TPR Biology Ch 5, 6, 7

cell theory

1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. 2. The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms. 3. Cells arise from pre-existing cells. Robert Hooke 1655

secretory pathway of proteins

1. Proteins for export are produced by ribosomes in the interior of rough ER 2. Transport vesicle carries proteins to Golgi apparatus 3. Golgi modifies them 4. Secretory vesicle carries modified protein to plasma membrane & merges with it 5. Proteins are released out of the cell

Fermentation

is glucose catabolism which does not use an electron acceptor such as O2, instead with a reduced by product of glucose catabolism such as lactate or ethanol

naked viruses

lack lipid envelope; more resistant to disinfectants

lysozyme

late gene, destroys cell wall of bacteria and the wall burst

hook of flagella

links filament to basal body

not free to flop

lipids and proteins are free to diffuse laterally but not

microtubule organizing center

located near nucleus; a pair of centrioles

RER, 1

location of sythesis/modification of secretory, membrane bound, and organelle proteins (How many membranes)

Pili

long projections on the bacterial surface involved in attaching to different surfaces

filament of flagella

long, thin, helical structure composed of protein flagellin

(+) RNA viruses

must at least code for RNA-dependent RNA polymerase in their genome A piece of single-stranded viral RNA which serves as mRNA is (+) RNA. As soon as genome is in host cell, ribosomes start to translate.

(-) RNA Viruses

must carry a RNA-dependent RNA pol and encode it, genome is the template for mRNA production,

retroviruses

must encode reverse transcriptase, (+) RNA viruses that undergo lysogeny (integrate into genome as proviruses), the RNA genome must under go reverse transcription to make DNA to integrate into the host cell genome

- RNA

must make mRNA before it can make viral proteins

cancer

mutations of key genes start from single cells grow and divide with no control migrate

divergent selection

natural selection removes members near the avg. leaving those at either end

porters

no holes, conformational change to move molecules

pores

non specific holes in membrane

Photooncogenes

normal genes that code for proteins that regulate the cell cycle but can be converted to oncogenes

van't Hoff factor (i)

number of ions produced by a single dissolved molecule NaCl - 2 CaC2 - 3

Disulfide bond formation

occurs in the ER lumen

linkage

occurs when different traits are inherited together more often than they would have been by chance along; it is assumed that these traits are linked on the same chromosome

recombinants (recombinant types)

offspring whose phenotype differs from that of the parents

Double-stranded DNA viruses

often encode enzymes required for dNTP synthesis and DNA replication, has to encode its own enzymes because the cell only produces these during replication,

Dorsal

on top (spine)

gain of function

oncogenes type of mutation

Monotichous

one flagella located at a pole (end)

early gene

one of a group of genes that are expressed immediately after infection and which includes any special enzymes required to express viral genes

hydrolase

one of the first viral gene products made, a hydrolytic enzyme that degrades the entire host genome, example of early gene

Wild type bacteria

one who possesses all the characteristics normal to that particular species

Hemizygosity

only having one copy of the chromosome in a diploid organism

ligand-gated ion channels

open in the presence of a specific binding substance, usually a hormone or neurotransmitter

Homozygote

organism that inherits two alleles of the same type for a given gene

Heterozygote

organism that inherits two different alleles for a given gene

Phototrophs

organisms that get energy from light

protoplast

osmotically fragile, the bacterial cell wall is destroyed and left with

gap junctions

pore like connections between adjacent cells allowing the cells cytoplasms to mix

vapor pressure depression

pressure due to evaporated solvent molecules above the surface of a liquid solvent particles act as anchors that hold solvent in solution less solvent evap= lower vp

osmotic pressure elevation

pressure required to resist the movement of water by osmosis op= i * m * R * T R is constant i is vant hoff m is mole conc

osmotic pressure (pi symbol)

pressure that must be applied to STOP osmotic movement across a selectively permeable membrane

Hardy-Weinberg Principle

principle that allele frequencies in a population will remain constant provided these are true: there is no mutation there is no migration there is no natural selection there is random mating the pop is large so no random drift

rule of addition (A + B) - (A and B) A and B is multiply

probability of A or B, you do what?

Phagocytosis

process in which extensions of cytoplasm surround and engulf large particles and take them into the cell

Mitochondira, 2

produce ATP via the Krebs cycle and oxidative phsophorylation (How many membranes)

tumor suppressor genes

produce proteins that prevent uncontrolled cell growth (cancer)

colligative properties

properties that depend on the NUMBER of solute particles but not on their identity

excision

prophage becomes activated and removes itself from the host genome and enters the lytic cycle

Clathrin

protein that coats the inward-facing surface of the plasma membrane and assists in the formation of specialized structures, like coated pits. (receptor-mediated endocytosis)

integral membrane proteins

proteins that are at least partially embedded in the plasma membrane

peripheral membrane proteins

proteins that bind to the membrane without passing through it (can be stuck to integral protein by H bonding)

secreted in exterior enviroment, as integral plasma proteins, in membrane or interior of ER Golgi or lysosomes

proteins translated on ER ribosomes

peroxisomes, mitochondria, nucleus, or remain in cytoplasm

proteins translated on free ribsosomes

4.5 billion years

radioisotope dating age of earth

stationary phase

rate of cell growth equals rate of cell death caused by depleted nutrients and O2, excretion of organic acids and pollutants

flux

rate of diffusion

(# of recombinants/total offspring) x 100

recombination frequency

12.5 map units apart

recombination frequency is 12.5%

passive transport

relies on concentration gradient for driving force

autonomous replication

replication that is independent of chromosome replication (plasmids can do this)

initiator caspases

respond to extra- and intracellular death signals by clustering together and activating effector caspases

permanently in genome and high mutation rate (RdRP makes DNA)

retrovirus (+ RNA lysogeny) problems

RNA-dependent DNA polymerase (reverse transcriptase)

retroviruses must encode this, their RNA genome must under go reverse transcription to make DNA to integrate into the host cell genome and it does by this enzyme

Centrioles

ring of 9 microtubule triplets

Helical capsids

rod-shaped capsomers that bond together to form a series of hollow discs resembling a bracelet

Microfilaments

rods formed in the cytoplasm from polymerization of actin (2 actin chains wrapped around each other form a actin filaments) dynamic and responsible for gross movement of the entire cell

H+ down the gradient generated across the inner membrane by electron transport

rotation of rod is done how

Cocci (coccus, singular)

round, spherical bacteria

meiosis II

same as mitosis, but the cell is haploid

Genetics

science that describes the inheritance of traits from one generation to another

cell cycle

series of events that cells go through as they grow and divide

membrane bound proteins

signal can be anywhere in amino acid sequence signal can appear several times signal remains as the transmembrane part of protein

productive cycle (animal virus)

similar to lytic cycle but does not destroy the host cell, the enveloped viruses leave by budding, animal viruses (host cant have cell wall)

hydrophobic

simple diffusion molecules

Anaphase

sister chromatids pairs separate and move toward opposite poles cleavage furrow forms

mitochondria

site of oxidative phosphorylation

Viroids

small circular ssRNA molecules that infect plants and disrupt their growth, also seen as Hepatitis D, self-complementary (can base pair to itself), do not code for proteins and lack capsids, some are catalytic ribozymes and some produce siRNA that silence gene expression

proteinoids

small polypeptides that have some catalytic properties

Fimbriae

smaller structures that are not involved in locomotion or conjugation but are involved in adhering to surfaces

Diffusion

solute goes from high to low conc

p= 0.1 then into genotype frequency equation, add together pp and 2pg to give 0.19

the frequency of the allele causing a dominant autosomal disorder is 0.1. What is frequency of affected individuals in this population?

Recombination

the genetic process by which one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome during reproductive cell division (genetics) a combining of genes or characters different from what they were in the parents

X and Y chromosomes

the human sex chromosomes

germination

the metabolic reactivation of an endospore is termed

passive transport

the movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy by the cell

Senescence

the natural physical decline brought about by aging

synapsis

the pairing of homologous chromosomes during meiosis

vapor pressure depression

the pressure exerted by a vapor over a liquid

transduction

the process of transferring genetic material from one cell to another by a plasmid or bacteriophage this can happen as a consequence to the lysogenic cycle. the viral genome may take some of the host genome with it when it excisises from host genome. 1st mechanism of acquiring new genetic material

allele frequencies

the relative abundances of alleles of a given gene among all individuals of a population

meiosis II

the second phase of meiosis consisting of chromatids separating, along with the two diploid cells splitting in two

Microfilaments

the smallest of the cytoskeletal elements; made of actin

ER lumen

the space between the inner and outer nuclear membranes is contiguous with the

population genetics

the study of how populations change genetically over time

solvent

the substance in which the solute dissolves

microtubules

the thickest of the three components of the cytoskeleton

faculative

they can live and replicate inside or outside a host cell

obligate

they must be inside a host cell to replicate

Posterior

toward the back

Anterior

toward the front

Superior

toward the head

caudad

toward the tail

Inferior

towards the feet

Exotoxins

toxic substances that bacteria secrete into their environment (both gram pos and neg), help compete with other bacterial species

hydrophobic residues

transmembrane domains contain what

carrier proteins

transport molecules through membranes by facilitated diffusion (different than ion), do not form tunnel, bind molecule, transformational change, and move molecule to other side of membrane

uniports

transport one substance across membrane

pore

tube through the membrane which is so large that it is not selective for any particular molecule (below certain size only)

Mycobacterium

tuberculosis

code for proteins that stop cell growth/division, monitor genome, initiate repair pathways, apoptosis if needed

tumor suppressor genes

loss of function

tumor suppressor genes type of mutation

signal amplification

turns one signal molecule into multiple second messenger molecules

autosomal recessive

two copies of the allele are required for the affected phenotype

Photoautotrophs

use only CO2 as a carbon source and obtain their energy from the sun (plants)

Thomas Hunt Morgan

used Drosophila melangaster (fruit flies) to confirm the existence of sex-linked traits

RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP)

uses RNA as a template to make more copies of RNA. RdRps are not found in host cells, they are only encoded by viral genomes.

3 (Ca and 2 Cl)

vant Hoff for CaCl2

2 (into Na and Cl)

vant Hoff for NaCl

1

vant Hoff for glucose that does not dissociate

Attachment or adsorption

virus attaches to host cell using receptors

viroids

virus like subviral paricles

high vapor pressure

volatile

osmosis

water from ITS high conc to ITS low conc 10 % NaCl 20% NaCl 90% h2o 80 % h2o water moves from 90% water to 80% water

Epinephrine binds to G protein linked receptor, which activates G proteins that cause GDP to dissociate and GTP to bind

1st step in Epinephrine G protein pathway

telophase 1

2 daughter cells are formed, each daughter cell contains only one chromosome of the homologous pair.

parallel evolution

2 species go through similar evolutionary changes due to similar selective pressures

Attachment and injection

2 steps of virus

sexual selection

A form of natural selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates.

Microtubules

A hollow rod composed of tubulin proteins that makes up part of the cytoskeleton in all eukaryotic cells and is found in cilia and flagella.

solution

A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances

Domain Archaea

Any of various single-celled prokaryotes genetically distinct from bacteria, often thriving in extreme environmental conditions

peptoglycan

Archaea cell walls lack

fission or budding

Archaea reproduce how

Gregor Mendel

Augustinian monk and botanist whose experiments in breeding garden peas led to his eventual recognition as founder of the science of genetics (1822-1884)

reducing environment

Describes the early atmosphere, electron donors very prevalent (organic molecules could form spontaneously) --energy for synthesis provided by lightning, radioactive decay, volcanic activity, Sun's radiation (more powerful then bc thinner atmosphere)

gram positive

Describing the group of bacteria that have a cell wall that is structurally less complex and contains more peptidoglycan than the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria are usually less toxic than gram-negative bacteria.

gram negative

Describing the group of bacteria that have a cell wall that is structurally more complex and contains less peptidoglycan than the cell wall of gram-positive bacteria. Gram-negative bacteria are often more toxic than gram-positive bacteria.

9331 9 dom/dom 3 dom/rec 3 rec/dom 1 rec/rec

Dihybrid cross (BsSs x BsSs) will give what expected ratio? (IF GENES ARE UNLINKED)

Archaea

Domain of unicellular prokaryotes that have cell walls that do not contain peptidoglycan

nuclear envelope

Double membrane perforated with pores that control the flow of materials in and out of the nucleus.

contingious

ER, Golgi, lysosomes (vesicles)

prophase I

Each chromosome comes near its replicated chromosome pair. Nucleus dissolves at this stage. Crossing Over (exchange of genetic material) occurs at this phase.

active transport

Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference

acid hydrolases

Enzymes that degrade various macromolecules and that require an acidic pH to function properly. are found within the lysosomes of cells.

Animalia, Plante, Fungi

Eukarya kingdoms

outer nuclear membrane

In eukaryotes, the rough ER is continuous with the _____

Cristae

Infoldings of the inner membrane of a mitochondrion that houses the electon transport chain and the enzyme catalyzing the synthesis of ATP.

Eubacteria

Kingdom of unicellular prokaryotes whose cell walls are made up of peptidoglycan

mucociliary escalator

Layer of mucus moved by cilia lining the respiratory tract that traps bacteria and other particles and moves them into the throat

locus

Location of a gene on a chromosome

1. transcribe and translate viral genome 2. replicate viral genome 3. lysis of host and release of virus

Lytic cycle steps

1. Attachment to a host 2. Breakdown of host chromosome (supply nucleotides) 3. Replication of phage chromosome 4. expression of phage genes to produce phage structural components 5. assembly of progeny phage particles 6. Release of progeny phage by cell wall

Lytic cyle (phages)

liposomes

Membrane-bound droplets that form when lipids are added to water.

endosome

Membrane-enclosed compartment of a eukaryotic cell through which material ingested by endocytosis passes on its way to lysosomes.

tight junctions

Membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of extracellular fluid tight seal, bands running around cell

phagocytic vesicle

Membranous particle that contains particle taken up by macrophages

Law of Segregation

Mendel's law that states that the pairs of homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis so that only one chromosome from each pair is present in each gamete alleles are separated during gamete formation (anaphase 1 and 2)

rule of multiplication

Probability of A and B, you do what?

convergent evolution

Process by which unrelated organisms independently evolve similarities when adapting to similar environments

crossing-over (recombination)

Process in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids during meiosis.

a single double stranded circular DNA chromosome

Prokaryotic genome

SYCP1

Protein that attaches lateral regions of homologous chromosomes to form central element of the synaptonemal complex in synapsis (prophase I, meiosis)

constitutive secretory pathway

Proteins sent in vesicles from Golgi immediately to cell surface

porins

Proteins that allow the passage of certain ions and small polar molecules through membranes.

SYCP2 and SYCP3

Proteins that attach laterally (lateral element)to homologous chromatin structures in synapsis (prophase I, meiosis)

secreted, transmembrane, lysosomal, ER/Golgi

Proteins that finish translation in the rough ER

Fredrick Griffith

Proved a process called transformation: genetic material from one cell can be transferred to another cell.

Chemoheterotrophs

Require organic molecules such as glucose made by other organisms as their carbon source and for energy (humans)

localization signals

Required by proteins made in the cytoplasm that need to be sent to an organelle (nucleus, mitochondria, peroxisomes)

anaerobic respiration

Respiration in the absence of oxygen. This produces lactic acid.

Bacilli (bacillus, singular)

Rod shaped bacteria

regulated secretory pathway

Secretory pathway in which large amounts of proteins, stored in secretory vesicles, are released from the cell in response to the appropriate signals

reproductive isolation

Separation of species or populations so that they cannot interbreed and produce fertile offspring

outer membrane of mitochondria

Serves as a barrier between the cytosol and the inner environment of the mitochondrion, large pores to allow free passage of small molecules

secreted and lysosomal proteins

Signal sequence is the first few amino acids translated signal is removed upon completion of translation

medial stack

Site of protein modification in the Golgi body

Capsule or glycocalyx

Some bacterial cells are surrounded by an extracellular slime layer called a ________. Can be around an entire colony, helps adhere to smooth surfaces

cis stack

Stack of Golgi closest to the RER

trans stack

Stack of Golgi farthest from RER

homologous structures

Structures in different species that are similar because of common ancestry.

2n

Symbol for diploid number of chromosomes in a cell.

receptor-mediated endocytosis

The movement of specific molecules into a cell by the inward budding of membranous vesicles containing proteins with receptor sites specific to the molecules being taken in; enables a cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances.

Penetrance

The percentage of individuals with a particular genotype that actually displays the phenotype associated with the genotype.

log phase

The period of exponential growth of bacterial population.

Taxonomy

The science of classifying organisms

G2 phase

The second growth phase of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase after DNA synthesis occurs.

signal sequence (N terminus)

The sequence within a protein that directs the protein to a particular organelle.

3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in

The sodium-potassium ATPase pump transports sodium and potassium ions against concentration gradients at what ratio?

oxidative stress

a condition in which the production of oxidants and free radicals exceeds the body's ability to handle them and prevent damage

dihybrid cross

a cross

nuclear matrix/ nuclear scaffold

a framework of protein fibers extending throughout the nuclear interior regulate gene expression (chromosomes attach)

species

a group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding.

envelope

a membrane like layer that covers the capsids of some viruses. They acquire this covering by budding out through the host cell membrane.

autosomal dominant

a single copy of the allele will confer the trait or disease phenotype

Epistasis

a situation where expression of alleles for one gene is dependent on a different gene Ex. A gene for curly hair cannot be expressed if a different gene causes baldness

weak electrolyte

a solution that conducts electricity poorly because only a fraction of the solute exists as ions (does not dissociate well)

endosymbiotic theory

a theory that states that certain kinds of prokaryotes began living inside of larger cells and evolved into the organelles of modern-day eukaryotes

Polygenic

a trait determined by many genes

polymorphic

a trait with many forms

bacterial lawn

a uniform layer of bacteria grown on the agar surface in a Petri dish

lytic cycle (phages)

a viral reproductive cycle in which copies of a virus are made within a host cell, which then bursts open, releasing new viruses

lysogenic cycle (phages)

a viral reproductive cycle in which the viral DNA is added to the host cell's DNA and is copied along with the host cell's DNA

effector capases

activated by initiator capases to carry out apoptosis

initiator capases

activated by intra or extracellular signals

glycosylation

addition of oligosaccharides as proteins pass through the ER and Golgi apparatus to determine cellular destination

Medium/Media

agar, a firm transparent gel made from seaweed

potassium leak channels

allow a small amount of potassium to leak out of the cell (after being pumped in by Na/K ATPase

channel proteins

allow material that cannot pass through the membrane by simple diffusion to flow through the membrane down a concentration gradient highly specific

Cephalus

also toward the head (dogs)

cytoplasm

aminoacyl tRNA sythetase are found where

X-linked dominant

an abnormal allele is dominant and occurs on the X chromosome

recessive lethal allele

an allele that prevents the birth or survival of homozygotes, though heterozygotes carrying the allele survive typically code for essential gene products

Griffith's experiment

an experiment carried out by Griffith using the heat-killed bacteria in mice to discover that a factor in heat-killed, disease-causing bacteria can "transform" harmless bacteria into ones that can cause disease

apical surface

an upper free surface exposed to the body exterior or the cavity of an internal organ

provirus (animal virus)

analogous to prophage for animal virus

4 abnormal gametes

anaphase 1 failure

2 abnormal gametes

anaphase 2 failure

strong electrolyte

any compound whose dilute aqueous solutions conduct electricity well; this is due to the presence of all or almost all of the dissolved compound in the form of ions

sex pili

appendages that pull two cells together prior to DNA transfer from one cell to the other

Targeting signals

are needed if a protein going through the secretory path that need to send up elsewhere

Photoheterotrophs

are off in that they get their energy from the sun, like plants, but require and organic molecule made by another organism as their carbon source

obligate anaerobes

are poisoned by O2 and use fermentation or anaerobic respiration

G2 checkpoint

asses if DNA replication has occured, go ahead signal triggers mitosis some regulation

tail fibers and base plate

attach to host cell membrane

kinetochore fibers

attach to the kinetochore and extend to attach each chromatin to a centrosome

peptoglycan

bacteria cytoplasm is bounded by a lipid bilayer and outside is a rigid cell wall that is composed of ______________.

F-, female

bacteria that do not have the F factor and will receive it from the male

anaerobes

bacteria that do not require oxygen

F+, male

bacteria that has the F factor and will transfer it to female

obligate aerobes

bacteria that require oxygen for metabolism

conjugation

big inc in genetic diversity no change in population size

binary fission

big inc in population size no change in genetic diversity

conjugation

big increase in genetic diversity no change in population size

bianary fission

big increase in population size no change in genetic diversity

non-classical dominance

blended phenotype two upper case letters in genotype (pink flowers)

symbiotic bacteria

both the bacteria and the host cell derive a benefit (host and bacteria coexist)

Chemoautotrophs

build organic macromolecules from CO2 using the energy of chemicals

Tolerant anaerobe

can grow in the presence or absence of oxygen byt do not use it in their metaolism

+ RNA

can make viral proteins as soon as injected

Oncogenes or tumor suppressor genes

cancer causing genes

obligate intracellular parasites

cannot multiply unless they invade a specific host cell and instruct its genetic and metabolic machinery to make and release new viruses

Viral genome

cant be both DNA and RNA, has to be either

motile

capable of spontaneous movement

ribozymes

catalytic RNA molecules that function as enzymes and can splice RNA

Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies

caused by prions, degeneration of nervous system, and always fatal

mitosis

cell division in which the nucleus divides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes

phagosytosis

cells use this to pick up large particles, including whole microorganisms, later merges with lysosome

tumor suppressor genes

checks DNA to make sure it is not damaged and repairs it (apoptosis if not)

G1 checkpoint

checks for cell size, nutrients, growth factors and DNA damage very heavily regulated

Prophase

chromosomes become visible and the centrioles separate and take up positions on the opposite sides of the nucleus nucleolus disappears, build spindle, condense DNA

Metaphase

chromosomes line up across the center of the cell

viroids

circular +RNA no capsid replicate independently cause disease

plasmid

circular piece of ds-DNA which is much smaller than the PRO genome

Rh factor

classically dominant (R is make protein r is dont make protein)

taxonomy

classification of living organisms

ring of microfilaments

cleavage furrow is formed by

effector caspases

cleave a variety of cellular proteins to trigger apoptosis

Psychrophiles

cold-loving microbes, can survive near 0 degrees

Coacervates

collection of droplets that are composed of lipids, amino acids, and sugars

protobionts

collections of abiotically produced molecules surrounded by a membrane-like structure

Polygenism

complex traits that are influenced by many different genes

phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, carbohydrates

components of the cell membrane

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

condition that occurs when the frequency of alleles in a particular gene pool remain constant over time

Hershey-Chase Experiment

confirmed that DNA is the genetic material because only radiolabeled DNA could be found in bacteriophage-infected bacteria

polar fibers

connect the chromosomes to the aster (pole to pole)

transmission of prions

consumption of bad prion, changes good prions to bad, cell death

lysosomes, 1

contain acid hydrolases that digest various substances (How many membranes)

nucleus, 2

contain and protect DNA, transcription, partial assembly of ribosomes (How many membranes)

inner nuclear membrane

contain proteins that act as binding sites for the chromosomes and provide anchorage for the nuclear lamina

basal structure of flagella

contains a number of things that anchor the flagellum to the inner and outer membrane (gram neg) and serve to rotate the rod and the rest of the attached flagellum

minimal medium

contains nothing but glucose (in addition to the agar)

Dynein

contractile protein connecting microtubules in the '9+2- arrangement of cilia and eukaryotic flagella

sheath

contracts to inject viral DNA into bacteria using the energy stored ATP

testcross

cross between an organism with an unknown genotype and an organism with a recessive phenotype

Pure-breeding strain

crosses between identical homozygotes

Avery-MacLeod-McCarty experiment

demonstrated that DNA is the genetic material because degradation of DNA led to a cessation of bacterial transformation

osmosis

describes the net movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from a region of low solute conc to a region of high solute conc in an effort to dilute the higher conc solution

Keratin

desmosomes are anchored to the PM by what

SER, 1

detoxification and glycogen breakdown in liver, steroid synthesis in gonads (How many membranes)

solute concentrations are the same, but membrane is permeable to solute in diffusion

diff between osmosis and diffusion

simple diffusion

diffusion of solute through a membrane without help from proteins HYDROPHOBIC molecules steriods, o2, co2, lipids

passive transport

diffusion, thermodynamically favorable movement of solute across membrane down gradient

significantly more men

disorders are sex linked (pedigree)

skip generations (parents cant have it if you have it)

disorders caused by recessive alleles (pedigree)

Cytokinesis

division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells

Desmosomes

do not form a seal, but merely hold cells together (spot ____________ because they are concise points)

Protista

eukaryotic one-celled living organisms distinct from multicellular plants and animals: protozoa, slime molds, and eukaryotic algae

hydrophilic

facilitated diffusion molecules

cytosolic proteins

finish translation in the cytosol

Amphitrichous

flagella at both poles of the cell

Peritrichous

flagella distributed over the entire cell

receptors

form an important class of integral proteins that transmit signals from the extracellular space into the cytoplasm

stabilizing selection

form of natural selection by which the center of the curve remains in its current position; occurs when individuals near the center of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals at either end

p (in hardy-weinberg)

frequency of dominant allele

q (in hardy-weinberg)

frequency of recessive allele

linked genes

genes that are close together on the same chromosome may not sort independently

Oncogenes

genes that cause cancer by blocking the normal controls on cell reproduction mutated proto-oncogenes, cell cycle is permanently on

extrachromosomal genetic elements

genetic material that is not contained in chromosomes such as plasmids or bacteriophages.

Respiration

glucose catabolism with the use of an inorganic electron acceptor such as oxygen

integral membrane proteins

have sections of hydrophobic aa residues called transmembrane domains that pass through bilayer

Thermophiles

heat loving microbes, can sruvive up to 100 degrees

cholesterol

helps maintain flexibility of membrane (not just sat and unsat tails)

intermediate filaments

heterogeneous and composed of a wide range of polypeptides, more permanent

parasitic bacteria

heterotrophic bacteria that rely on other organisms for their nutrients

nuclear pores

holes in the nuclear envelope that allow materials to pass in and out of the nucleus less than 60 kilodaltons passes through freely

Anaphase 1

homologous chromosomes separate and are pulled to opposite ends of the cell (meiosis)

1 generation

how long to reach a new equilibrium if old one is disturbed

4

how many haploid cells are produced from a single diploid parent?

law of independent assortment

how one pair of alleles separates is independent of how other pairs do

transmembrane domain

hydrophobic region of a transmembrane protein that anchors it in the membrane (passes through middle)

effective concentration

iM (vant Hoff x molarity) 1M of surcose (i=1) is same as 0.5M of NaCl (i=2)

inner membrane of mitochondria

impermeable to most small molecules and ions, including H+, polar molecules

ligand-gated ion channel

in the plasma membrane, open its ion channel upon binding a neutrotransmitter

Telophase

individual chromosomes begin to spread out into a tangle of chromatin, nuclear membrane forms, finish cytokinesis

subviral particles

infectious agents related to viruses, include viroids and prions, much smaller than viruses

Prions

infectious misfolded protein particles that do not have a genome and self replicates normal folded protein comes in contact with prion, prion acts as a template and the shape of the normal protein is altered and becomes infectious

infective

injecting an isolated genome into the host cell will result in virus production

structure roles

intermediate filament uses

death phase

interval in which # of dying cells exceeds # of new cells formed; so there is a decline in overall # of cells

RNA dependent RNA polymerase

when + RNA is injected into cell, ribosomes make proteins from it and ________________ transcribes - RNA so that it can then make + RNA from this strand to be packaged

hypertonic

when comparing two solutions, the solution with the greater concentration of solutes

Isotonic

when the concentration of two solutions is the same

divergent evolution

when two or more species sharing a common ancestor become more different over time

faculative anaerobes

will use oxygen when its around, but dont have to have it

F2

you must look at the _____ generation to see if genes are linked or not

Haploid

An organism or cell having only one complete set of chromosomes.

Phenotype

An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.

Heterotroph

An organism that cannot make its own food (bacteria that rely on organic nutrients created by other organisms)

parasite

An organism that feeds on a living host

material inheritance

(mitochondria) are inherited only from the mother, since the cytoplasm of the egg becomes the cytoplasm of the zygote

carry and code for

- RNA must what to RdRP

- RNA

- RNA uses RdRP to make + RNA (then host ribosomes make proteins) and RdRP then makes more _____________ for packaging

Autotroph

An organism that makes its own food (bacteria that use CO2 as carbon source)

Catalytic receptors

-have an enzyme active site inside of membrane -initiated by ligand

Genotype

An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations.

fast and temporary

2nd messenger systems

the activated G protein (G-GTP) then binds to and activates adenylyl cyclase, which makes cAMP from ATP

2nd step in Epinephrine G protein pathway

Trisomy

3 copies of a chromosome

Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya

3 domains of taxonomy

phospholipids, glycolipids, cholesterol

3 types of membrane lipids

cAMP activates protein kinases (cAMP-dPK), which phosphorylates enzymes (end result is mobilization of energy)

3rd step in Epinephrine G protein pathway

Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia

4 kingdoms of eukarya

domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species

8 principal taxonomic categories

9+2 structure

9 prs microtubules surrounding 2 central microtubules for stability (structure of cilia&flagella)

F (fertility) factor

A bacterial plasmid that allows the bacterium to initiate conjugation. Bacteria that posses the F factor are known as F+ "males."

auxotrophic bacteria

A bacterium or fungus that possesses a nutritional mutation that disrupts its ability to synthesize an essential biological molecule; cannot grow on minimal medium but can grow on minimal medium to which has been added the biological molecule that it cannot synthesize.

auxotroph

A bacterium that cannot survive on minimal medium (glucose alone) because it lacks the ability to syntheisze a molecule it needs to live (typically an amino acid). must have the needed substance (the auxiliary trophic substance) added to their medium in order to survive. They are typically denoted by the substance they require followed by a "-" sign in superscript. For example, a bacterium that cannot synthesize leucine would be a leucine auxotroph, and would be indicated as leu- (w/ a superscripth, though)

trait

A characteristic that an organism can pass on to its offspring through its genes.

Punnett Square

A chart that shows all the possible combinations of alleles that can result from a genetic cross

plaque

A clear area in a lawn of bacteria, represents an area where bacteria are lysing (dying) and usually caused by a lytic virus.

cyclic AMP (cAMP)

A compound formed from ATP that acts as a second messenger. second messenger of epi and glucagon phosphorylates enzymes to change activity

Codominance

A condition in which both alleles for a gene are fully expressed, but not blended blood type

Dynein

A contractile protein connecting microtubules in the '9+2- arrangement of cilia and eukaryotic flagella. The contraction of dynein produces the characteristic movement of these structures.

basal body

A eukaryotic cell organelle consisting of a 9 + 0 arrangement of microtubule triplets; may organize the microtubule assembly of a cilium or flagellum; structurally identical to a centriole. cilia and flagella are anchored by this

binary fusion

A form of asexual reproduction in which one cell divides to form two identical cells. (Bacteria reproduction)

polarity

A lack of electrical symmetry in a molecule. Charge differences on opposite ends of a structure. (lipids)

Flagellum

A long, hairlike structure that grows out of a cell and enables the cell to move.

Flagella

A long, whip-like filament that helps in cell motility. Many bacteria have this

semipermeable membrane

A membrane that allows some molecules to pass through but does not allow other molecules to pass through.

antiport

A membrane transport process that carries one substance in one direction and another in the opposite direction.

symport

A membrane transport process that carries two substances in the same direction across the membrane.

ligand

A molecule that binds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule.

Cytoskeleton

A network of fibers that holds the cell together, helps the cell to keep its shape, and aids in movement

incomplete dominance

A pattern of inheritance in which two alleles, inherited from the parents, are neither dominant nor recessive. a phenotype that is a blending of the parental traits. Pink flowers (Red and White genes)

prophage

A phage genome that has been inserted into a specific site on the bacterial chromosome. Genes are silent and not expressed.

Karotype

A picture of all the chromosomes in a cell arranged in pairs

Viroid

A plant pathogen composed of molecules of naked, circular RNA several hundred nucleotides long.

gram staining

A process by which components of bacterial cell walls are bound to Gram's stain. Depending on the amount of peptidoglycan in their cell walls, bacteria stain differently and are classified as Gram-negative or Gram-positive.

natural selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

Autophagy

A process in which lysosomes decompose damaged organelles to reuse their organic monomers

gated channels

A protein channel in a cell membrane that opens or closes in response to a particular stimulus.

signal recognition particle (SRP)

A protein-RNA complex that recognizes a signal peptide as it emerges from a ribosome and helps direct the ribosome to the ER by binding to a receptor protein on the ER. Translation then pushes the protein into the ER lumen

aster

A radial array of short microtubules that extends from each centrosome toward the plasma membrane in an animal cell undergoing mitosis.

Nucleolus

A region within the nucleus where rRNA is transcribed by RNA pol I and ribosomes are partially assembled. no membrane separating from nucleus

prezygotic barriers

A reproductive barrier that impedes mating between species or hinders fertilization if interspecific mating is attempted Ex. Ecological (diff habitats), Temporal (mate at different times), Behavioral (courtship), Mechanical (structure of genital organs), Gametic (sperm cannot fertilize egg)

gene

A segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a specific trait

nuclear localization sequence

A sequence of amino acids (usually basic) that directs a protein to the nuclear envelope, where it is imported by a specific transport mechanism. (RNA)

signal transduction

A series of molecular changes that converts a signal on a target cell's surface to a specific response inside the cell.

lag phase

A short period of time **prior to exponential growth of a bacterial population during which no, or very limited, cell division occurs.

G-protein-linked receptor

A signal receptor protein in the plasma membrane that responds to the binding signal molecule (first messenger) by activating a G protein. (secondary messenger)

voltage-gated ion channels

A specialized ion channel that opens or closes in response to changes in membrane potential

kinetochore

A specialized region on the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle.

nonelectrolyte

A substance that dissolves in water to give a solution that does not conduct an electric current, does not dissociate, covalent compounds

Electrolyte

A substance that is dissolved in solution and some of its molecules split or dissociate into electrically charged atoms or ions (salts)

endospores

A thick-walled protective spore that forms inside a bacterial cell and resists harsh conditions. (gram positive bacteria, and can only produce 1 per cell)

Organelle

A tiny cell structure that carries out a specific function within the cell

endotoxins

A toxic component of the outer membrane of certain gram-negative bacteria that is released only when the bacteria die. Can cause our immune system to have an extreme reaction

Pinocytosis

A type of endocytosis in which the cell ingests extracellular fluid and small molecules

Prokaryote

A unicellular organism that lacks a nucleus and membrane bound organelles

Bacteriophage

A virus that infects bacteria

synaptonemal complex

A zipper-like protein structure that causes replicated homologs to become physically connected during prophase of meiosis I; sets the stage for crossing over.

fitness

Ability of an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment

primary active transport

Active transport that relies directly on the hydrolysis of ATP.

Haploid

After meiosis 1, cells are now

dominant

An allele that is always expressed

recessive

An allele that is masked when a dominant allele is present

Allele

An alternative form of a gene.

mitotic spindle

An assemblage of microtubules and associated proteins that is involved in the movements of chromosomes during mitosis. whole assembly of microtubules

resting membrane potential

An electrical potential established across the plasma membrane of all cells by the Na+/K+ ATPase and the K+ leak channels. IN most cells, the resting membrane potential is approximately -70 mV with respect to the outside of the cell.

Catalase

An enzyme produced in all cells to decompose hydrogen peroxide, a by-product of cell respiration

Nondisjunction

An error in meiosis or mitosis in which members of a pair of homologous chromosomes or a pair of sister chromatids fail to separate properly from each other.

starting amount of bacteria x 2^(number of divisions)

Bacteria division calculation

asexual reproduction

Bacteria reproduction

gram positive bacteria

Bacteria that have a thick peptido glycan cell wall, and no outer membrane. They stain very darkly (purple) in Gram stain.

Gram-negative bacteria

Bacteria that have complex cell walls with less peptidoglycan but with lipopolysaccharides. Very toxic and hard to treat.

postzygotic barriers

Barriers that prevent the hybrid zygote from becoming a fertile adult.

1111 1 dom/dom 1 dom/rec 1 rec/dom 1 rec/rec

BbSs x bbss ratios

change in boiling temp = kb * i * m i= vant Hoff m= mole concentration of the solution

Boiling point elevation equation

interphase (G1, S, G2), mitosis, cytokinesis

Cell cycle phases

Meiosis

Cell division that produces reproductive cells in sexually reproducing organisms

chemotaxis

Cell movement that occurs in response to chemical stimulus, bacterial cells can move toward or away from chemicals by chemoreceptors that bind attractants or repellants

homologous chromosomes

Chromosomes that have the same sequence of genes and the same structure before replication, one from mom one from dad

homologous chromosomes

Chromosomes that have the same sequence of genes, that have the same structure, and that pair during meiosis. (one from mom one from dad) Genes differ in DNA sequence

gene pool

Combined genetic information of all the members of a particular population

Peroxisomes

Contain oxidase enzymes that detoxify alcohol and other harmful chemicals, produce hydrogen peroxide, lipid breakdown, catalase

adenylyl cyclase

Converts ATP to cyclic AMP in response to an extracellular signal activates cAMP-dependent protein kinases

Viral genome

DNA or RNA, single or double stranded, or linear or circular but can only contain one type of nucleic acid in its genome

secondary active transport

Form of active transport which does not use ATP as an energy source; rather, transport is coupled to ion diffusion down a concentration gradient established by primary active transport.

directional selection

Form of natural selection in which the entire curve moves; occurs when individuals at one end of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals in the middle or at the other end of the curve

change in freezing temp = -kf * i * m i= vant Hoff m= mole concentration of the solution kf= constant

Freezing point depression equation 1 kg of H2O with 1 mole glucose= 1.9 1 kg of H2O with 1 mole NaCl= 3.8

modification of proteins made in RER, sorting and sending proteins, synthesizes certain macromolecules like polysaccharides

Golgi functions

mutation, migration, genetic drift, natural selection, non random mating

HW conditions

Cilia

Hairlike projections that extend from the plasma membrane and are used for locomotion

p + q = 1

Hardy Weinberg Formula for allele frequency

Hypotonic

Having a lower concentration of solute than another solution

K

Higher concentration inside of cell because of Na/K pump

Na and Cl

Higher concentration outside of cell because of Na/K pump

46 chromosomes, 23 pairs

How many chromosomes do humans have?

23 pairs

How many pairs of chromosomes do humans have?

mutation, heritable, consumption of infected tissues

How we get bad prions

artificial selection

Humans have modified other species over many generations by selecting and breeding individuals that possess desired traits

osmotic pressure equation

II=iMRT i: # of particles in solution M: molarity R: gas constant T: tempt in Kelvins

sister chromatids

Identical copies of a chromosome; full sets of these are created during the S subphase of interphase.

The genes are linked

If expected F2 ratio of 9331 is not that ratio, maybe if they are 11:1:1:3 instead

Temperature

Molality is useful when measuring properties that involve

active transport

Movement of molecules through the plasma membrane (typically opposite the dictates of osmosis or diffusion) aided by a process that requires energy. (against the gradient)

kin selection

Natural selection that favors altruistic behaviors by enhancing reproductive success of relatives.

frequency of recombination

Number of recombinant phenotypes resulting from a cross divided by the total number of progeny.

F2 generation

Offspring resulting from interbreeding of the hybrid F1 generation (F1 x F1)

Chemotrophs

Organisms that get energy from chemicals taken from the environment

capsid

Outer protein coat of a virus

metaphase 1

Paired homologous chromosomes line up across the center of the cell (meiosis)

metaphase plate

Plane midway between the two poles of the cell where chromosomes line up during metaphase.

ER lumen

The area enclosed by the ER membrane.

cleavage furrow

The area of the cell membrane that pinches in and eventually separates the dividing cell

linkage

The failure of two separate genes follow Law of Independent Assortment, as might occur if the genes were found close together on the same chromosome. failure of genes to display independent assortment

meiosis I

The first division of a two-stage process of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms that results in cells with half the number of chromosome sets as the original cell.

G1 phase

The first gap, or growth phase, of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase before DNA synthesis begins.

penetration or eclipse

The injection of viral genome into a host cell, capsid remains on the cell surface

matrix

The interior of a mitochondrion (the region bounded by the inner membrane), the site of action of pyruvate dehydroganse complex and the Krebs cycle, location of e- transport chain and ATP sythase

carrying capacity

The largest population that an area can support

periplasmic space

The space between the inner and outer cell membranes in Gram-negative bactera. The peptidoglycan cell wall is found in the space, and this space sometimes contains enzymes to degrade antibiotics.

bivalent

The structure formed by the pair of homologous chromosomes during crossing over. Also called a tetrad because it consists of four chromatids.

S phase

The synthesis phase of the cell cycle; the portion of interphase during which DNA is replicated.

binomial classification

The system of naming an organism using two terms, the first "genus" and the second "species".

transduction, transformation, conjugation

The three modes of gene transfer between bacteria are ________________, which is transfer via a virus; ________________, which is the uptake of DNA from the surrounding environment; and ________________, which is bacterial "mating."

p53

This tumor suppressor gene causes cell cycle arrest in G1, providing time for DNA repair. If repair is successful, cells re-enter the cycle. If unsuccessful, apoptosis

gag (viral capsid proteins), pol (reverse transcriptase), env (envelope proteins)

Three main retroviral genes

Ventral

Toward the belly

sex-linked traits

Traits controlled by genes located on sex chromosomes.

mitochondrial traits

Traits inherited from the mitochondrial genome (only from mother), example of hemizygosity, only one allele to keep track of in an individual (one copy of the chromosome, as in male sex-linked genes)

protein

Viruses can encode more than one __________ in its given length of genome. (more than 1 reading frame)

alpha and beta tubulin

What are microtubules composed of?

Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya

What are the three domains?

p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 p^2 is GG genotype 2pq is Gg genotype q^2 is gg genotype

What is the Hardy-Weinberg equation for genotype frequency?

Molality= moles of solute/kg of solvent

What is the formula for molality (m)?

Molarity= moles of solute/liters of solution

What is the formula for molarity?

spermatogonia and oogonia

What two types of cells undergo meiosis?

Pleiotropism

When one gene expression alters many, seemingly unrelated aspects of the phenotype

retrograde traffic

When proteins that are supposed to stay in the RER accidentally escape and must be returned from the Golgi Apparatus.

capsid head

Where the viral genome is located

Animalia Kingdom

Which kingdom is multicellular, heterotrophs, lack cell walls, and consist of humans?

show father to son transmission

Y linked disorders show (pedigree)

heterochromatin vs. euchromatin

____________________________ = Highly Condensed (transcriptionally inactive) ____________________________ = less condensed, transcriptionally active ("truly transcribed")

related to nutrients

_________troph means what

lysogen

a bacterium that carries phage DNA (a prophage) integrated into its genome

Hfr (high frequency of recombination) cell

a cell with the F factor integrated into its genome (still performs conjugation)

1. Virus attaches to host cell and inserts genetic material into cell. 2. Genetic material is copied into the host cell's own chromosome. 3. Every time the cell divides the viral genes divide too 4. A trigger from the environment could causes the viral genes to begin a different cycle (lytic cycle)

lysogenic cycle steps (phages)

crinophagy

lysosomal digestion of excess secretory products

capases

main proteases that carry out apoptosis

Na/K ATPase (Primary active transport)

maintains osmotic balance establishes electric gradient sets up Na gradient for secondary active transport

abiotic synthesis

making compounds using non-living molecules

cross

mating of two organisms

lysosome

membrane bound organelle responsible for degradation of biological macromolecules through hydrolysis

peroxisomes, 1

metabolize lipids and toxins using H2O2 (How many membranes)

muscle contraction pseudoped formation cytokinesis

microfilament uses

actin

microfilaments are made of what

mitotic spindle intracellular transport cillia and flagella

microtubule uses

genome

mitochondria posses their own

PMAT (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase)

mitosis

fluid mosaic model

model that describes the arrangement and movement of the molecules that make up a cell membrane

Mesophiles

moderate temperature loving microbes, 30 degrees

Golgi, 1

modification and sorting of protein, some synthesis (How many membranes)

mole fraction= Xs= # moles/total moles in solution

mole fraction

facilitated diffusion

movement of solute across membrane, down a gradient, when the membrane itself is impermeable to that solute. Integral proteins allow material to cross down the gradient HYDROPHILIC molecules h2o, glucose, aa, ions

polyhedral capsid

multiple-sided geometric figures with regular surfaces

enveloped

some __________ viruses fuse their ___________ with the hosts plasma membrane which leaves a de-______________ capsid inside the host cell

intermembrane space of mitochondria

space between the inner and outer membrane of the mitochondria,

osmosis

special type of diffusion in which solvent diffuses rather than solute (solvent moves toward equil)

microspheres

spherical in shape and are composed of many protein molecules that are organized as a membrane

spirochetes or spirilla

spiral shaped bacteria

in the nucleus

splicing occurs where

theory of evolution by natural selection

states that organisms that are better suited for their environments will survive and reproduce compared to those that are poorly suited for their environments

polyribosome

string of ribosomes simultaneously translating regions of the same mRNA strand during protein synthesis

conjugation bridge

structure formed between two bacterial cells that allow for the transfer of genetic material made from appendages called sex pili from donor male

analogous structures

structures that do not have a common evolutionary origin but are similar in function

kingdoms

subdivision of the 3 domains

ribosomes, 0

synthesize proteins (How many membranes)

Diffusion

tendency for liquids and gases to fully occupy the available volume high to low conc, solute moves toward equil

Tonicity

the ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water

doubling time

the amount of time required for a population of bacteria to double in size

basolateral membrane

the cell membrane that faces away from the lumen of the GI tract and toward the submucosa

boiling point elevation

the difference in temperature between the boiling point of a solution and the boiling point of the pure solvent solutions with solute have high boiling point (need more energy)

freezing point depression

the difference in temperature between the freezing point of a solution and the freezing point of the pure solvent solutions with solute have lower ________________

F1 generation

the first generation of offspring obtained from an experimental cross of two organisms

Cladogenesis

the formation of a new group of organisms or higher taxon by evolutionary divergence from an ancestral form.

speciation

the formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution.