culture Social institutions Social Inequality Groups Roles Socialization Interaction Self
Basic Research
The search for knowledge without an agenda for practical goal in mind
Rules and Regulations
These are meant to make all operations as predictable as possible
Deviance
a behavior, trait, belief, or other characteristic that violates a norm and causes a negative reaction
Group
a collection of people who share some attribute, identify with one another, and interact with each other
Critical Theory
a contemporary form of conflict theory that criticizes many different systems and ideologies of domination and oppression
False Consciousness
a denial of the truth on the part of the oppressed when they fail to recognize the interests of the ruling class in their ideology
Dysfunction
a disturbance to or undesirable consequence of some aspect of the social system
Autoethnography
a form of participant observation where the feelings and actions of the researcher become a focal point of the ethnographic study
Society
a group of people who shape their lives in aggregated and patterned ways that distinguish their group from others
Institutional Review Board
a group of scholars within a university who meet regularly to review and approve the research proposals of their colleagues and make recommendations for how to protect human subjects
In-Group
a group that one identifies with and feels loyalty toward
Reference Groups
a group that provides a standard of comparison against which we evaluate ourselves
Out-Group
a group toward which an individual feels opposition, rivalry, or hostility
Subculture
a group within society that is differentiated by its distinctive values, norms, and lifestyle
Counterculture
a group within society that openly rejects and/or actively opposes society's values and norms
Stereotype Promise
a kind of self-fulfilling prophecy in which positive stereotypes, such as the "model minority" label applied to Asian Americans, lead to positive performance outcomes for Asian Americans
Stereotype Threat
a kind of self-fulfilling prophecy in which the fear of performing poorly - and confirming stereotypes about their social groups - causes students to perform poorly
Folkways
a loosely enforced norm involving common customs, practices, or procedures that ensure smooth social interaction and acceptance
Content Analysis
a method in which researchers identify and study specific variables - such as words - in a text, image, or media message
Participant Observation (Qualitative)
a methodology associated with ethnography whereby the researcher both observes and becomes a member in a social setting 1. Gain access 2. Establish good relationship 3. collect data
Ethnography
a naturalistic method based on studying people in their own environment in order to understand the meanings they attribute to their activities; also the written work that results from the study
Taboo
a norm ingrained so deeply that even thinking about violating it evokes strong feelings of disgust, horror, or revulsion
Structural Functionalism (Macro)
a paradigm based on the assumption that society is a unified whole that functions because of the contributions of its separate structures
Modernism
a paradigm that places trust in the power of science and technology to create progress, solve problems, and improve life
Symbolic Interactionism (Micro)
a paradigm that sees interaction and meaning as central to society and assumes that meanings are not inherent but are created through interaction
Conflict Theory (Macro)
a paradigm that sees social conflict as the basis of society and social change, and emphasizes a materialist view of society, a critical view of the status quo, and a dynamic model of historical change
Postmodernism
a paradigm that suggests that social reality is diverse, pluralistic, and constantly in flux
Respondents
a participants in a study from whom the researcher seeks to gather information
Simple Random Sampling
a particular type of probability sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
Pragmatism
a perspective that assumes organisms (including humans) make practical adaptations to their environments; humans do this through cognition, interpretation, and interaction
Multiculturalism
a policy that values diverse racial, ethnic, national, and linguistic backgrounds and so encourages the retention of cultural differences within society rather than assimilation
Status
a position in a social hierarchy that carries a particular set of expectations
Saturated Self
a postmodern idea that the self is now developed by multiple influences chosen from a wide range of media sources
Scientific Method
a procedure for acquiring knowledge that emphasizes collecting concrete data through observation and experiment 1. identify the problem or ask a general question 2. Conduct a literature review 3. Form a hypothesis 4. Choose a research design or method 5. Collect data 6. Analyze data 7. Disseminate findings
The Sociological Imagination
a quality of the mind that allows us to understand the relationship between our individual circumstances and larger social forces
Open-ended Questions
a question asked of a respondent that allows the answer to take whatever form the respondent chooses
Closed-ended Questions
a question asked of a respondent that imposes a limit on the possible responses
Causation
a relationship between variables in which a change in one directly produces a change in the other
Culture Shock
a sense of disorientation that occurs when entering a radically new social or cultural environment
Pilot Study
a small-scale study carried out to test the feasibility of a larger one
Structure
a social institution that is relatively stable over time and that meets the needs of society by performing functions necessary to maintain social order and stability
Conversation Analysis
a sociological approach that looks at how we create meaning in naturally occurring conversation, often by taping conversations and examining them
Hawthorne Effect
a specific example of reactivity, in which the desired effect is the result not of the independent variable but of the research itself
Moral Holiday
a specified time period during which some norm violations are allowed
Achieved Status
a status earned through individual effort or imposed by others
Embodied Status
a status generated by physical characteristics
Master Status
a status that is always relevant and affects all other statuses we possess
Ascribed Status
a status that is inborn; usually difficult or impossible to change
Language
a system of communication using vocal sounds, gestures, or written symbols; the basis of symbolic culture and the primary means through which we communicate with one another and perpetuate our culture
Crowd
a temporary gathering of people in a public place; members might interact but do not identify with each other and will not remain in contact
Feminist Theory
a theoretical approach that looks at gender inequities in society and the way that gender structures the social world
Social Identity Theory
a theory of group formation and maintenance that stresses the need of individual members to feel a sense of belonging
Intervening Variable
a third variable, sometimes overlooked, that explains the relationship between two other variables
Social Network Analysis
a tool for measuring and visualizing the structure of social relationships between two or more people
Bureaucracy
a type of secondary group designed to perform tasks efficiently, characterized by specialization, technical competence, hierarchy, written rules, impersonality, and formal written communication
Chicago School
a type of sociology practiced at the University of Chicago in the 1920s and 1930s that centered on urban settings and field research methods
Likert Scale
a way of formatting a survey questionnaire so that the respondent can choose an answer along a continuum
Sociological Perspective
a way of looking at the world through a sociological lens, practical knowledge and scientific knowledge
Theories
abstract propositions that explain the social world and make predictions about the future
Outsiders
according to Howard Becker, those labeled deviant and subsequently segregated from "normal" society
technical competence
all members are expressly trained and qualified for their specific roles within the organization
Specialization
all members of a bureaucracy are assigned specialized roles and tasks
In-Group Orientation
among stigmatized individuals, the rejection of prevailing judgments or prejudice and the development of new standards that value their group identity
Definition of the Situation
an agreement with others about "what is going on" in a given circumstance; this consensus allows us to coordinate our actions with those of others and realize goals
Dramaturgy
an approach pioneered by Erving Goffman in which social life is analyzed in terms of its similarities to theatrical performance
Midrange Theory
an approach that integrates empiricism and grand theory
Life History
an approach to interviewing that asks for a chronological account of the respondent's entire life, or some portion of it
Deductive Approach
an approach whereby the researcher formulates a hypothesis first and then gathers data to test that hypothesis
Inductive Approach
an approach whereby the researcher gathers data first, then formulates a theory to fit the data
The Looking Glass Self
an image of yourself based on what you believe others think of you (Charles Cooley)
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
an inaccurate statement or belief that, by altering the situation, becomes accurate; a prediction that causes itself to come true
Grounded Theory
an inductive method of generating theory from data by creating categories in which to place data and then looking for relationships among categories
Bias
an opinion held by the researcher that might affect the research or analysis
Probability Sampling
any sampling procedure that uses randomization quantitative
Means of Production
anything that can create wealth: money, property, factories, and other types of businesses, and the infrastructure necessary to run them
Beginner's Mind
approaching the world without preconceptions in order to see things in a new way
Covert
appropriate in some cases
Nature Side
argue that behavioral traits can be explained by genetics
Nurture Side
argue that human behavior is learned and shaped through social interaction
Functionalism
attempts to provide a universal social theory, a way of explaining society in one comprehensive model
Traditional Authority
authority based in custom, birthright, or divine right
Legal-Rational Authority
authority based in laws, rules, and procedures, not in the heredity or personality of any individual leader
Charismatic Authority
authority based in the perception of remarkable personal qualities in a leader
Empirical
based on observation or experiment
Id
basic inborn drives that are the source of instinctive psychic energy
Cooling the Mark Out
behaviors that help others to save face or avoid embarrassment, often referred to as civility or tact
Overt
best because it avoids the ethical problem
Hierarchy
bureaucracies always feature the supervision of subordinates by higher-ranking managers and bosses
Feral Children
children who have had little human contact and may have lived in social isolation from a young age
Culture Wars
clashes within mainstream society over the values and norms that should be upheld
Thomas Theorem
classic formulation of the way individuals determine reality, whereby "if people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences"
Aggregates
collections of people who share a physical location but do not have lasting social relations
Social Ties
connections between individuals
Big Data
data sets so large that typical computer and storage programs cannot handle them
Role-Taking Emotions
emotions such as sympathy, embarrassment, or shame that require that we assume the perspective of another person or group and respond accordingly
Role Strain
experienced when there are contradictory expectations within one role
Role Conflict
experienced when we occupy two or more roles with contradictory expectations
The Asch Experiment
experimented how people would rather conform than state their own individual answer even though they know the group's answer is wrong
Positive Sanctions
express approval for adhering to a social norm
Negative Sanctions
express disapproval and may come in the form of a frown, harsh words, or perhaps a fine or incarceration
Expressions Given
expressions that are intentional and usually verbal, such as utterances
Copresence
face-to-face interaction or being in the presence of others
Experiments
formal tests of specific variables and effects, performed in a controlled setting where all aspects of the situation can be controlled 1. Stove to develop precise tools with which to observe record, and measure their data 2. they attempt to control for all possible variables except the one under investigation
Social Influence
group impact on others' decisions
Primary Groups
groups composed of the people who are most important to our sense of self; members' relationships are typically characterized by face-to-face interaction, high levels of cooperation, and intense feelings of belonging
Peers
groups of people who are about the same age and have similar social characteristics
Secondary Groups
groups that are larger and less intimate than primary groups; members' relationships are usually organized around a specific goal and are often temporary
Reflexivity
how the identity and activities of the researcher influence what is going on in the field setting
Objectivity
impartiality, the ability to allow the facts to speak for themselves
Primary Deviance
in labeling theory, the initial act or attitude that causes one to be labeled deviant
Secondary Deviance
in labeling theory, the subsequent deviant identity or career that develops as a result of being labeled deviant
Front
in the dramaturgical perspective, the setting or scene of performances that helps establish the definition of the situation
Groupthink
in very cohesive groups, the tendency to enforce a high degree of conformity among members, creating a demand for unanimous agreement
Innovators
individuals who accept society's approved goals but not society's approved means to achieve them
Ritualists
individuals who have given up hope of achieving society's approved goals but still operate according to society's approved means
Rebels
individuals who reject society's approved goals and means and instead create and work toward their own (sometimes revolutionary) goals using new means
Retreatists
individuals who renounce society's approved goals and means entirely and live outside conventional norms altogether
Total Institutions
institutions in which individuals are cut off from the rest of society so that they can be controlled and regulated for the purpose of systematically stripping away previous roles and identities in order to create new ones
Stereotyping
judging others based on preconceived generalizations about groups or categories of people
Macro World
larger social forces
Expressive Style
leadership concerned with maintaining emotional and relational harmony within the group
Instrumental Style
leadership that is task or goal oriented
Adult Socialization
life constantly presenting us with new situations and roles with unfamiliar norms and values
Technology
material artifacts and the knowledge and techniques required to use them
Existing Sources
materials that have been produced for some other reason, but that can be used as data for social research
The Media
most significant sources of socialization
Informal Norms
norm that are implicit or unspoken
Feeling Rules
norms regarding the expression and display of emotions; expectations about the acceptable or desirable feelings in a given situation
Mores
norms that carry great moral significance, are closely related to the core values of a cultural group, and often involve severe repercussions for violators
Practical Knowledge
not necessarily as coherent, clear and consistent as it could be
The Milgram Experiment
obedience; electrical shocks to incorrect answers; learners were paid actors.
Expressions Given Off
observable expressions that can be either intended or unintended and are usually nonverbal
Bourgeoisie
owners; the class of modern capitalists who own the means of production and employ wage laborers
Category
people who share one or more attributes but who lack a sense of common identity or belonging
Interviews
person-to-person conversations of the purpose of gathering information by means of questions posed to respondents 1. must identify a target population 2. select a sample 3. choose interview method 4. get informed consent 5. transcribe interview for analysis
Coercive Power
power that is backed by the threat of force
Influential Power
power that is supported by persuasion
Passing
presenting yourself as a member of a different group than the stigmatized group you belong to
Deviance Avowal
process by which an individual self-identifies as deviant and initiates her own labeling process
Schools
public elementary and secondary schools were first established in 1800s
Double-Barreled Questions
questions that attempt to get at multiple issues at once, and so tend to receive incomplete or confusing answers
Leading Questions
questions that predispose a respondent to answer in a certain way
Tertiary Deviance
redefining the stigma associated with a deviant label as a positive phenomenon
Surveys
research method based on questionnaires that are administered to a sample of respondents selected from a target population
Unobstrusive Measures
research methods that rely on existing sources and where he researcher does not intrude upon disturb the social setting or its subjects
Quantitative Research
research that translates the social world into numbers that can be treated mathematically; this type of research often tries to find cause-and-effect relationships
Comparative Historical Research
research that uses existing sources to study relationships among elements of society in various regions and time periods
Qualitative Research
research that works with non numerical data such as texts, field notes, interview transcripts, photographs, and tape recordings; this type of research more often tries to understand how people make sense of their world
Impersonality
rules come before people; no individual receives special treatment
Norms
rules or guidelines regarding what kinds of behavior are acceptable and appropriate within a particular culture; these typically emanate from the group's values
Bureacracies
secondary groups designed to perform tasks efficiently, characterized by specialization, technical competence, hierarchy, written rules, impersonality, and formal written communication
Micro World
self and individual psychology
Expressions of Behavior
small actions such as an eye roll or head nod that serve as an interactional tool to help project our definition of the situation to others
Virtual Communities
social groups whose interactions are mediated through information technologies, particularly the internet
Agents of Socialization
social groups, institutions, and individuals (especially the family, schools, peers, and the mass media) that provide structured situations in which socialization takes place
Queer Theory
social theory about gender and sexual identity; emphasizes the importance of difference and rejects ideas of innate identities or restrictive categories
Negative Questions
survey questions that ask respondents what they don't think instead of what they do
Signs
symbols that stand for or convey an idea
Scientific Knowledge
systematic, comprehensive, coherent, clear and consistent
Hegemony
term developed by Antonio Gramsci to describe the cultural aspects of social control, whereby the ideas of the dominant social group are accepted by all of society
Replicability
the ability of research to be repeated and, thus, later verified by other researchers
Power
the ability to control the actions of others
Validity
the accuracy of a question or measurement tool; the degree to which a researcher is measuring what he thinks he is measuring
Spurious Correlation
the appearance of causation produced by an intervening variable
Rationalization
the application of economic logic to human activity; the use of formal rules and regulations in order to maximize efficiency without consideration of subjective or individual concerns
Social Darwinism
the application of the theory of evolution and the notion of "survival of the fittest" to the study of society
Praxis
the application of theory to practical action in an effort to improve aspects of society
Confidentiality
the assurance that no other than the researcher will know the identity of a respondent
Region
the context in which the performance takes place, including location, decor, and props
Solidarity
the degree of integration or unity within a particular society; the extent to which individuals feel connected to other members of their group
Representativeness
the degree to which a particular studied group is similar to, or represents, any part of the larger society
Social Sciences
the disciplines that use the scientific method to examine the social world
Cultural Diffusion
the dissemination of material and symbolic culture (tools and technology, beliefs and behavior) from one group to another
Impression Management
the effort to control the impressions we make on others so that they form a desired view of us and the situation; the use of self-presentation and performance tactics
Culture
the entire way of life of a group of people (including both material and symbolic elements) that acts as a lens through which one views the world and that is passed from one generation to the next
Deception
the extent to which the participants in a research project are unaware of the project or its goals
Dependent Variable
the factor that is changed (or not) by the independent variable
Independent Variable
the factor that is predicted to cause change
Social Control
the formal and informal mechanisms used to elicit conformity to values and norms and thus promote social cohesion
Sacred
the holy, divine, or supernatural
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
the idea that language structures thought and that ways of looking at the world are embedded in language
Non Material or Symbolic Culture
the ideas associated with a cultural group, including ways of thinking (beliefs, values, and assumptions) and ways of behaving (norms, interactions, and communication)
Cultural Imperialism
the imposition of one culture's beliefs and practices on another culture through media and consumer products rather than by military force
Self
the individual's conscious, reflexive experience of a personal identity separate and distinct from others
Authority
the legitimate right to wield power
Latent Functions
the less obvious, perhaps unintended functions of a social structure
Microsociology
the level of analysis that studies face-to-face and small-group interactions in order to understand how they affect the larger patterns and structures of society
Macrosociology
the level of analysis that studies large-scale social structures in order to determine how they affect the lives of groups and individuals
Control Group
the members of a test group who are allowed to continue without intervention so that they can be compared with the experimental group
Experimental Group
the members of a test group who receive the experimental treatment
Real Culture
the norms and values that people actually follow
Ideal Culture
the norms, values, and patterns of behavior that members of a society believe should be observed in principle
Looking Glass Self
the notion that the self develops through our perception of others' evaluations and appraisals of us 1. we imagine how we look to others 2. We imagine other people's judgement of us 3. We experience some king of feeling about ourselves based on our perception of other people's judgments
Response Rate
the number of percentage of surveys completed by respondents and returned to researchers
Material Culture
the objects associated with a cultural group, such as tools, machines, utensils, buildings, and artwork; any physical object to which we give social meaning
Manifest Functions
the obvious, intended functions of a social structure for the social system
Profane
the ordinary, mundane, or everyday
Group Dynamics
the patterns of interaction between groups and individuals
Personal Front
the performance tactics we use to present ourselves to others, including appearance, costume, and manner
Social Loafing
the phenomenon in which each individual contributes a little less as more individuals are added to a task; a source of inefficiency when working in teams
Frontstage
the places where we deliver our performances to an audience of others
Backstage
the places where we rehearse and prepare for our performances
Thick Description
the presentation of detailed data on interactions and meaning within a cultural context, from the perspective of its members
Cultural Relativism
the principle of understanding other cultures on their own terms, rather than judging or evaluating according to one's own culture
Ethnocentrism
the principle of using one's own culture as a means or standard by which to evaluate another group or individual, leading to the view that cultures other than one's own are abnormal or inferior
Social Construction
the process by which a concept or practice is created and maintained by participants who collectively agree that it exists
Cultural Leveling
the process by which cultures that were once unique and distinct become increasingly similar
Emotional Work
the process of evoking, suppressing, or otherwise managing feelings to create a publicly observable display of emotion
Socialization
the process of learning the rules of behavior of the culture within which an individual is born and will live
Role Exit
the process of leaving a role that we will no longer occupy
Resocialization
the process of replacing previously learned norms and values with new ones as a part of a transition in life
Ego
the realistic aspect of the mind that balances the forces of the id and the superego
Class Consciousness
the recognition of social inequality on the part of the oppressed, leading to revolutionary action
Correlation
the relationship between variables
Applied Research
the search for knowledge that can be used to create social change
Alienation
the sense of dissatisfaction the modern worker feels as a result of producing goods that are owned and controlled by someone else
Group Cohesion
the sense of solidarity or loyalty that individuals feel toward a group to which they belong
Role
the set of behaviors expected of someone because of his or her status
The Family
the single most significant agent of socialization in all societies
Ethnomethodology
the study of "folk methods" and background knowledge that sustains a shared sense of reality in everyday interactions
Values
the study of society is intimately linked to a commitment to actively solve social problems
Critical Race Theory
the study of the relationship among race, racism, and power
Sociology
the systematic or scientific study of human society and social behavior, from large-scale institutions and mass culture to small groups and individual interactions
Reactivity
the tendency of people and events to react to the process of being studied
Positivism
the theory that sense perceptions are the only valid source of knowledge
Organic Solidarity
the type of social bonds present in modern societies, based on difference, interdependence, and individual rights
Mechanical Solidarity
the type of social bonds present in premodern, agrarian societies, in which shared traditions and beliefs created a sense of social cohesion
Social Inequality
the unequal distribution of wealth, power, or prestige among members of a society
Dominant Culture
the values, norms, and practices of the group within society that is most powerful (in terms of wealth, prestige, status, influence, etc.)
Gestures
the ways in which people use their bodies to communicate with one another
Social Network
the web of direct and indirect ties connecting an individual to other people who may also affect the individual
Superego
two components (conscience and the ego-ideal) and represents the internalized demands of society
Laws
types of norms that are formally codified to provide an explicit statement about what is permissible or forbidden, legal or illegal in a given society
Hidden Curriculum
values or behaviors that students learn indirectly over the course of their schooling
Representativeness
whether the conclusions of interview research can be applied to larger groups
Macro Sociological Perspective
wide angle lens
Proletariat
workers; those who have no means of production of their own and so are reduced to selling their labor power in order to live
Micro Sociological Perspective
zoom lens
