TPR Biology Ch 5, 6, 7
cell theory
1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. 2. The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms. 3. Cells arise from pre-existing cells. Robert Hooke 1655
secretory pathway of proteins
1. Proteins for export are produced by ribosomes in the interior of rough ER 2. Transport vesicle carries proteins to Golgi apparatus 3. Golgi modifies them 4. Secretory vesicle carries modified protein to plasma membrane & merges with it 5. Proteins are released out of the cell
Fermentation
is glucose catabolism which does not use an electron acceptor such as O2, instead with a reduced by product of glucose catabolism such as lactate or ethanol
naked viruses
lack lipid envelope; more resistant to disinfectants
lysozyme
late gene, destroys cell wall of bacteria and the wall burst
hook of flagella
links filament to basal body
not free to flop
lipids and proteins are free to diffuse laterally but not
microtubule organizing center
located near nucleus; a pair of centrioles
RER, 1
location of sythesis/modification of secretory, membrane bound, and organelle proteins (How many membranes)
Pili
long projections on the bacterial surface involved in attaching to different surfaces
filament of flagella
long, thin, helical structure composed of protein flagellin
(+) RNA viruses
must at least code for RNA-dependent RNA polymerase in their genome A piece of single-stranded viral RNA which serves as mRNA is (+) RNA. As soon as genome is in host cell, ribosomes start to translate.
(-) RNA Viruses
must carry a RNA-dependent RNA pol and encode it, genome is the template for mRNA production,
retroviruses
must encode reverse transcriptase, (+) RNA viruses that undergo lysogeny (integrate into genome as proviruses), the RNA genome must under go reverse transcription to make DNA to integrate into the host cell genome
- RNA
must make mRNA before it can make viral proteins
cancer
mutations of key genes start from single cells grow and divide with no control migrate
divergent selection
natural selection removes members near the avg. leaving those at either end
porters
no holes, conformational change to move molecules
pores
non specific holes in membrane
Photooncogenes
normal genes that code for proteins that regulate the cell cycle but can be converted to oncogenes
van't Hoff factor (i)
number of ions produced by a single dissolved molecule NaCl - 2 CaC2 - 3
Disulfide bond formation
occurs in the ER lumen
linkage
occurs when different traits are inherited together more often than they would have been by chance along; it is assumed that these traits are linked on the same chromosome
recombinants (recombinant types)
offspring whose phenotype differs from that of the parents
Double-stranded DNA viruses
often encode enzymes required for dNTP synthesis and DNA replication, has to encode its own enzymes because the cell only produces these during replication,
Dorsal
on top (spine)
gain of function
oncogenes type of mutation
Monotichous
one flagella located at a pole (end)
early gene
one of a group of genes that are expressed immediately after infection and which includes any special enzymes required to express viral genes
hydrolase
one of the first viral gene products made, a hydrolytic enzyme that degrades the entire host genome, example of early gene
Wild type bacteria
one who possesses all the characteristics normal to that particular species
Hemizygosity
only having one copy of the chromosome in a diploid organism
ligand-gated ion channels
open in the presence of a specific binding substance, usually a hormone or neurotransmitter
Homozygote
organism that inherits two alleles of the same type for a given gene
Heterozygote
organism that inherits two different alleles for a given gene
Phototrophs
organisms that get energy from light
protoplast
osmotically fragile, the bacterial cell wall is destroyed and left with
gap junctions
pore like connections between adjacent cells allowing the cells cytoplasms to mix
vapor pressure depression
pressure due to evaporated solvent molecules above the surface of a liquid solvent particles act as anchors that hold solvent in solution less solvent evap= lower vp
osmotic pressure elevation
pressure required to resist the movement of water by osmosis op= i * m * R * T R is constant i is vant hoff m is mole conc
osmotic pressure (pi symbol)
pressure that must be applied to STOP osmotic movement across a selectively permeable membrane
Hardy-Weinberg Principle
principle that allele frequencies in a population will remain constant provided these are true: there is no mutation there is no migration there is no natural selection there is random mating the pop is large so no random drift
rule of addition (A + B) - (A and B) A and B is multiply
probability of A or B, you do what?
Phagocytosis
process in which extensions of cytoplasm surround and engulf large particles and take them into the cell
Mitochondira, 2
produce ATP via the Krebs cycle and oxidative phsophorylation (How many membranes)
tumor suppressor genes
produce proteins that prevent uncontrolled cell growth (cancer)
colligative properties
properties that depend on the NUMBER of solute particles but not on their identity
excision
prophage becomes activated and removes itself from the host genome and enters the lytic cycle
Clathrin
protein that coats the inward-facing surface of the plasma membrane and assists in the formation of specialized structures, like coated pits. (receptor-mediated endocytosis)
integral membrane proteins
proteins that are at least partially embedded in the plasma membrane
peripheral membrane proteins
proteins that bind to the membrane without passing through it (can be stuck to integral protein by H bonding)
secreted in exterior enviroment, as integral plasma proteins, in membrane or interior of ER Golgi or lysosomes
proteins translated on ER ribosomes
peroxisomes, mitochondria, nucleus, or remain in cytoplasm
proteins translated on free ribsosomes
4.5 billion years
radioisotope dating age of earth
stationary phase
rate of cell growth equals rate of cell death caused by depleted nutrients and O2, excretion of organic acids and pollutants
flux
rate of diffusion
(# of recombinants/total offspring) x 100
recombination frequency
12.5 map units apart
recombination frequency is 12.5%
passive transport
relies on concentration gradient for driving force
autonomous replication
replication that is independent of chromosome replication (plasmids can do this)
initiator caspases
respond to extra- and intracellular death signals by clustering together and activating effector caspases
permanently in genome and high mutation rate (RdRP makes DNA)
retrovirus (+ RNA lysogeny) problems
RNA-dependent DNA polymerase (reverse transcriptase)
retroviruses must encode this, their RNA genome must under go reverse transcription to make DNA to integrate into the host cell genome and it does by this enzyme
Centrioles
ring of 9 microtubule triplets
Helical capsids
rod-shaped capsomers that bond together to form a series of hollow discs resembling a bracelet
Microfilaments
rods formed in the cytoplasm from polymerization of actin (2 actin chains wrapped around each other form a actin filaments) dynamic and responsible for gross movement of the entire cell
H+ down the gradient generated across the inner membrane by electron transport
rotation of rod is done how
Cocci (coccus, singular)
round, spherical bacteria
meiosis II
same as mitosis, but the cell is haploid
Genetics
science that describes the inheritance of traits from one generation to another
cell cycle
series of events that cells go through as they grow and divide
membrane bound proteins
signal can be anywhere in amino acid sequence signal can appear several times signal remains as the transmembrane part of protein
productive cycle (animal virus)
similar to lytic cycle but does not destroy the host cell, the enveloped viruses leave by budding, animal viruses (host cant have cell wall)
hydrophobic
simple diffusion molecules
Anaphase
sister chromatids pairs separate and move toward opposite poles cleavage furrow forms
mitochondria
site of oxidative phosphorylation
Viroids
small circular ssRNA molecules that infect plants and disrupt their growth, also seen as Hepatitis D, self-complementary (can base pair to itself), do not code for proteins and lack capsids, some are catalytic ribozymes and some produce siRNA that silence gene expression
proteinoids
small polypeptides that have some catalytic properties
Fimbriae
smaller structures that are not involved in locomotion or conjugation but are involved in adhering to surfaces
Diffusion
solute goes from high to low conc
p= 0.1 then into genotype frequency equation, add together pp and 2pg to give 0.19
the frequency of the allele causing a dominant autosomal disorder is 0.1. What is frequency of affected individuals in this population?
Recombination
the genetic process by which one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome during reproductive cell division (genetics) a combining of genes or characters different from what they were in the parents
X and Y chromosomes
the human sex chromosomes
germination
the metabolic reactivation of an endospore is termed
passive transport
the movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy by the cell
Senescence
the natural physical decline brought about by aging
synapsis
the pairing of homologous chromosomes during meiosis
vapor pressure depression
the pressure exerted by a vapor over a liquid
transduction
the process of transferring genetic material from one cell to another by a plasmid or bacteriophage this can happen as a consequence to the lysogenic cycle. the viral genome may take some of the host genome with it when it excisises from host genome. 1st mechanism of acquiring new genetic material
allele frequencies
the relative abundances of alleles of a given gene among all individuals of a population
meiosis II
the second phase of meiosis consisting of chromatids separating, along with the two diploid cells splitting in two
Microfilaments
the smallest of the cytoskeletal elements; made of actin
ER lumen
the space between the inner and outer nuclear membranes is contiguous with the
population genetics
the study of how populations change genetically over time
solvent
the substance in which the solute dissolves
microtubules
the thickest of the three components of the cytoskeleton
faculative
they can live and replicate inside or outside a host cell
obligate
they must be inside a host cell to replicate
Posterior
toward the back
Anterior
toward the front
Superior
toward the head
caudad
toward the tail
Inferior
towards the feet
Exotoxins
toxic substances that bacteria secrete into their environment (both gram pos and neg), help compete with other bacterial species
hydrophobic residues
transmembrane domains contain what
carrier proteins
transport molecules through membranes by facilitated diffusion (different than ion), do not form tunnel, bind molecule, transformational change, and move molecule to other side of membrane
uniports
transport one substance across membrane
pore
tube through the membrane which is so large that it is not selective for any particular molecule (below certain size only)
Mycobacterium
tuberculosis
code for proteins that stop cell growth/division, monitor genome, initiate repair pathways, apoptosis if needed
tumor suppressor genes
loss of function
tumor suppressor genes type of mutation
signal amplification
turns one signal molecule into multiple second messenger molecules
autosomal recessive
two copies of the allele are required for the affected phenotype
Photoautotrophs
use only CO2 as a carbon source and obtain their energy from the sun (plants)
Thomas Hunt Morgan
used Drosophila melangaster (fruit flies) to confirm the existence of sex-linked traits
RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP)
uses RNA as a template to make more copies of RNA. RdRps are not found in host cells, they are only encoded by viral genomes.
3 (Ca and 2 Cl)
vant Hoff for CaCl2
2 (into Na and Cl)
vant Hoff for NaCl
1
vant Hoff for glucose that does not dissociate
Attachment or adsorption
virus attaches to host cell using receptors
viroids
virus like subviral paricles
high vapor pressure
volatile
osmosis
water from ITS high conc to ITS low conc 10 % NaCl 20% NaCl 90% h2o 80 % h2o water moves from 90% water to 80% water
Epinephrine binds to G protein linked receptor, which activates G proteins that cause GDP to dissociate and GTP to bind
1st step in Epinephrine G protein pathway
telophase 1
2 daughter cells are formed, each daughter cell contains only one chromosome of the homologous pair.
parallel evolution
2 species go through similar evolutionary changes due to similar selective pressures
Attachment and injection
2 steps of virus
sexual selection
A form of natural selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates.
Microtubules
A hollow rod composed of tubulin proteins that makes up part of the cytoskeleton in all eukaryotic cells and is found in cilia and flagella.
solution
A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
Domain Archaea
Any of various single-celled prokaryotes genetically distinct from bacteria, often thriving in extreme environmental conditions
peptoglycan
Archaea cell walls lack
fission or budding
Archaea reproduce how
Gregor Mendel
Augustinian monk and botanist whose experiments in breeding garden peas led to his eventual recognition as founder of the science of genetics (1822-1884)
reducing environment
Describes the early atmosphere, electron donors very prevalent (organic molecules could form spontaneously) --energy for synthesis provided by lightning, radioactive decay, volcanic activity, Sun's radiation (more powerful then bc thinner atmosphere)
gram positive
Describing the group of bacteria that have a cell wall that is structurally less complex and contains more peptidoglycan than the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria are usually less toxic than gram-negative bacteria.
gram negative
Describing the group of bacteria that have a cell wall that is structurally more complex and contains less peptidoglycan than the cell wall of gram-positive bacteria. Gram-negative bacteria are often more toxic than gram-positive bacteria.
9331 9 dom/dom 3 dom/rec 3 rec/dom 1 rec/rec
Dihybrid cross (BsSs x BsSs) will give what expected ratio? (IF GENES ARE UNLINKED)
Archaea
Domain of unicellular prokaryotes that have cell walls that do not contain peptidoglycan
nuclear envelope
Double membrane perforated with pores that control the flow of materials in and out of the nucleus.
contingious
ER, Golgi, lysosomes (vesicles)
prophase I
Each chromosome comes near its replicated chromosome pair. Nucleus dissolves at this stage. Crossing Over (exchange of genetic material) occurs at this phase.
active transport
Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference
acid hydrolases
Enzymes that degrade various macromolecules and that require an acidic pH to function properly. are found within the lysosomes of cells.
Animalia, Plante, Fungi
Eukarya kingdoms
outer nuclear membrane
In eukaryotes, the rough ER is continuous with the _____
Cristae
Infoldings of the inner membrane of a mitochondrion that houses the electon transport chain and the enzyme catalyzing the synthesis of ATP.
Eubacteria
Kingdom of unicellular prokaryotes whose cell walls are made up of peptidoglycan
mucociliary escalator
Layer of mucus moved by cilia lining the respiratory tract that traps bacteria and other particles and moves them into the throat
locus
Location of a gene on a chromosome
1. transcribe and translate viral genome 2. replicate viral genome 3. lysis of host and release of virus
Lytic cycle steps
1. Attachment to a host 2. Breakdown of host chromosome (supply nucleotides) 3. Replication of phage chromosome 4. expression of phage genes to produce phage structural components 5. assembly of progeny phage particles 6. Release of progeny phage by cell wall
Lytic cyle (phages)
liposomes
Membrane-bound droplets that form when lipids are added to water.
endosome
Membrane-enclosed compartment of a eukaryotic cell through which material ingested by endocytosis passes on its way to lysosomes.
tight junctions
Membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of extracellular fluid tight seal, bands running around cell
phagocytic vesicle
Membranous particle that contains particle taken up by macrophages
Law of Segregation
Mendel's law that states that the pairs of homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis so that only one chromosome from each pair is present in each gamete alleles are separated during gamete formation (anaphase 1 and 2)
rule of multiplication
Probability of A and B, you do what?
convergent evolution
Process by which unrelated organisms independently evolve similarities when adapting to similar environments
crossing-over (recombination)
Process in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids during meiosis.
a single double stranded circular DNA chromosome
Prokaryotic genome
SYCP1
Protein that attaches lateral regions of homologous chromosomes to form central element of the synaptonemal complex in synapsis (prophase I, meiosis)
constitutive secretory pathway
Proteins sent in vesicles from Golgi immediately to cell surface
porins
Proteins that allow the passage of certain ions and small polar molecules through membranes.
SYCP2 and SYCP3
Proteins that attach laterally (lateral element)to homologous chromatin structures in synapsis (prophase I, meiosis)
secreted, transmembrane, lysosomal, ER/Golgi
Proteins that finish translation in the rough ER
Fredrick Griffith
Proved a process called transformation: genetic material from one cell can be transferred to another cell.
Chemoheterotrophs
Require organic molecules such as glucose made by other organisms as their carbon source and for energy (humans)
localization signals
Required by proteins made in the cytoplasm that need to be sent to an organelle (nucleus, mitochondria, peroxisomes)
anaerobic respiration
Respiration in the absence of oxygen. This produces lactic acid.
Bacilli (bacillus, singular)
Rod shaped bacteria
regulated secretory pathway
Secretory pathway in which large amounts of proteins, stored in secretory vesicles, are released from the cell in response to the appropriate signals
reproductive isolation
Separation of species or populations so that they cannot interbreed and produce fertile offspring
outer membrane of mitochondria
Serves as a barrier between the cytosol and the inner environment of the mitochondrion, large pores to allow free passage of small molecules
secreted and lysosomal proteins
Signal sequence is the first few amino acids translated signal is removed upon completion of translation
medial stack
Site of protein modification in the Golgi body
Capsule or glycocalyx
Some bacterial cells are surrounded by an extracellular slime layer called a ________. Can be around an entire colony, helps adhere to smooth surfaces
cis stack
Stack of Golgi closest to the RER
trans stack
Stack of Golgi farthest from RER
homologous structures
Structures in different species that are similar because of common ancestry.
2n
Symbol for diploid number of chromosomes in a cell.
receptor-mediated endocytosis
The movement of specific molecules into a cell by the inward budding of membranous vesicles containing proteins with receptor sites specific to the molecules being taken in; enables a cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances.
Penetrance
The percentage of individuals with a particular genotype that actually displays the phenotype associated with the genotype.
log phase
The period of exponential growth of bacterial population.
Taxonomy
The science of classifying organisms
G2 phase
The second growth phase of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase after DNA synthesis occurs.
signal sequence (N terminus)
The sequence within a protein that directs the protein to a particular organelle.
3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in
The sodium-potassium ATPase pump transports sodium and potassium ions against concentration gradients at what ratio?
oxidative stress
a condition in which the production of oxidants and free radicals exceeds the body's ability to handle them and prevent damage
dihybrid cross
a cross
nuclear matrix/ nuclear scaffold
a framework of protein fibers extending throughout the nuclear interior regulate gene expression (chromosomes attach)
species
a group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding.
envelope
a membrane like layer that covers the capsids of some viruses. They acquire this covering by budding out through the host cell membrane.
autosomal dominant
a single copy of the allele will confer the trait or disease phenotype
Epistasis
a situation where expression of alleles for one gene is dependent on a different gene Ex. A gene for curly hair cannot be expressed if a different gene causes baldness
weak electrolyte
a solution that conducts electricity poorly because only a fraction of the solute exists as ions (does not dissociate well)
endosymbiotic theory
a theory that states that certain kinds of prokaryotes began living inside of larger cells and evolved into the organelles of modern-day eukaryotes
Polygenic
a trait determined by many genes
polymorphic
a trait with many forms
bacterial lawn
a uniform layer of bacteria grown on the agar surface in a Petri dish
lytic cycle (phages)
a viral reproductive cycle in which copies of a virus are made within a host cell, which then bursts open, releasing new viruses
lysogenic cycle (phages)
a viral reproductive cycle in which the viral DNA is added to the host cell's DNA and is copied along with the host cell's DNA
effector capases
activated by initiator capases to carry out apoptosis
initiator capases
activated by intra or extracellular signals
glycosylation
addition of oligosaccharides as proteins pass through the ER and Golgi apparatus to determine cellular destination
Medium/Media
agar, a firm transparent gel made from seaweed
potassium leak channels
allow a small amount of potassium to leak out of the cell (after being pumped in by Na/K ATPase
channel proteins
allow material that cannot pass through the membrane by simple diffusion to flow through the membrane down a concentration gradient highly specific
Cephalus
also toward the head (dogs)
cytoplasm
aminoacyl tRNA sythetase are found where
X-linked dominant
an abnormal allele is dominant and occurs on the X chromosome
recessive lethal allele
an allele that prevents the birth or survival of homozygotes, though heterozygotes carrying the allele survive typically code for essential gene products
Griffith's experiment
an experiment carried out by Griffith using the heat-killed bacteria in mice to discover that a factor in heat-killed, disease-causing bacteria can "transform" harmless bacteria into ones that can cause disease
apical surface
an upper free surface exposed to the body exterior or the cavity of an internal organ
provirus (animal virus)
analogous to prophage for animal virus
4 abnormal gametes
anaphase 1 failure
2 abnormal gametes
anaphase 2 failure
strong electrolyte
any compound whose dilute aqueous solutions conduct electricity well; this is due to the presence of all or almost all of the dissolved compound in the form of ions
sex pili
appendages that pull two cells together prior to DNA transfer from one cell to the other
Targeting signals
are needed if a protein going through the secretory path that need to send up elsewhere
Photoheterotrophs
are off in that they get their energy from the sun, like plants, but require and organic molecule made by another organism as their carbon source
obligate anaerobes
are poisoned by O2 and use fermentation or anaerobic respiration
G2 checkpoint
asses if DNA replication has occured, go ahead signal triggers mitosis some regulation
tail fibers and base plate
attach to host cell membrane
kinetochore fibers
attach to the kinetochore and extend to attach each chromatin to a centrosome
peptoglycan
bacteria cytoplasm is bounded by a lipid bilayer and outside is a rigid cell wall that is composed of ______________.
F-, female
bacteria that do not have the F factor and will receive it from the male
anaerobes
bacteria that do not require oxygen
F+, male
bacteria that has the F factor and will transfer it to female
obligate aerobes
bacteria that require oxygen for metabolism
conjugation
big inc in genetic diversity no change in population size
binary fission
big inc in population size no change in genetic diversity
conjugation
big increase in genetic diversity no change in population size
bianary fission
big increase in population size no change in genetic diversity
non-classical dominance
blended phenotype two upper case letters in genotype (pink flowers)
symbiotic bacteria
both the bacteria and the host cell derive a benefit (host and bacteria coexist)
Chemoautotrophs
build organic macromolecules from CO2 using the energy of chemicals
Tolerant anaerobe
can grow in the presence or absence of oxygen byt do not use it in their metaolism
+ RNA
can make viral proteins as soon as injected
Oncogenes or tumor suppressor genes
cancer causing genes
obligate intracellular parasites
cannot multiply unless they invade a specific host cell and instruct its genetic and metabolic machinery to make and release new viruses
Viral genome
cant be both DNA and RNA, has to be either
motile
capable of spontaneous movement
ribozymes
catalytic RNA molecules that function as enzymes and can splice RNA
Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies
caused by prions, degeneration of nervous system, and always fatal
mitosis
cell division in which the nucleus divides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes
phagosytosis
cells use this to pick up large particles, including whole microorganisms, later merges with lysosome
tumor suppressor genes
checks DNA to make sure it is not damaged and repairs it (apoptosis if not)
G1 checkpoint
checks for cell size, nutrients, growth factors and DNA damage very heavily regulated
Prophase
chromosomes become visible and the centrioles separate and take up positions on the opposite sides of the nucleus nucleolus disappears, build spindle, condense DNA
Metaphase
chromosomes line up across the center of the cell
viroids
circular +RNA no capsid replicate independently cause disease
plasmid
circular piece of ds-DNA which is much smaller than the PRO genome
Rh factor
classically dominant (R is make protein r is dont make protein)
taxonomy
classification of living organisms
ring of microfilaments
cleavage furrow is formed by
effector caspases
cleave a variety of cellular proteins to trigger apoptosis
Psychrophiles
cold-loving microbes, can survive near 0 degrees
Coacervates
collection of droplets that are composed of lipids, amino acids, and sugars
protobionts
collections of abiotically produced molecules surrounded by a membrane-like structure
Polygenism
complex traits that are influenced by many different genes
phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, carbohydrates
components of the cell membrane
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
condition that occurs when the frequency of alleles in a particular gene pool remain constant over time
Hershey-Chase Experiment
confirmed that DNA is the genetic material because only radiolabeled DNA could be found in bacteriophage-infected bacteria
polar fibers
connect the chromosomes to the aster (pole to pole)
transmission of prions
consumption of bad prion, changes good prions to bad, cell death
lysosomes, 1
contain acid hydrolases that digest various substances (How many membranes)
nucleus, 2
contain and protect DNA, transcription, partial assembly of ribosomes (How many membranes)
inner nuclear membrane
contain proteins that act as binding sites for the chromosomes and provide anchorage for the nuclear lamina
basal structure of flagella
contains a number of things that anchor the flagellum to the inner and outer membrane (gram neg) and serve to rotate the rod and the rest of the attached flagellum
minimal medium
contains nothing but glucose (in addition to the agar)
Dynein
contractile protein connecting microtubules in the '9+2- arrangement of cilia and eukaryotic flagella
sheath
contracts to inject viral DNA into bacteria using the energy stored ATP
testcross
cross between an organism with an unknown genotype and an organism with a recessive phenotype
Pure-breeding strain
crosses between identical homozygotes
Avery-MacLeod-McCarty experiment
demonstrated that DNA is the genetic material because degradation of DNA led to a cessation of bacterial transformation
osmosis
describes the net movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from a region of low solute conc to a region of high solute conc in an effort to dilute the higher conc solution
Keratin
desmosomes are anchored to the PM by what
SER, 1
detoxification and glycogen breakdown in liver, steroid synthesis in gonads (How many membranes)
solute concentrations are the same, but membrane is permeable to solute in diffusion
diff between osmosis and diffusion
simple diffusion
diffusion of solute through a membrane without help from proteins HYDROPHOBIC molecules steriods, o2, co2, lipids
passive transport
diffusion, thermodynamically favorable movement of solute across membrane down gradient
significantly more men
disorders are sex linked (pedigree)
skip generations (parents cant have it if you have it)
disorders caused by recessive alleles (pedigree)
Cytokinesis
division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells
Desmosomes
do not form a seal, but merely hold cells together (spot ____________ because they are concise points)
Protista
eukaryotic one-celled living organisms distinct from multicellular plants and animals: protozoa, slime molds, and eukaryotic algae
hydrophilic
facilitated diffusion molecules
cytosolic proteins
finish translation in the cytosol
Amphitrichous
flagella at both poles of the cell
Peritrichous
flagella distributed over the entire cell
receptors
form an important class of integral proteins that transmit signals from the extracellular space into the cytoplasm
stabilizing selection
form of natural selection by which the center of the curve remains in its current position; occurs when individuals near the center of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals at either end
p (in hardy-weinberg)
frequency of dominant allele
q (in hardy-weinberg)
frequency of recessive allele
linked genes
genes that are close together on the same chromosome may not sort independently
Oncogenes
genes that cause cancer by blocking the normal controls on cell reproduction mutated proto-oncogenes, cell cycle is permanently on
extrachromosomal genetic elements
genetic material that is not contained in chromosomes such as plasmids or bacteriophages.
Respiration
glucose catabolism with the use of an inorganic electron acceptor such as oxygen
integral membrane proteins
have sections of hydrophobic aa residues called transmembrane domains that pass through bilayer
Thermophiles
heat loving microbes, can sruvive up to 100 degrees
cholesterol
helps maintain flexibility of membrane (not just sat and unsat tails)
intermediate filaments
heterogeneous and composed of a wide range of polypeptides, more permanent
parasitic bacteria
heterotrophic bacteria that rely on other organisms for their nutrients
nuclear pores
holes in the nuclear envelope that allow materials to pass in and out of the nucleus less than 60 kilodaltons passes through freely
Anaphase 1
homologous chromosomes separate and are pulled to opposite ends of the cell (meiosis)
1 generation
how long to reach a new equilibrium if old one is disturbed
4
how many haploid cells are produced from a single diploid parent?
law of independent assortment
how one pair of alleles separates is independent of how other pairs do
transmembrane domain
hydrophobic region of a transmembrane protein that anchors it in the membrane (passes through middle)
effective concentration
iM (vant Hoff x molarity) 1M of surcose (i=1) is same as 0.5M of NaCl (i=2)
inner membrane of mitochondria
impermeable to most small molecules and ions, including H+, polar molecules
ligand-gated ion channel
in the plasma membrane, open its ion channel upon binding a neutrotransmitter
Telophase
individual chromosomes begin to spread out into a tangle of chromatin, nuclear membrane forms, finish cytokinesis
subviral particles
infectious agents related to viruses, include viroids and prions, much smaller than viruses
Prions
infectious misfolded protein particles that do not have a genome and self replicates normal folded protein comes in contact with prion, prion acts as a template and the shape of the normal protein is altered and becomes infectious
infective
injecting an isolated genome into the host cell will result in virus production
structure roles
intermediate filament uses
death phase
interval in which # of dying cells exceeds # of new cells formed; so there is a decline in overall # of cells
RNA dependent RNA polymerase
when + RNA is injected into cell, ribosomes make proteins from it and ________________ transcribes - RNA so that it can then make + RNA from this strand to be packaged
hypertonic
when comparing two solutions, the solution with the greater concentration of solutes
Isotonic
when the concentration of two solutions is the same
divergent evolution
when two or more species sharing a common ancestor become more different over time
faculative anaerobes
will use oxygen when its around, but dont have to have it
F2
you must look at the _____ generation to see if genes are linked or not
Haploid
An organism or cell having only one complete set of chromosomes.
Phenotype
An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.
Heterotroph
An organism that cannot make its own food (bacteria that rely on organic nutrients created by other organisms)
parasite
An organism that feeds on a living host
material inheritance
(mitochondria) are inherited only from the mother, since the cytoplasm of the egg becomes the cytoplasm of the zygote
carry and code for
- RNA must what to RdRP
- RNA
- RNA uses RdRP to make + RNA (then host ribosomes make proteins) and RdRP then makes more _____________ for packaging
Autotroph
An organism that makes its own food (bacteria that use CO2 as carbon source)
Catalytic receptors
-have an enzyme active site inside of membrane -initiated by ligand
Genotype
An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations.
fast and temporary
2nd messenger systems
the activated G protein (G-GTP) then binds to and activates adenylyl cyclase, which makes cAMP from ATP
2nd step in Epinephrine G protein pathway
Trisomy
3 copies of a chromosome
Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya
3 domains of taxonomy
phospholipids, glycolipids, cholesterol
3 types of membrane lipids
cAMP activates protein kinases (cAMP-dPK), which phosphorylates enzymes (end result is mobilization of energy)
3rd step in Epinephrine G protein pathway
Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
4 kingdoms of eukarya
domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
8 principal taxonomic categories
9+2 structure
9 prs microtubules surrounding 2 central microtubules for stability (structure of cilia&flagella)
F (fertility) factor
A bacterial plasmid that allows the bacterium to initiate conjugation. Bacteria that posses the F factor are known as F+ "males."
auxotrophic bacteria
A bacterium or fungus that possesses a nutritional mutation that disrupts its ability to synthesize an essential biological molecule; cannot grow on minimal medium but can grow on minimal medium to which has been added the biological molecule that it cannot synthesize.
auxotroph
A bacterium that cannot survive on minimal medium (glucose alone) because it lacks the ability to syntheisze a molecule it needs to live (typically an amino acid). must have the needed substance (the auxiliary trophic substance) added to their medium in order to survive. They are typically denoted by the substance they require followed by a "-" sign in superscript. For example, a bacterium that cannot synthesize leucine would be a leucine auxotroph, and would be indicated as leu- (w/ a superscripth, though)
trait
A characteristic that an organism can pass on to its offspring through its genes.
Punnett Square
A chart that shows all the possible combinations of alleles that can result from a genetic cross
plaque
A clear area in a lawn of bacteria, represents an area where bacteria are lysing (dying) and usually caused by a lytic virus.
cyclic AMP (cAMP)
A compound formed from ATP that acts as a second messenger. second messenger of epi and glucagon phosphorylates enzymes to change activity
Codominance
A condition in which both alleles for a gene are fully expressed, but not blended blood type
Dynein
A contractile protein connecting microtubules in the '9+2- arrangement of cilia and eukaryotic flagella. The contraction of dynein produces the characteristic movement of these structures.
basal body
A eukaryotic cell organelle consisting of a 9 + 0 arrangement of microtubule triplets; may organize the microtubule assembly of a cilium or flagellum; structurally identical to a centriole. cilia and flagella are anchored by this
binary fusion
A form of asexual reproduction in which one cell divides to form two identical cells. (Bacteria reproduction)
polarity
A lack of electrical symmetry in a molecule. Charge differences on opposite ends of a structure. (lipids)
Flagellum
A long, hairlike structure that grows out of a cell and enables the cell to move.
Flagella
A long, whip-like filament that helps in cell motility. Many bacteria have this
semipermeable membrane
A membrane that allows some molecules to pass through but does not allow other molecules to pass through.
antiport
A membrane transport process that carries one substance in one direction and another in the opposite direction.
symport
A membrane transport process that carries two substances in the same direction across the membrane.
ligand
A molecule that binds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule.
Cytoskeleton
A network of fibers that holds the cell together, helps the cell to keep its shape, and aids in movement
incomplete dominance
A pattern of inheritance in which two alleles, inherited from the parents, are neither dominant nor recessive. a phenotype that is a blending of the parental traits. Pink flowers (Red and White genes)
prophage
A phage genome that has been inserted into a specific site on the bacterial chromosome. Genes are silent and not expressed.
Karotype
A picture of all the chromosomes in a cell arranged in pairs
Viroid
A plant pathogen composed of molecules of naked, circular RNA several hundred nucleotides long.
gram staining
A process by which components of bacterial cell walls are bound to Gram's stain. Depending on the amount of peptidoglycan in their cell walls, bacteria stain differently and are classified as Gram-negative or Gram-positive.
natural selection
A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.
Autophagy
A process in which lysosomes decompose damaged organelles to reuse their organic monomers
gated channels
A protein channel in a cell membrane that opens or closes in response to a particular stimulus.
signal recognition particle (SRP)
A protein-RNA complex that recognizes a signal peptide as it emerges from a ribosome and helps direct the ribosome to the ER by binding to a receptor protein on the ER. Translation then pushes the protein into the ER lumen
aster
A radial array of short microtubules that extends from each centrosome toward the plasma membrane in an animal cell undergoing mitosis.
Nucleolus
A region within the nucleus where rRNA is transcribed by RNA pol I and ribosomes are partially assembled. no membrane separating from nucleus
prezygotic barriers
A reproductive barrier that impedes mating between species or hinders fertilization if interspecific mating is attempted Ex. Ecological (diff habitats), Temporal (mate at different times), Behavioral (courtship), Mechanical (structure of genital organs), Gametic (sperm cannot fertilize egg)
gene
A segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a specific trait
nuclear localization sequence
A sequence of amino acids (usually basic) that directs a protein to the nuclear envelope, where it is imported by a specific transport mechanism. (RNA)
signal transduction
A series of molecular changes that converts a signal on a target cell's surface to a specific response inside the cell.
lag phase
A short period of time **prior to exponential growth of a bacterial population during which no, or very limited, cell division occurs.
G-protein-linked receptor
A signal receptor protein in the plasma membrane that responds to the binding signal molecule (first messenger) by activating a G protein. (secondary messenger)
voltage-gated ion channels
A specialized ion channel that opens or closes in response to changes in membrane potential
kinetochore
A specialized region on the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle.
nonelectrolyte
A substance that dissolves in water to give a solution that does not conduct an electric current, does not dissociate, covalent compounds
Electrolyte
A substance that is dissolved in solution and some of its molecules split or dissociate into electrically charged atoms or ions (salts)
endospores
A thick-walled protective spore that forms inside a bacterial cell and resists harsh conditions. (gram positive bacteria, and can only produce 1 per cell)
Organelle
A tiny cell structure that carries out a specific function within the cell
endotoxins
A toxic component of the outer membrane of certain gram-negative bacteria that is released only when the bacteria die. Can cause our immune system to have an extreme reaction
Pinocytosis
A type of endocytosis in which the cell ingests extracellular fluid and small molecules
Prokaryote
A unicellular organism that lacks a nucleus and membrane bound organelles
Bacteriophage
A virus that infects bacteria
synaptonemal complex
A zipper-like protein structure that causes replicated homologs to become physically connected during prophase of meiosis I; sets the stage for crossing over.
fitness
Ability of an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment
primary active transport
Active transport that relies directly on the hydrolysis of ATP.
Haploid
After meiosis 1, cells are now
dominant
An allele that is always expressed
recessive
An allele that is masked when a dominant allele is present
Allele
An alternative form of a gene.
mitotic spindle
An assemblage of microtubules and associated proteins that is involved in the movements of chromosomes during mitosis. whole assembly of microtubules
resting membrane potential
An electrical potential established across the plasma membrane of all cells by the Na+/K+ ATPase and the K+ leak channels. IN most cells, the resting membrane potential is approximately -70 mV with respect to the outside of the cell.
Catalase
An enzyme produced in all cells to decompose hydrogen peroxide, a by-product of cell respiration
Nondisjunction
An error in meiosis or mitosis in which members of a pair of homologous chromosomes or a pair of sister chromatids fail to separate properly from each other.
starting amount of bacteria x 2^(number of divisions)
Bacteria division calculation
asexual reproduction
Bacteria reproduction
gram positive bacteria
Bacteria that have a thick peptido glycan cell wall, and no outer membrane. They stain very darkly (purple) in Gram stain.
Gram-negative bacteria
Bacteria that have complex cell walls with less peptidoglycan but with lipopolysaccharides. Very toxic and hard to treat.
postzygotic barriers
Barriers that prevent the hybrid zygote from becoming a fertile adult.
1111 1 dom/dom 1 dom/rec 1 rec/dom 1 rec/rec
BbSs x bbss ratios
change in boiling temp = kb * i * m i= vant Hoff m= mole concentration of the solution
Boiling point elevation equation
interphase (G1, S, G2), mitosis, cytokinesis
Cell cycle phases
Meiosis
Cell division that produces reproductive cells in sexually reproducing organisms
chemotaxis
Cell movement that occurs in response to chemical stimulus, bacterial cells can move toward or away from chemicals by chemoreceptors that bind attractants or repellants
homologous chromosomes
Chromosomes that have the same sequence of genes and the same structure before replication, one from mom one from dad
homologous chromosomes
Chromosomes that have the same sequence of genes, that have the same structure, and that pair during meiosis. (one from mom one from dad) Genes differ in DNA sequence
gene pool
Combined genetic information of all the members of a particular population
Peroxisomes
Contain oxidase enzymes that detoxify alcohol and other harmful chemicals, produce hydrogen peroxide, lipid breakdown, catalase
adenylyl cyclase
Converts ATP to cyclic AMP in response to an extracellular signal activates cAMP-dependent protein kinases
Viral genome
DNA or RNA, single or double stranded, or linear or circular but can only contain one type of nucleic acid in its genome
secondary active transport
Form of active transport which does not use ATP as an energy source; rather, transport is coupled to ion diffusion down a concentration gradient established by primary active transport.
directional selection
Form of natural selection in which the entire curve moves; occurs when individuals at one end of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals in the middle or at the other end of the curve
change in freezing temp = -kf * i * m i= vant Hoff m= mole concentration of the solution kf= constant
Freezing point depression equation 1 kg of H2O with 1 mole glucose= 1.9 1 kg of H2O with 1 mole NaCl= 3.8
modification of proteins made in RER, sorting and sending proteins, synthesizes certain macromolecules like polysaccharides
Golgi functions
mutation, migration, genetic drift, natural selection, non random mating
HW conditions
Cilia
Hairlike projections that extend from the plasma membrane and are used for locomotion
p + q = 1
Hardy Weinberg Formula for allele frequency
Hypotonic
Having a lower concentration of solute than another solution
K
Higher concentration inside of cell because of Na/K pump
Na and Cl
Higher concentration outside of cell because of Na/K pump
46 chromosomes, 23 pairs
How many chromosomes do humans have?
23 pairs
How many pairs of chromosomes do humans have?
mutation, heritable, consumption of infected tissues
How we get bad prions
artificial selection
Humans have modified other species over many generations by selecting and breeding individuals that possess desired traits
osmotic pressure equation
II=iMRT i: # of particles in solution M: molarity R: gas constant T: tempt in Kelvins
sister chromatids
Identical copies of a chromosome; full sets of these are created during the S subphase of interphase.
The genes are linked
If expected F2 ratio of 9331 is not that ratio, maybe if they are 11:1:1:3 instead
Temperature
Molality is useful when measuring properties that involve
active transport
Movement of molecules through the plasma membrane (typically opposite the dictates of osmosis or diffusion) aided by a process that requires energy. (against the gradient)
kin selection
Natural selection that favors altruistic behaviors by enhancing reproductive success of relatives.
frequency of recombination
Number of recombinant phenotypes resulting from a cross divided by the total number of progeny.
F2 generation
Offspring resulting from interbreeding of the hybrid F1 generation (F1 x F1)
Chemotrophs
Organisms that get energy from chemicals taken from the environment
capsid
Outer protein coat of a virus
metaphase 1
Paired homologous chromosomes line up across the center of the cell (meiosis)
metaphase plate
Plane midway between the two poles of the cell where chromosomes line up during metaphase.
ER lumen
The area enclosed by the ER membrane.
cleavage furrow
The area of the cell membrane that pinches in and eventually separates the dividing cell
linkage
The failure of two separate genes follow Law of Independent Assortment, as might occur if the genes were found close together on the same chromosome. failure of genes to display independent assortment
meiosis I
The first division of a two-stage process of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms that results in cells with half the number of chromosome sets as the original cell.
G1 phase
The first gap, or growth phase, of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase before DNA synthesis begins.
penetration or eclipse
The injection of viral genome into a host cell, capsid remains on the cell surface
matrix
The interior of a mitochondrion (the region bounded by the inner membrane), the site of action of pyruvate dehydroganse complex and the Krebs cycle, location of e- transport chain and ATP sythase
carrying capacity
The largest population that an area can support
periplasmic space
The space between the inner and outer cell membranes in Gram-negative bactera. The peptidoglycan cell wall is found in the space, and this space sometimes contains enzymes to degrade antibiotics.
bivalent
The structure formed by the pair of homologous chromosomes during crossing over. Also called a tetrad because it consists of four chromatids.
S phase
The synthesis phase of the cell cycle; the portion of interphase during which DNA is replicated.
binomial classification
The system of naming an organism using two terms, the first "genus" and the second "species".
transduction, transformation, conjugation
The three modes of gene transfer between bacteria are ________________, which is transfer via a virus; ________________, which is the uptake of DNA from the surrounding environment; and ________________, which is bacterial "mating."
p53
This tumor suppressor gene causes cell cycle arrest in G1, providing time for DNA repair. If repair is successful, cells re-enter the cycle. If unsuccessful, apoptosis
gag (viral capsid proteins), pol (reverse transcriptase), env (envelope proteins)
Three main retroviral genes
Ventral
Toward the belly
sex-linked traits
Traits controlled by genes located on sex chromosomes.
mitochondrial traits
Traits inherited from the mitochondrial genome (only from mother), example of hemizygosity, only one allele to keep track of in an individual (one copy of the chromosome, as in male sex-linked genes)
protein
Viruses can encode more than one __________ in its given length of genome. (more than 1 reading frame)
alpha and beta tubulin
What are microtubules composed of?
Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya
What are the three domains?
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 p^2 is GG genotype 2pq is Gg genotype q^2 is gg genotype
What is the Hardy-Weinberg equation for genotype frequency?
Molality= moles of solute/kg of solvent
What is the formula for molality (m)?
Molarity= moles of solute/liters of solution
What is the formula for molarity?
spermatogonia and oogonia
What two types of cells undergo meiosis?
Pleiotropism
When one gene expression alters many, seemingly unrelated aspects of the phenotype
retrograde traffic
When proteins that are supposed to stay in the RER accidentally escape and must be returned from the Golgi Apparatus.
capsid head
Where the viral genome is located
Animalia Kingdom
Which kingdom is multicellular, heterotrophs, lack cell walls, and consist of humans?
show father to son transmission
Y linked disorders show (pedigree)
heterochromatin vs. euchromatin
____________________________ = Highly Condensed (transcriptionally inactive) ____________________________ = less condensed, transcriptionally active ("truly transcribed")
related to nutrients
_________troph means what
lysogen
a bacterium that carries phage DNA (a prophage) integrated into its genome
Hfr (high frequency of recombination) cell
a cell with the F factor integrated into its genome (still performs conjugation)
1. Virus attaches to host cell and inserts genetic material into cell. 2. Genetic material is copied into the host cell's own chromosome. 3. Every time the cell divides the viral genes divide too 4. A trigger from the environment could causes the viral genes to begin a different cycle (lytic cycle)
lysogenic cycle steps (phages)
crinophagy
lysosomal digestion of excess secretory products
capases
main proteases that carry out apoptosis
Na/K ATPase (Primary active transport)
maintains osmotic balance establishes electric gradient sets up Na gradient for secondary active transport
abiotic synthesis
making compounds using non-living molecules
cross
mating of two organisms
lysosome
membrane bound organelle responsible for degradation of biological macromolecules through hydrolysis
peroxisomes, 1
metabolize lipids and toxins using H2O2 (How many membranes)
muscle contraction pseudoped formation cytokinesis
microfilament uses
actin
microfilaments are made of what
mitotic spindle intracellular transport cillia and flagella
microtubule uses
genome
mitochondria posses their own
PMAT (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase)
mitosis
fluid mosaic model
model that describes the arrangement and movement of the molecules that make up a cell membrane
Mesophiles
moderate temperature loving microbes, 30 degrees
Golgi, 1
modification and sorting of protein, some synthesis (How many membranes)
mole fraction= Xs= # moles/total moles in solution
mole fraction
facilitated diffusion
movement of solute across membrane, down a gradient, when the membrane itself is impermeable to that solute. Integral proteins allow material to cross down the gradient HYDROPHILIC molecules h2o, glucose, aa, ions
polyhedral capsid
multiple-sided geometric figures with regular surfaces
enveloped
some __________ viruses fuse their ___________ with the hosts plasma membrane which leaves a de-______________ capsid inside the host cell
intermembrane space of mitochondria
space between the inner and outer membrane of the mitochondria,
osmosis
special type of diffusion in which solvent diffuses rather than solute (solvent moves toward equil)
microspheres
spherical in shape and are composed of many protein molecules that are organized as a membrane
spirochetes or spirilla
spiral shaped bacteria
in the nucleus
splicing occurs where
theory of evolution by natural selection
states that organisms that are better suited for their environments will survive and reproduce compared to those that are poorly suited for their environments
polyribosome
string of ribosomes simultaneously translating regions of the same mRNA strand during protein synthesis
conjugation bridge
structure formed between two bacterial cells that allow for the transfer of genetic material made from appendages called sex pili from donor male
analogous structures
structures that do not have a common evolutionary origin but are similar in function
kingdoms
subdivision of the 3 domains
ribosomes, 0
synthesize proteins (How many membranes)
Diffusion
tendency for liquids and gases to fully occupy the available volume high to low conc, solute moves toward equil
Tonicity
the ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water
doubling time
the amount of time required for a population of bacteria to double in size
basolateral membrane
the cell membrane that faces away from the lumen of the GI tract and toward the submucosa
boiling point elevation
the difference in temperature between the boiling point of a solution and the boiling point of the pure solvent solutions with solute have high boiling point (need more energy)
freezing point depression
the difference in temperature between the freezing point of a solution and the freezing point of the pure solvent solutions with solute have lower ________________
F1 generation
the first generation of offspring obtained from an experimental cross of two organisms
Cladogenesis
the formation of a new group of organisms or higher taxon by evolutionary divergence from an ancestral form.
speciation
the formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution.