Sport & Exercise Psych Final Exam
Children in Sports (23): role of parents
- 3/10 parents do things to interfere with their child's development - overly competitive and ego oriented environments led to an over-reliance on social comparison, need to demonstrate superiority - positive parenting found to act as a buffer against those who would normally have adverse reactions to stress - negative parenting: sideline coaching or encouraging violence and aggression maximize expertise 1) select appropriate sport opportunities for child 2) employ an autonomy supportive parenting style 3) manage emotional demands of competitive sport 4) build and maintain healthy relationships with all stakeholders 5) managing the organizational and development demands placed on them 6) adapting their parenting, support, and involvement
Burnout and Overtraining (22): frequency of overtraining, staleness, and burnout
- 66% of varsity college athletes believe that they had been overtrained, 50% said it was a bad experience - 60% of runners experience staleness at some point in their careers - almost half of swim coaches in a survey indicated that they had moderate or high levels of emotional exhaustion
Exercise & Well-Being (18): special cases
- HIV - multiple sclerosis - cancer - parkinson's disease - diabetes - coronary heart disease - all related to positive changes (both psychologically and physiologically) -> many of the above illnesses are incurable, terminal, or greatly reduce the quality of life
Exercise Adherence (19): motivational interviewing
- a collaborative, person-centered form of guiding to elicit and strengthen motivation for change - a brief psychotherapeutic intervention for increasing the likelihood that a client will consider, initiate, and maintain specific strategies for reducing harmful behavior - should be client driven, partnership
Unhealthy Behaviors (21): substance abuse definition
- a maladaptive pattern of psychoactive substance use, indicated by at least one of the following: 1) continued use despite knowledge of having a persistent or recurring social, occupational, psychological, or physical problem that is caused by use of the substance 2) recurrent use in situations in which the use is physically hazardous (ex: DUI) - persistence of symptoms of the disturbance for at least one month, or repeated occurrence over a longer period of time - includes alcohol, mj, coke, amphetamines, hallucinogens
Exercise Adherence (19): problem of exercise adherence
- about 50% of participants drop out of exercise programs in the first 6 months - prescriptions are often based solely on fitness data and do not take into accounts people's psych readiness to exercise - most exercise programs are overly restrictive - programs are often too challenging for novices
Athletic Injuries (20): other psych based causes of injury
- act tough and give 110%: "no pain no gain" mentality and rewarding playing through pain, etc can lead to an increased amount of injuries - if you're injured, you're worthless: coaches can convey that winning is more important than health, so athletes feel the only way to prove their worth is to play through pain - sport ethic: internalized "macho" and gendered beliefs about playing through pain, culture that normalizes pain and injury, injury risk increases when a culture narrowly defines success and values external success over internal - long term health is often jeopardized by a short term goal of winning - chronic traumatic encephalopathy: a neurodegenerative disease characterized by cognitive, mood, and behavioral problems associated with contact sports -> caused by repeated subconcussive hits
Children in Sports (23): role of friends in youth sport
- affiliation motive: children enjoy sport because of the opportunities it provides to be with friends and make new friends positive benefits - companionship - pleasant play association - enhancement of self esteem - help and guidance - prosocial behavior - intimacy - emotional support negative - conflict - unattractive personal qualities - betrayal - inaccessibility - children should be taught to respect others and refrain from aggression and bullying
Aggression in Sport (24): aggression
- aggression: term tends to draw automatic associations and produce positive or negative value judgments and emotional responses - any form of behavior directed toward the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment - 4 criteria: behavior, involves intent, involved harm or injury, directed toward a living being who does not want to be injured
Burnout and Overtraining (22): factors leading to athlete overtraining and burnout
- anecdotal reports: athletes who begin serious training at a young age are more prone to burnout - overtraining research evidence: team sport athletes respond better to relatively small changes in training loads, nonsport stress appears to make an important contribution to the experience of those athletes diagnosed with the overtraining syndrome - burnout research evidence: significant relationships found between burnout, the amount of stress, and social support/coping skills, burnout also related to early sport success
Exercise Adherence (19): stats
- around 38% of US adults are obese - by race: black (48.1%), hispanic (42.5%), white (34.5%), asian (11.7%) - less than half of adults exercise the recommended weekly amount - 603 million adults worldwide are obese - excess body weight accounted for 4 million deaths in 2015
Burnout and Overtraining (22): commitment and entrapment theory
- athletes commit to sport for 3 reasons: because they want to participate, because they believe they have to participate, or both - athletes who are prone to burnout feel "entrapped" by sport when they don't really want to participate in sport but believe they must maintain their involvement - pressure to continue can be socially, physically, or psychologically driven - buffer: make sure sport remains fun
Athletic Injuries (20): relationship between stress and injury
- attentional disruption: when stress disrupts an athlete's attention by reducing peripheral attention - increased state anxiety causes distraction and irrelevant thoughts - increased muscle tension: high stress can lead to increased muscle tension which can in turn interfere with normal coordination
Burnout and Overtraining (22): self-determination
- autonomy, competence, relatedness - failure to fulfill these three results in an increased likelihood of developing burnout - increased burnout leads to motivational changes, but motivational changes do not lead to increased burnout, suggesting that motivation may be more of a result than a cause of burnout in athletes
Athletic Injuries (20): identify athletes who are at risk for injury
- build rapport with the injured person: empathy (trying to understand how the injured person feels) is important, showing emotional support - educate injured person about injury and recovery process: tell person what to expect during the recovery process and explain the injury in practical terms - teach specific psych coping skills: goal setting, positive self talk, imagery/visualization, and relaxation training -> highly motivated athletes tend to do more than is required during rehab (shouldn't exceed program even if they feel better on a given day)- - teach how to cope with setbacks - foster social support: encouragement from friends, loved ones, coaches -> reduce stress, enhance mood, decrease isolation - need for social support greatest when rehab process is slow, setbacks occur, etc - ensure injured athletes are psychologically ready for return - learn from injured athletes
Burnout and Overtraining (22): integrated model
- burnout process can best be understood by examining its antecedents: - excessive training and school and work demands - its early signs, such as mood disturbances and diminished motivation, which can turn into full fledged burnout manifested in physical and emo exhaustion, feelings of reduced accomplishment, or sport devaluation - ultimately the maladaptive consequences of burnout, such as partial or complete withdrawal from sport or impaired immune function
Unhealthy Behaviors (21): detection of substance abuse
- changes in behavior, peer groups - major personality changes - major changes in athletic/academic performance - apathetic or listless behaviors - impaired judgment - poor coordination - poor hygiene and grooming - muscle twitching or tremors
Children in Sports (23): coaching children
- coaches should use more reinforcement and and mistake-contingent technical instruction - positive, mastery-oriented approach -> athletes had less anxiety throughout the season - a coach's technical instruction, reinforcement, and mistake-contingent encouragement correlate with a player's self-esteem, motivation, and positive attitudes
Exercise & Well-Being (18): exercise and cognitive functioning
- cognitive decline is not inevitable - exercise can reduce level of brain loss and keep cog abilities sharp - acute exercise found to increase working memory (only for individuals low in working mem) - short bouts of intense exercise may improve learning abilities - fitness training combined with strength and flex programs were more effective for cognition abilities than aerobic exercise alone (for women) - effects on cog largest when workout was 30 minutes - cardio can be a buffer against normal effects of aging
Athletic Injuries (20): concussion- the invisible sport injury
- concussion: a complex pathophysiological process affecting the brain, induced by biomechanical forces - when an athlete is suspected of a sports-related concussion he should be immediately removed from play - second-impact syndrome is when an athlete experiences a concussion and does not completely recover before getting a second concussion, can have catastrophic consequences such as permanent brain damage - females compared to males have a great risk for concussion, 1.5x more likely - multiple concussions may cause short and long term effects; however, more research is needed to fully establish a causal relationship
Unhealthy Behaviors (21): other factors of disordered eating
- critical comments about body shape and weight - genetic and biological factors: biology could also play a role - mediating factors: personality factors of asceticism, submissiveness, and conformity were all factors, important for coaches and parents to recognize these possible predisposing factors and take necessary preventative actions, culture and ethnicity should also be considered
Unhealthy Behaviors (21): sport deterrence model of substance abuse
- deterrence theory: 3 major components -> costs of the decision to use, the benefits associated with using, specific situational factors that may in some way affect the cost-benefit analysis of using - costs: legal sanctions, social sanctions, self-imposed sanctions, health concerns - benefits: material, social, internalized - situational: prevalence perceptions, experience with punishment and punishment avoidance, professional status (what's at stake), perception of authority legitimacy, type of drug - most consistent deterrent: self imposed sanctions - one study found that the presence of a drug testing system provided minimal deterrent to drug use
Children in Sports (23): professionalization of children's sports
- early sport specialization: year round intensive training, and private coaching - vast majority of professionals are opposed to the professionalization of children's sports - support for prof. usually revolves on folklore that lacks understanding of talent development
Exercise Adherence (19): ecological models
- ecological models: models/frameworks/perspectives rather than a specific set of variables -> primary focus is to explain how environments and behaviors affect each other, bringing into consideration intrapersonal, interpersonal, institutional, and policy influences - physical environments are really the hallmark of the ecological models -> support from parents, access to facilities, safety of neighborhood, etc
Unhealthy Behaviors (21): prevention and control of substance abuse
- education is important but cannot deter all illegal activity 1) provide a supportive environment that addresses the reasons individuals take drugs 2) educate participants about the effects of drug use 3) early on, expose athletes to the notion that using PEDs amounts to cheating and unfair competition 4) set a good example 5) teach coping skills 6) a web-based personalized feedback program was shown to significantly reduce drinking in athletes at high risk of drinking - myPlaybook: NCAA designed for freshmen student athletes, curriculum on alcohol use
Unhealthy Behaviors (21): compulsive gambling
- estimate that 75% of college students gambled during the past year, whether legally or illegally -around 67% of all college students bet on sports - 6% of college students have a serious gambling problem -only 22% of colleges have policies on gambling - athletes are at high risk of gambling because of competitive personalities, need for excitement - DIII athletes most likely to gamble - college athletes gamble at a higher rate than non athletes
Unhealthy Behaviors (21): addiction to exercise
- exercise addiction: a psychological or physiological dependence on a regular regimen of exercise that is characterized by withdrawal symptoms after 24 to 36 hours without exercise - withdrawal: irritability, guilt, muscle twitches, bloated feeling positive addiction - view involvement in regular physical activity as important to their lives, and they can successfully integrate this activity with other aspects of their lives negative addiction - eliminates other choices in life - lives become more structured around exercise to such an extent that home and work responsibilities suffer and relationships take a back seat - symptoms: tolerance or a need for increased amounts of exercise, withdrawal, loss of control, devoting increasing amounts of time to exercise - addiction and self esteem: those addicted to exercise tend to have higher levels of alcoholism and other chemical addictions later in life
Exercise & Well-Being (18): exercise as an adjunct to therapy
- exercise as a part of therapy can produce positive physio and psych results - ex: exercise that reduces depression may at the same time reduce the risk to future cardio disease - running is both time and cost efficient guidelines - explore the client's exercise history - provide a precise diagnosis - use an individual exercise program for duration, intensity, and frequency - evaluate influence of family and friends - develop a plan for lack of adherence and irregular patterns of exercise - encourage exercise as an adjunct to traditional therapy methods - include a variety of activities
Exercise & Well-Being (18): exercise in the reduction of depression
- exercise was 2nd behind religion as an alternative to relieving depression - exercising outside produced a more positive effect - effects are seen across age groups, SES, race, and gender - as effective as psychotherapy - larger antidep effects when program is at least 9 weeks long - all kinds of exercises work, fitness levels not important - occasional findings of negative affective changes tend to be discounted - exercise reported as the most effective technique to energize self and turn around a bad mood - positive morning mood = increased likelihood of exercising - winners reported fewer somatic symptoms, fewer social dysfunction symptoms, and less anxiety than losers
Burnout and Overtraining (22): burnout
- exhaustion, both physical and emotional - feelings of low personal accomplishments, low self esteem, failure, and depression - depersonalization and devaluation -> impersonal and unfeeling
Athletic Injuries (20): signs of poor adjustment to injury
- feelings of anger and confusion - obsession with the question of when one can return to play - denial - repeatedly coming back too soon and becoming reinjured - exaggerated bragging about accomplishments - dwelling on minor physical complaints - guilt about letting the team down - withdrawal from significant others - rapid mood swings - statements indicating that recovery will not occur no matter what is done
Children in Sports (23): coaching young athletes
- focus on catching kids doing the right things and offer praise and encouragement - develop realistic expectations - reward effort as much as outcome - focus on teaching and practicing skills - modify rules to maximize action and participation - reward technique, not just outcome - use the "sandwich" approach - create an environment that reduces the fear of learning a new skill
Exercise Adherence (19): ways to enhance enjoyment of exercise
- focus on the experience itself - focus on the process - engage in purposeful and meaningful physical activity
Burnout and Overtraining (22): negative-training stress response
- focuses more on responses to physical training - positive adaptation is a desired outcome of training, and too much training can result in negative adaptation - research has shown that physical aspects of training play a role, but aren't the only factors
Athletic Injuries (20): emotional responses to injury
- grief response: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance/recognition three categories 1) injury-relevant information processing: info related to pain and aware of negative consequences associated with injury 2) emotional upheaval and reactive behavior: emotional agitation, vacillating emotions, shock, disbelief 3) positive outlook and coping: accepts injury and deals with it
Exercise & Well-Being (18): exercise and hardiness
- hardiness: a personality style that enables a person to withstand or cope with stressful situations -> stress produces minimally debilitating effects in a hardy personality - sense of personal control over external events - sense of involvement, commitment, and purpose in daily life - the flexibility to adapt to unexpected changes by perceiving them as challenges or opportunities for further growth - exercise can help protect against stress-related illnesses, esp for hardy people - social support also a factor
Unhealthy Behaviors (21): steroid use in females
- has been on the rise in young females - 5-7% hs/middle school age have tried - usually tied to cutting body fat for a leaner figure
Exercise Adherence (19): health belief model
- health belief model: one of the most enduring theoretical models associated with preventative health behaviors -> stipulates that the indiv engaging in preventative health behaviors depends on the person's perceptions of the severity of the potential illness as well as his appraisal of the costs and benefits of taking action
Exercise & Well-Being (18): changing personality with exercise
- higher levels of control, self-sufficiency, improved imagination, lower insecurity - regular exercise has been shown to increase self esteem - the lower the fitness level, the more dramatic the change in self-esteem - older adults reported higher feelings of competence and self worth - for women, physical acceptance is an important predictor of self esteem - self esteem an important aspect of quality of life, esp for women - physical fitness act were found to be superior to other components of elementary school PE programs in developing self concept - improvement in self concept not always the case, most likely due to the multidimensional nature of the self in general
Athletic Injuries (20): implications for treatment and recovery
- holistic approach is recommended - phases: injury/illness -> rehab/recovery -> return to full activity - understanding the psychological aspects of injury rehab derives from understanding responses to injury
Aggression in Sport (24): hostile and instrumental aggression
- hostile: the primary goal is to inflict injury or psychological harm on someone else - instrumental: occurs in the quest of some nonaggressive goal -> ex: boxing, a cornerback hits a receiver hard to deter him from running a pass route
Unhealthy Behaviors (21): substance abuse
- in response to the question: "you are offered a banned performance-enhancing substance with 2 guarantees: you won't be caught and you will win", 98% of elite athletes answered yes - in response to the q: "you are offered a banned PED with 2 guarantees: you won't get caught and you'll win every competition you enter for the next 5 years but you will die immediately after", 60% of the athletes answered yes - only 2/250 non athletes who were questioned would take the drug
Unhealthy Behaviors (21): major drug categories and their effects
- in sport, drugs are classified by purpose: PEDs, recreation/social, pain relievers
Exercise Adherence (19): settings for exercise interventions
- informational interventions that used "point of decision" prompts to encourage stair use or community wide campaigns - behavioral or social interventions that used school-based physical education, social support in community settings, or individually tailored health behavior change - environmental and policy interventions that created or enhanced access to places for physical activity combined with informational outreach activity
Athletic Injuries (20): injury
- injury: trauma to the body that results in at least temporary physical disability and inhibition of motor function
Exercise Adherence (19): reasons to not exercise
- lack of time, lack of energy, lack of motivation - virtually all barriers are within a person's control - women tend to select more internal barriers than men (ex: lack of self discipline) - other reasons: health issues, inconvenience, lack of social support, lack of money - moderate barriers tend to be individual, while minor barriers tend to be environmental - most frequently given reason is lack of time - lack of energy often cited, though exercising can actually increase energy - sedentary behavior: "sitting time", a total lack of exercise , different from inactive behavior which can include very low levels of exercise, only one step above sleep - can lead to: decreased fitness, lower self esteem, lower academic achievement, higher body composition, and lower prosocial behavior
Burnout and Overtraining (22): treatment and prevention of burnout
- monitor critical states in athletes: regular meetings, etc - communicate about feelings - foster an autonomy-supportive coaching style - set short-term goals for competition and practice: reduce monotony - take relaxation breaks - learn self-regulation skills: relaxation, imagery, goal setting - keep a positive outlook - focus on recovery - manage post-competitive emotions - stay in good physical condition
Burnout and Overtraining (22): unidimensional identity development and external control model
- more sociological - stress is involved in burnout, but it is a symptom - real cause of burnout is related to the social organization and its effects of ID and control issues - identities are often one dimensional and revolve almost entirely around one's sport
Exercise & Well-Being (18): exercise in the reduction of anxiety
- most acute studies focus on state anxiety - moderately intense exercises produce the greatest effects - reduced state anxiety can last up to 24 hours - typically as effective as other methods but this one lasts longer - participation in team sports associated with lower social anx and agoraphobia tendencies - particularly effective for those with high levels of anxiety, but effective for all - reductions in anx not necessarily tied to the physiological gains - anx reduction occurs regardless of the type of exercise
Exercise & Well-Being (18): reducing anxiety and depression with exercise
- most studies have been correlational so hard conclusions cannot be made - good mood states tend to be associated with exercise - acute effects: immediate and possibly temporary effects rising from a single bout of exercise - chronic effects: "a sound mind in a sound body" - typically deals with aerobic exercise - weight/strength training and yoga can also be beneficial
Burnout and Overtraining (22): gender differences
- most studies have found that females have higher perceived levels of burnout than males - could be due to the fact that females tend to have a perception of the need to fulfill multiple roles at any given time - lower budgets for female sports may also lead to stress for those who coach female sports - autonomy supportive coaches can be a buffer to burnout - young coaches appear to have higher levels of perceived burnout than older coaches, partly because some older coaches have already burned out of the profession
Unhealthy Behaviors (21): prevalence of steroid use
- of teens who use steroids, 4/10 say that their decision was inspired by professional athletes - among hs boys, 11% say they've tried using steroids at least once in order to gain an edge - of regular users, 80% show some biomechanical abnormality of the liver - aggression and irritability are more likely - among users, 80% said they believed the drug could help them achieve their dreams - 57% said they'd use steroids even if it shortened their lives - 60% of users believe it is the right of the modern athlete
Burnout and Overtraining (22): definitions
- periodized training: the deliberate strategy of exposing athletes to high volume and high intensity training loads that are followed by a lower training load, known as rest or taper stage, goal is to condition athletes so that their performance peaks at a certain time - overtraining: a short cycle of training during which athletes expose themselves to excessive training loads that are near or at maximal capacity, normal part of the training process - one athlete's overtraining regimen may be another's optimal - overtraining should optimally tax the athlete so the body can adapt and supercompensate - difference b/w periodized and overtraining depends largely on indiv differences - staleness: a physiological state of overtraining which manifests as the deterioration of athletic readiness, stale athlete has difficulty maintaining a high standard training regimens and can no longer achieve previous performance results - burnout: a physical, emotional, and social withdrawal from a formerly enjoyable sport activity
Exercise Adherence (19): physical activity maintenance model
- physical activity maintenance model: key aspects of the model predicting the maintenance of physical activity include: - goal setting - self-motivation (persistence) - self-efficacy (confidence to overcome barriers) - physical activity environment (access, attractiveness, etc) - life stress
Burnout and Overtraining (22): potential causes of high levels of burnout in athletes
- physical concerns: injury, overtraining - logistical concerns: the grind of travel, etc - social/interpersonal: dissatisfaction with social life, negative parental concerns - psych concerns: majority of concerns are inappropriate emphasis on rankings, realization that a professional career is unlikely
Athletic Injuries (20): causes of injury
- physical: muscle imbalances, high-speed collisions, overtraining, physical fatigue - social: perception that playing with pain is highly valued in American society, both males and females tend to minimize pain - psych: plays a key role in injury rehab, pressure/anxiety/burnout - ex: situations perceived as threatening can cause changes in focus and increase muscle tension - people who develop psychological skills cope better (goal setting, imagery, relaxation) - personality: most research has been inconsistent - stress levels: important antecedent of injury, athletes with higher levels of stress tend to sustain more injuries than those with low levels - when an athlete with few coping skills and little social support experiences major life changes, he or she is at greater risk of injury - those who underwent stress training experienced less time away due to an injury
Unhealthy Behaviors (21): prevalence of disordered eating in sport
- point: proportion of athletes who have the disorder at a specific point in time - period: proportion of athletes who have a disorder during a specific time period - lifetime: proportion of athletes who have had the disorder at any point in their lifetime - frequency ranged from 1%-62% - a significant proportion of athletes have engaged in disordered eating or weight loss behaviors - up to 66% of female athletes may be amenorrheic compared to 2-5% of nonathletes - apporx 63% of female athletes develop symptoms of an eating disorder between 9-12th grades
Exercise Adherence (19): promoting physical activity in school and community programs
- policy - environment - physical education - health edu - extracurricular activities - parental involvement - personnel training - health services - community programs - evaluation
Unhealthy Behaviors (21): preventing eating disorders in athletes
- promote proper nutritional practices - focus on fitness, not body weight - be sensitive to weight issues - promote healthy management of weight - teach mental skills
Athletic Injuries (20): psychology of recovery
- psych interventions positively influence injury recovery - anxiety over reinjury, high performance anxiety, uncertainty about meeting expectations, lower levels of self-efficacy - adherence to rehab protocol is an issue - can be buffered by goal setting and positive self talk - factors in good outcome: positive attitude, compliance with protocol, asked more questions, more motivated and determined
Children in Sports (23): more on parenting
- sport parenting matters and has important influences of athlete attitudes, dispositions, motivations, etc - factors influencing: parental personality dispositions, parenting styles, expectations, and attitudes - complex process that changes as the child matures physically, psychologically, and socially - authoritative parenting style: balancing being responsive to a child's emotional needs while providing structure and setting limits and appropriate challenge and independence - parental pressure is a major issue in youth sport
Children in Sports (23): sport specific and general dropouts
- sport-specific dropouts: dropping out to move onto another sport - sport general: dropping out of sports altogether
Children in Sports (23): stress and burnout
- stress: most athletes do not have excessive state anxiety in competition - excessive trait anxiety does not appear to be associated with youth sport participation - situation sources of stress: defeat, event importance, sport type - stress in elite junior competitors is caused by a fear of failure and feelings of inadequacy - athletes with task-oriented coping style reported lowest levels of burnout
Children in Sports (23): facets of "fun"
- team rituals - swag - learning and improvement - game-time support - game time support - team friendships - practices and games - mental bonuses - positive coaching - positive team dynamics - trying hard
Exercise Adherence (19): theory of planned behavior
- theory of planned behavior: an extension of the theory of reasoned action, which states that intentions are the best predictors of actual behavior - argues that intentions cannot be the sole predictors of behavior, perceived behavioral control will also predict outcome - subjective norm: the product of beliefs about others' opinions and the individuals' motivation to comply with others' opinions - behavioral control was a good predictor of physical activity - optimal strategy for initiating participation: strong intention to engage in activity and moderate intention to engage in competitive behaviors
Burnout and Overtraining (22): burnout in sports professionals
- trainers with type A personalities are more likely to burn out than those with type B personalities - can be due to role ambiguity - officials, coaches, trainers
Exercise Adherence (19): transtheoretical model
- transtheoretical model: argues that individuals progress through stages of change and that movement across the stages is cyclical - termination: once an exerciser has stayed in the termination stage for 5 years, the individual is considered to have exited from the cycle of change, and relapse won't occur - decisional balance: pros and cons - focus on guilt or obligation can have negative effects precontemplation (couch potatoes) -> contemplation -> preparation -> action -> maintenance -> termination
Unhealthy Behaviors (21): recognition and referral of an eating problem
- unusual eating patterns (picking at food, etc) are often the best indicators of a disorder - presence of an eating disorder cannot be inferred from the the presence of exercise patterns alone - make recommendations to a specific clinic or person
Children in Sports (23): myths around professionalization
1) athletic talent can be accurately predicted at a young age 2) more is always better 3) stages of talent development can be skipped 4) intense training will lead to a college athletic scholarship 5) early single-sport specialization is essential 6) a child cannot have fun if he is going to be an elite athlete 7) talented children need different entry programs and coaching approaches than their less talented counterparts
Burnout and Overtraining (22): models of burnout
1) cognitive-affective stress 2) negative-training stress response 3) unidimensional identity development and external control 4) commitment and entrapment 5) self-determination 6) integrated model of athletic burnout
Children in Sports (23): sport specialization guidelines
1) early diversification does not hinder elite sport participation in sports in which peak performance is reached after maturation 2) early diversification is linked to a longer sport career 3) high amounts of deliberate play during sampling years can build a solid foundation of intrinsic motivation through involvement in activities that are enjoyable 4) children should look to specialize at around age 13
Burnout and Overtraining (22): ways to measure burnout
1) emotional exhaustion 2) depersonalization 3) low sense of personal accomplishment - can be used for athletes or those is high stress work environments
Children in Sports (23): stages of athletic talent development
1) entry or initial phase 2) investment phase -> beginning of specalization 3) elite performance excellence 4) excellence maintenance
Athletic Injuries (20): other reactions to injury
1) identity loss: higher levels of intrinsic motivation when coaches offered a supportive environment 2) fear and anxiety: worry about recovery, reinjury, being replaced 3) lack of confidence: may lose confidence after not being able to compete, resulting in decreased motivation 4) performance decrements: declines in performance 5) group processes: can positively or negatively affect (disrupt flow or rally around) - loss of ID is esp significant
Aggression in Sport (24): causes of aggression
1) instinct theory 2) frustration-aggression 3) social learning 4) revised frustration-aggression
Exercise Adherence (19): 7-step model of treating childhood obesity
1) medical management: for primary pediatricians 2) education 3) environmental changes: eliminating TV time, junk food, etc 4) support groups 5) CBT (short term immersion) 6) CBT (long term) 7) bariatric surgery: specialized surgery for those who had attempted the first 6 steps
Exercise & Well-Being (18): 6 dimensions of well-being
1) self-acceptance (+ views of oneself) 2) positive relations with others (trusting, caring, and empathetic) 3) autonomy (self-determined with intrinsic motivation and self-referenced standards) 4) environmental mastery 5) personal growth 6) purpose in life
Burnout and Overtraining (22): cognitive-affective stress model
4 stages 1) situational demands: high demands in practice or pressure to win 2) cognitive appraisal: individuals interpret and appraise the situation, either threatening or not 3) physiological response: potential increase in fatigue, tension, etc if situation is viewed as threatening 4) behavioral responses: certain types of coping and task behaviors - "nothing is good or bad, but thinking makes it so"
Unhealthy Behaviors (21): eating disorders
anorexia - refusal to maintain a minimal body weight - intense fear of weight gain - in females, absence of a menstrual cycle - characterized by extreme reduction in caloric intake bulimia - recurrent episodes of binging and purging - overconcern with body weight and shape - awareness that the pattern is abnormal - psychological diseased
Athletic Injuries (20): elite skiers' recommendations for coping
other athletes - read your body and pace - focus on quality training - use social resources wisely - set goals - work on mental skills training coaches - demonstrate empathy and support - motivate by optimally pushing - have patience and realistic expectations - don't repeatedly mention injury in training sports med personnel - educate and inform - empathy and support - warm, open, and not overly confident - confidence and competence
Exercise Adherence (19): reasons to exercise
weight control - teenage obesity now considered an epidemic - exercise often plays an underrated role in the pursuit of weight loss (behind changing eating habits) - running 3 miles 5x/week can produce weight loss of 20-25 lbs if caloric intake remains the same reduced risk of cardio disease - regular physical act can reduce risk of cardio disease - can also prevent or delay the development of high blood pressure reduction in stress and depression enjoyment - makes people more likely to continue enhancement of self esteem - sense of satisfaction from new accomplishments - more confident about physical appearance opportunities to socialize - 90% of exercise participants prefer to do so in groups
Exercise Adherence (19): physical activity characteristics
intensity, frequency, and duration - people in walking programs tend to adhere longer than those in running programs - best when people are operating at 50% of below their aerobic capacity - recommended that people choose their own intensity levels that they associate with positive feelings - past participation in programs tends to yield higher adherence to higher intensity workouts - more vigorous activity carries a greater risk for injury group vs individual programs - group exercising leads to better adherence than does exercising alone - group programs: enjoyment, social support, and an increased sense of personal commitment - groups fulfill need for affiliation - however, almost 25% of regular exercisers do so alone almost always - should still focus on individualizing programs even if it's in a group leader qualities - program leadership is important - good leaders are knowledgeable, likable, and show concern for safety and psychological comfort - leaders with a democratic style can enhance the self-determination of participants - focus on task cohesion and increasing fitness - leaders should be knowledgeable, give feedback and praise, help participants set flexible goals, and how concern for safety
Exercise & Well-Being (18): exercise and the quality of life
- quality of life: individuals' perception of their position in life in the context of the culture and value systems in which they live and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards, and concerns - q of l emphasizes the spirit rather than objective parts of life - positive effects of exercise on q of l can be grouped into 4 parts: 1) enhanced physical functioning 2) subjective well being 3) experiencing peak moments 4) personal meaning - satisfaction with life: produces a variety of consequences including decreased depressive symptoms and worry, increased workplace productivity, and greater longevity - esp important for college age students -> well being tends to decrease from ages 18-25 - higher levels of phys act related to higher life satisfaction - exercise produces small increases in total sleep time, but no effect on how long it takes to fall asleep - older adults who exercise report greater life satisfaction due to less dependence on others - possible negative effects of exercise: fatigue, overuse injuries, decreased energy
Unhealthy Behaviors (21): disordered eating
- refers to an entire spectrum of exaggerated eating patterns - not severe enough to meet DSM V criteria - for males it can be especially anxiety inducing because it is seen as a women's issue
Exercise & Well-Being (18): guidelines for using exercise to enhance mood
- rhythmic abdominal breathing - relative absence of interpersonal competition - closed and predictable activities: golf and swimming - rhythmic and repetitive movements: encourages creative thinking - duration, intensity, and frequency: 20-30 minutes and moderately intense, 2-3 times per week - enjoyment
Exercise & Well-Being (18): runner's high
- runner's high: a sense of mental alertness and awareness, a feeling of liberation, a lift in the legs, suppressed pain and discomfort, sense of ease, perfect rhythm, and exhilaration - transcendence of time and space - cannot be reliably predicted but can be facilitated by few distractions, cool and calm weather with low humidity, long distance (at least 6 miles and 30 minutes), no concern of pace or time - release of endorphins (romantic love or good music)
Unhealthy Behaviors (21): buffer against negative addiction
- schedule rest days or take them when necessary - work out regularly with a slower partner - if you're injured, stop exercising until you are healed - train hard-easy: mix in low intensity days - 3-4 times per week - set realistic goals
Exercise Adherence (19): self determination theory
- self determination theory: competence, autonomy, relatedness - those with autonomy and strong support systems exhibit higher motivation to exercise - SDT also predicted adherence - autonomy-supportive coaches can play a role - important implications because exercise is not intrinsically motivating for many people
Unhealthy Behaviors (21): prevalence of substance abuse in sport
- self-reported usage varies from 10%-90% (wide range) - college athletes are more likely than non athletes to abuse alcohol and experience alcohol-related problems - athletes are at a higher risk for binge drinking because they are more likely to regard parties as part of their social life, spend at least 2 hours per day socializing, and possess binge drinking friends - it is estimated that about 80% of college athletes drink, a higher percentage than non athletes - within a given 2 week period, college athletes are more likely than non athletes to binge drink - more athletes than non athletes are likely to experience negative consequences related to heavy drinking, such as regretting decisions that were made when drunk and becoming injured - athletes in contact sports were at a higher risk for initiating substance abuse (correlational) - even those involved in intramural sports were at an elevated risk for binge drinking
Exercise Adherence (19): social cognitive theory
- social cognitive theory: personal, beh, and env factors operate as reciprocally interacting determinants of each other - self efficacy is a good predictor of behavior, especially important when exercise is the most challenging (ex: likelihood of coming back after relapse) - for African American children, social support and time spent outside were more important factors
Unhealthy Behaviors (21): predisposing factors of disordered eating
- weight restrictions and standards: weightlifting, wrestling, boxing, etc -> extreme weight loss techniques usually result in rapid dehydration - coach and peer pressure: sometimes coaches unknowingly try to make athletes lose weight in an unhealthy way -> gymnasts who heard comments from coaches were more likely to engage in restrictive behaviors - sociocultural: eating disorders are on the rise, esp in sports where leanness is emphasized, up to 95% of women perceive their body size up to 25% larger than it actually is, up to 50% of men desire to change their physique -> too eager to bulk up can lead to steroid use - performance demands: correlation exists between a low percentage of body fat and high levels of performance, but lower body fat does not always mean better performance - judging criteria: in sports where physical attractiveness is considered important to success, coaches and athletes may perceive that judges will be more biased toward a certain body type, ex: cheerleaders' body satisfaction is lowest when wearing more revealing uniforms
Exercise Adherence (19): strategies for enhancing adherence to exercise
behavior modification approaches - beh mod: can be very effective, usually associated with 10-25% increase in adherence - prompts: a cue that initiates behavior -> can be verbal, physical, or symbolic, goal is to increase cues for desired behavior and decrease cues for competing behaviors (posters, slogans, etc) - fading: prompts can be gradually eliminated to allow an individual to increasingly gain independence - contracting: specifies expectations, responsibilities, and contingencies -> realistic goals and consequences for not meeting goals reinforcement approaches - charting attendance and participation - rewarding attendance and participation - feedback: the more individualized feedback there is, the more likely the program is to succeed cognitive-behavioral approaches - goal setting: partic setting flexible goals resulted in higher attendance and maintenance of exercise behavior than when instructor set goals - intrinsic goals: higher self esteem, well being, psych need satisfaction - time based rather than distance based - association and dissociation: association is when the focus is on internal body feedback (how the muscles feel), and dissociation is on external (environment) - dissociation can be effective by being a distraction, therefore preventing boredom and fatigue decision-making approaches - decision balance sheet: can make people more aware of potential benefits and costs of an exercise program social support approaches - an individual's favorable attitude toward someone else's involvement in an exercise program - consistently and positively related to adherence intrinsic approaches - most lasting motivation comes from within - emphasis on enjoyment
Unhealthy Behaviors (21): signs of compulsive gambling
college students - missing class because of gambling - having trouble focusing in class because they are thinking about gambling - buying a book or otherwise educating themselves on becoming a more skillful bettor - facing more financial debts than they can handle parents - unexplained need for money - sudden increase in credit card debt - displays of unexplained wealth - money and valuables missing from the home - depression and anxiety - poor class attendance - watching more televised sports
Unhealthy Behaviors (21): do's and don'ts of eating disorders
do - be supportive and empathetic - emphasize the importance of nutrition - make a referral for professional treatment for the person don't - hold team weigh ins - single out individual - discuss the problem with non professionals
Exercise & Well-Being (18): understanding the effects of exercise on well-being
exercise increases - academic performance - assertiveness and confidence - emotional stability - internal locus of control, memory - + body image, self-control, well-being exercise decreases - absenteeism at work, alcohol abuse, anger - anxiety, depression, headaches, hostility - phobias, psychotic behavior, type A beh
Exercise Adherence (19): determinants of exercise adherence
personal factors - demographic variables: education, income, SES - low SES: food scarcity, low income, less access, crime and unsafe neighborhoods, depression - culture and ethnicity also important factors - cognitive and personality: self efficacy and self motivation are important - self motivation: self regulation, goal setting, self monitoring, self reinforcement - best predictor of adherence is combo of self motivation and body fat percentage - beliefs about benefits also important - behaviors: past participation in an exercise program is the most reliable predictor of adherence, so early involvement should be encouraged environmental factors - social env, physical env, and characteristics of physical activity (intensity and duration) - social env: support from family, friends, spouse - spousal support is critical to enhancing adherence rates for people in exercise programs, spouses should be involved in orientation sessions or in parallel exercise programs - physical env: perceived convenience and actual proximity play a role - 2/3 women would rather take up exercising in their own neighborhood rather than go to a facility - act levels are lowest in winter and highest in summer - still most prevalent reason for dropping out is perceived lack of time
Unhealthy Behaviors (21): why athletes take drugs
physical - enhance performance, look more attractive, cope w pain an injury, decrease fatigue - rehab from injury - control appetite, reduce fluid, boost energy for workouts (amphetamines and diuretics) psychological - most common reason for usage is psych/emotional - drugs offer a convenient escape from unpleasant emotions - a way to build self confidence - extrinsically motivated athletes more likely to use PEDs - moral disengagement also a strong predictor - self-control: central psych factor, positively correlated with the intention and adherence of doping-avoidant behavior social - extreme demands for conforming in certain groups - esp problematic for males who are pressured to adhere to the "macho" image - false consensus effect: overestimation of others' usage of PEDs - athletes who perceived their coaches to have a more controlling style had lower moral functioning - integrative model: primary predictors were social-cognitive
Burnout and Overtraining (22): symptoms of overtraining and burnout
physical - sleep disturbance - weight loss - decreased or poor performance - elevated resting heart rate - muscle soreness - overuse injuries - elevated resting blood pressure - greater fatigue psychosocial - emotional exhaustion, apathy - low vigor - lower confidence or self efficacy - lower perceived control - feelings of a lack of accomplishments - lack of perceived control - greater dejection - changes in values and beliefs - high stress and anxiety
Exercise & Well-Being (18): physio/psych explanations
physiological - increase in cerebral blood flow - changes in brain neurotransmitters (norep, serotonin) - increases in maximal oxygen consumption - lower muscle tension psychological - enhanced feelings of control - feelings of competency and self-efficacy - + social interactions - improved self concept and self esteem - opportunities for fun and enjoyment
Children in Sports (23): reasons for children's participation and discontinuation of sport
reasons for participation - have fun - something to be good at, improve skills reasons for discontinuation - sport participation peaks b/w 10 and 13 - other things to do - change in interest - not as good as I wanted to be - not as much fun - wanted to try a different sport - for every 10 children who begin a sport season, 3 discontinue before the start of the next season deeper motives - perceived competence: children with low perceptions of their abilities do not participate in sport, or they drop out, whereas children with high perceptions participate and persist - goal orientations - intrinsic motivation - stress - self-determination theory can also be applied