Unit 1: Introducing the Science of Psychology
status quo vs. change
When do people want to be stuck in a routine and when do they want to be more adventurous.
Educational Psychologists
interested in the psychological processes involved in learning. They study the relationship between learning and the physical and social environments, and they develop strategies for enhancing the learning process.
Neuropsychologists
investigate the relationship between neurological processes and behavior. As a neuropsychologist you might assess, diagnose, or treat central nervous system disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease or stroke.
positive skew
Positive (right) - just a very few high scores -Elongated tail at the right -MEAN IS GREATER THAN MEDIAN -high outlier drags the mean up but does not affect the median of low scores.
Carney Landis
Preformed many tasks on a person, some bad and some good. At the end he made sure to debrief him. At first volunteers were asked to complete some rather harmless tasks: they had to listen to jazz music, smell ammonia, read a passage from the Bible, tell a lie. But the results were quite discouraging, so Landis decided it was time to raise the stakes. He began to show his subjects pornographic images. Then some medical photos of people with horrendous skin conditions. Then he tried firing a gunshot to capture on film the exact moment of their fright. Still, Landis was having a hard time getting the expressions he wanted, and in all probability he began to feel frustrated. And here his experiment took a dark turn. He invited his subjects to stick their hand in a bucket, without looking. The bucket was full of live frogs. Click, went his camera. The experiment reached its climax when Landis put a live mouse in the subject's left hand, and a knife in the other. He flatly ordered to decapitate the mouse.
PsyETA
Psychologists for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Believe in making sure animals are treated well when being used for experiments.
Interval Scale
Scale with equal distance between values, but without a true zero. 0 does not mean an absence of what you are measuring. Ex: temperature, 0 does not mean no temperature, just that it is cold.
Confirmation/Researcher Bias
Tendency to remember only the examples that support what we already believe is true.
Independent Variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
Dependent Variable
The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
Debriefing
The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants. (tell subjects exactly what happened)
(p) < .05
The probability is less than 5% that an observed difference might have happened by chance. .05 value generally accepted (1 in 20 due to chance) To reduce p value, have more participants. (1000 participants will have lower p value than 6) if p = 0.2 that means its 20% due to change. This is NOT good.
Generalizability
When can we generalize about a population based on the results from our sample? 1. sample is a REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE 2. THE LESS VARIATION in the data, the more reliable (if variability is high in the distribution, the mean becomes less meaningful) (More examples the better!)
Difference Within vs. Between
You want a lot of variance between the control and experimental group, so you want them to vary widely. But within the experimental group, you don't want a lot of variance. (small standard deviation)
Standard Deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score It better gauges whether scores are packed together or dispersed.
Frequency distribution
a count of the number of scores that fall within each of a series of intervals Frequency histogram (bar graph) and frequency polygraph (line) The x-axis is the independent variable and the y-axis is always frequency occurring.
bimodal distribution
a distribution with two modes
Experimental Psychologists
a diverse group of scientists who investigate a variety of basic behavioral processes in humans and other animals. Most experimental psychologists identify with a particular sub-field, such as cognitive psychology, depending on their interests and training.
Confounding Variable
a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment. You do not want a confounding variable. It can mess with the results of your experiment. An example of a confounding variable is the time of day the people in a study took the test.
Scatterplots
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).
Ratio Scale
a quantitative scale of measurement in which the numerals have equal intervals and the value of zero truly means "nothing" Scale with equal distance but WITH a true zero. Ex: inches of rain fall.
Nominal Scale
a scale in which objects or individuals are assigned to categories that have no numerical properties. Set of categories for classifying. No ranking. Ex: Finding how many different car brands there are in the parking lot.
Ordinal Scale
a scale of measurement in which the measurement categories form a rank order along a continuum Scale that indicates relative position; ranks data. But you cannot tell how far apart different rankings are. Ex: Class rank, you do not know the difference in GPA between each student.
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1) Expressed with "r"
double-blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies. In such studies, researchers can check a treatment's actual effects apart from a participant's belief in its healing powers and the staff's enthusiasm for its potential. When in doubt, use a double-blind procedure. If fewer people know what's going on, the less bias there will be.
Gestalt Perspective
an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. How people PERCEIVE certain things in their life. -primarily concerned with perception -whole is greater than the sum of their parts -(thing in your life may not be as they seem.)
Random Assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.
3 research methods
descriptive, correlational, experimental
Placebo Effect
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
Levels of Analysis
"The differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon." Such perspectives are complementary because "everything is related to everything else."
Subjects
(participants) Individuals whose reactions or responses are observed in an experiment -sample: all participants in an experiment -random sample: all potential participants have an equal chance of being selected to be part of the experiment. Confederates: actors in an experiment who pretend to be participants but are actually working for the experimenter.
What groups set the standards for ethics?
1. APA (if you want to do a case study you must send it to the APA to be approved of ethics) 2. PsyETA 3. Human Subject Review Board/ Ethics Committee
What are the must haves when deciding if an experiment is ethical?
1. informed consent 2. Confidentiality 3. Justified use of deception 4. Protection from harm/discomfort (mental and physical) 5. Debriefing
M.D.
8 years in medical school. This is required to prescribe medicine and necessary to be a psychiatrist. Psychiatrists have an M.D. and can prescribe medicine. Psychologists do not have and M.D. and cannot prescribe medicine.
Statistics
A branch of mathematics used to organize and analyze data. It is necessary to use statistics to understand what results actually MEAN. If they mean anything at all. Be skeptical of sweeping generalizations. If someone says "Males are better at math and science than females," how was this measured?
Placebo
A harmless pill, medicine, or procedure prescribed more for the psychological benefit to the patient than for any physiological effect. Placebo benefits: 1. Reduces demand characteristics: when subjects become aware of what's going on in an experiment. Like they know the hypothesis or if they are in the control group or not. 2. Reduces chance of confounding variable.
Correlation
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. A correlation is positive if two sets of scores, such as height and weight, tend to rise or fall together. Saying that a correlation is negative says nothing about its strength or weakness. A correlation is negative if two sets of scores relate inversely (Toothbrushing and decay). pos=pos slope neg=neg slope
Curiosity
A passion to explore and understand without misleading or being misled.
Experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process. By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors. Unlike correlational studies, which uncover naturally occurring relationships, an experiment manipulates a factor to determine its effect. -Experimenter manipulates selected variables and then measures the effect(s) of those manipulations -only research method in psychology that can establish causation!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! (can say "because...") -results generalizable to outside the lab? -ethic control which variables can be manipulated (Ethics review board, all experiments in summer study would be unethical now.) -only method that allows you to do all 4. -usually done in a lab setting to establish control.
Correlational Methods
A research method that examines how variables are naturally related in the real world. The researcher makes no attempt to alter the variables or assign causation between them. Goal: To identify a relationship between 2 factors. Correlation does NOT prove causation (cannot say "because...") Allows you to describe and predict
Normal Curve
A symmetrical, bell-shape that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes. !MEAN=MEDIAN=MODE
Hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory. By enabling us to test and to reject or revise the theory, such predictions give direction to research.
68%
A useful property of the normal curve is that roughly 68% of the cases fall within one standard deviation on either side of the mean. -95% fall between two standard deviations from the mean -99% fall between three standard deviations from the mean ONLY IN NORMAL CURVE
APA
American Psychological Association
Informed Consent
An ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate. The APA ethics code urges researchers to (1) obtain potential participants' informed consent, (2) protect them from harm and discomfort, (3) keep information about individual participants confidential, and (4) fully DEBRIEF people (must know a little bit of what they are doing before the experiment and consent to the experiment.)
Humanistic founder(s)
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow (mid 1900s)
Stanley Milgram
Conducted "shocking" experiments on obedience. In his experiment, people thought they were shocking someone (not actually being shocked just tape recorder). He even led some people to think they killed someone. Evidence of blind obedience and caused mental discomfort.
Rosalie Rayner
Conducted groundbreaking research with Watson. The first female to have NAME ATTACHED to an important experiment. LITTLE ALBERT CASE (W/ WATSON)
Correlation vs Causation
Correlations help us predict. A nearly irresistible thinking error is assuming that an association, sometimes presented as a correlation coefficient, proves causation. But no matter how strong the relationship, it does not prove anything! Correlation indicates the possibility of a cause-effect relationship, but it does not prove causation. Knowing that two events are associated need not tell us anything about causation.
On the Origin of Species (1859)
Darwin's 1859 "On the Origin of Species" explained the diversity of life by proposing the evolutionary process of natural selection.
neuroscience perspective (Biological/Physiological Perspective)
how the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences Studying the brain. The brain dictates everything about a person's behavior and thoughts. Q: How are messages transmitted within the body?
Social Psychologists
interested in our interactions with others; study how our beliefs, feelings, and behaviors are affected by and influence other people
School Psychologists
involved in the assessment of and intervention for children in educational settings. They diagnose and treat cognitive, social, and emotional problems that may negatively influence children's learning or overall functioning at school
Measures of Central Tendecy
mean, median, mode: A single score that represents a whole set of scores.
What are the scales of measurement?
nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio
naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. Like the case study and survey method, naturalistic observation does not explain behavior, it describes it. Naturalistic observation offers interesting snapshots of everyday life, but it does so without controlling for all the factors that may influence behavior. -Hawthorne effect minimized: when ppl know they are being watched, they act different -Observer bias: Don't only observe specific things -interobserver reliability: to minimize observer bias, get lots of obervers -hard to control
clinical psychologists
promote psychological health in individuals, groups, and organizations. Some clinical psychologists specialize in specific psychological disorders. Others treat a range of disorders, from adjustment difficulties to severe psychopathology. "A clinical psychologist is a mental health professional with highly specialized training in the diagnosis and psychological treatment of mental, behavioral and emotional illnesses, including obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)."
Measures of Variation
range, standard deviation: Knowing the value of an appropriate measure of central tendency can tell us a great deal. But the single number omits other information. It helps to know the amount of variation in the data-- how similar or diverse the scores are. Averages derived from scores with low variability are more reliable than averages based on scores with high variability.
Replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances. If other researchers re-create a study with different participants and materials and get similar results, then our confidence in the finding's reliability grows.
Rehabilitation Psychologists
researchers and practitioners who work with people who have lost optimal functioning after an accident, illness, or other event "Rehabilitation psychology is the study and application of psychological principles on behalf of persons who have disability due to injury or illness. Rehabilitation psychologists, often within teams, assess and treat cognitive, emotional, and functional difficulties, and help people to overcome barriers to participation in life activities."
Sport Psychologists
study the psychological factors that influence, and are influenced by, participation in sports and other physical activities
Cognitive psychologists
study the way people think, remember, and mentally organize information
Mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
Gambler's fallacy
the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently. When an outcome occurs more frequently than normal in the short term, it will occur less frequently in the future. Ex: The roulette wheel landed on black 5 times in a row, its definitely going to red this time.
Person vs. Situation
the controversy concerning whether the person or the situation is more influential in determining a person's behavior. When are we always the same person and when do we act different in certain situations.
Range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution Does not tell you much info - just who did best and worst
statistically significant difference
the difference between two numbers is large enough that it is unlikely to be due to chance or sampling error (is the difference b/w the control and experimental group big enough?) -What is different between the experiences of the control and experimental groups? -What is the chance that the difference happened due to chance? -.05 value generally accepted -If it IS significant, how important is that difference (e.g. difference between IQ scores of first and later born children is significant, but due to its very small value, it is not important.
Reliability
the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting
Median
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
Mode
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
Illusory Correlation
the perception of a relationship where none exists When we believe there is a relationship between two things, we are likely to notice and recall instances that confirm our belief. When we notice random coincidences, we may forget that they are random and instead seem them as related. Thus, we can easily deceive ourselves by seeing what it not there. -brought on by confirmation bias: tendency to only remember examples that support what we believe to be true ex: "crime increases under a full moon" -third factor could be causal factor. (cases of polio and ice cream sales increase in summer, increase in heat could be responsible for both)
regression toward the mean
the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average. aka the tendency for unusual events to return to the mean (outlier scores usually return to normal) Ex: if you get a 90% first semester, and then the 1st test in the second semester you get a 13%. As the semester progresses you will probably go back towards your average of 90%.
Sigmund Freud
Developed an influential theory of personality
Explain
Give a detailed account including reasons or causes. Ex: Depression stems from....
Human Subjects Review Board/Ethics Committee
Have to have every part of an experiment cleared by this group
Experimental Group
In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
Control Group
In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
skewed distribution
Measures of central tendency neatly summarize data. But consider what happens to the mean when a distribution is lopsided or skewed. With income data, the mode, median, and mean often tell a very different story. This is because is mean is biased by a few extreme scores. Always note which measure of central tendency is reported. Then, if it is a mean, consider whether a few atypical score could be distorting it. -Frequency distribution is assymetrical -mean, median, and mode are different values
Deception
Must have justified use of deception, so you can only deceive people if you can justify it by saying its the only way to test hypothesis.
Confidentiality
Must keep experimental results confidential
negative skew
Negative (left) - just a very few low scores -Elongated tail at the left -MEDIAN IS GREATER THAN MEAN -low outlier drags the mean down, but does not affect the median
John B. Watson
ONE BEHAVIORISM FOUNDER From the 1920s into the 1960s, American psychologists, initially led by John B. Watson, dismissed the introspection and redefined psychology as "the scientific study of observable behavior." CONDUCTED BABY ALBERT EXPERIMENT. -The Little Albert experiment was a controlled experiment showing empirical evidence of classical conditioning in humans. The study also provides an example of stimulus generalization. It was carried out by John B. Watson and his graduate student, Rosalie Rayner, at Johns Hopkins University -The baby associated fear with a white rabbit (and all white fluffy animals) for the rest of his life -mental discomfort
Population
all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
Skepticism
"To believe with certainty," says a Polish proverb, "we must begin by doubting." As scientists, psychologists approach the world of behavior with a curious skepticism, persistently asking two questions: What do you mean? How do you know?
M.A.
Master of Arts - 2-3 years beyond B.A.
structuralism founder(s)
Titchener and Wundt (lates 1800s)
Gestalt founder(s)
Max Wertheimer and Fritz Perls (mid 1900s)
Psi Chi
Psi Chi, founded in 1929, is the international honor society in psychology. Psi Chi is one of the largest honor societies in the United States, having more than 1,150 chapters. Psi Chi has inducted more than 750,000 lifetime members from chapters in the United States, Canada, and multiple other countries.
Scientific Method
Psychological science evaluates competing ideas with careful observation and rigorous analysis. If a theory works-- if the data support its prediction-- so much the better for that theory. If the predictions fail, the theory will be revised or rejected. 1. generate a question 2. Formulate a theory 3. Develop a hypothesis 4. Test hypothesis (operational definitions and clear and concise) 5. Replication of results (2 possibilities) QUESTION - THEORY - HYPOTHESIS - TEST - REPLICATION
Research vs. Applied Psychology
Research builds psychology's knowledge base, whereas applied psychology tackle practical problems. Research ex: exploring the links between the brain and the mind. Investigating our persistent traits. Applied ex: using psychology's concepts in the workplace to help organizations and companies select and train employees, boost morale, design products, and implement systems.
Operational Definitions
a statement of the procedures used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. Specific details in procedure of experiment so someone can replicate. Ex: How much of drug, what time, etc (all exact details)
B.A.
Bachelor of Arts - 4 years (undergraduate)
Wilhelm Wundt
(1879) Created psychology's first experiment to measure "atoms of the mind"-- the fastest and simplest mental processes. This launched the first psychological laboratory, staffed by Wundt and psychology's first graduate students. -First psychology lab - credited as first psychologist -First because he STUDIED MINDS and not medical conditions (the only thing they did before) -Examined introspection (analysis of one's own conscious state)
E.B. Titchener
(1892) One of Wundt's students. He joined the Cornell University faculty and introduced STRUCTURALISM.
Aristotle
(1st person) 300 BC: Greek philosopher Aristotle theorized about learning and memory, motivation and emotion, perception and personality. Today, we may laugh at some of his guesses, but we credit him for asking the right questions. On Nature vs Nurture issue: countered Plato's idea and believed that there is nothing in the mind that does not first come in from the external world through the senses.
Goals of Psychology
1. Describe 2. Explain 3. Predict 4. Control (You do not have to go through all 4 levels unless you want to do an experiment. Ex: 1. Describe: 6.7% of ppl have depression 2. Explain: Depression stems from.... 3. Predict: I predict that prescribing SSRI will help improve treatment 4. Control: I devise an experiment that requires the control of all variables.
Functionalism
A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish. As a functionalist, James encouraged explorations of down-to-earth emotions, memories, willpower, habits, and moment-to-moment streams of consciousness. Whats the purpose of people thinking certain thoughts. [refers to a psychological philosophy that considers mental life and behaviour in terms of active adaptation to the person's environment.[1] As such, it provides the general basis for developing psychological theories not readily testable by controlled experiments or applied psychology. Functionalism arose in the U.S. in the late 19th century as an alternative to structuralism While functionalism never became a formal school, it built on structuralism's concern for the anatomy of the mind and led to greater concern over the functions of the mind, and later to behaviourism] -William James -Darwin's influence -Conscious experience is adaptive -stream of consciousness -purpose of consciousness
Mary Whiton Calkins
Admitted by William James into his graduate seminar. When Calkins joined, the other student dropped out, so James tutored her alone. She finished all her requirements for a Harvard PhD, but Harvard denied her the degree she ahd earned, and offered her a degre from Radcliffe College, its undergraduate sister school for women. She refused the degree. She went on to become a distinguished memory researcher and the American Psychological Association's first female president in 1905. 1ST FEMALE PRESIDENT OF APA (1905)
Structuralism
An early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the mind. (As introspection waned, so did structuralism.) Thoughts are generized by different structures in the brain (ex: emotions, sensations, memories, etc.) [the methodology that implies elements of human culture must be understood by way of their relationship to a broader, overarching system or structure. It works to uncover the structures that underlie all the things that humans do, think, perceive, and feel. ] -E.B. Titchener -introspection -Breaks down basic elements of consciousness, immediate sensations, past memories, feelings -mostly observations
Mind vs. Body
Are the mind and body separate and distinct or is the mind simply the brain's subjective experience? It questions if the mind or body is in charge. What role does mind or body play in certain behaviors. Ex: If a person is in a bad mood, then they get clinical depression, and then they actually get a real illness. Which led them to get the illness the mind or the body?
Ph.D.
Doctorate of Philosophy - 6 years beyond B.A.
natural selection
From among chance variations, nature selects the traits that best enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment. "The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations."
Describe
Give a detailed account - tell the facts details Ex: 6.7% of ppl have depression
Predict
Give an expected result. Ex: I predict that prescribing SSRI will help improve treatment
Charles Darwin
He pondered the incredible species variation he had encountered, including tortoises on one island that differed from those on another island. Argued that natural selection shapes behaviors as well as bodies.
Diversity
How are humans the same or different. When can we say "All humans are..."
behavior genetics perspective
How much our genes and our environment influence our individual differences How your genes shape your behavior. [a field of scientific research that uses genetic methods to investigate the nature and origins of individual differences in behaviour.] Q: To what extent are psychological traits such as intelligence, personality, sexual orientation, and vulnerability to depression attributes to out genes? to our environment?
Tabula Rasa
In Locke's philosophy, tabula rasa was the theory that at birth the (human) mind is a "blank slate" without rules for processing data, and that data is added and rules for processing are formed solely by one's sensory experiences.
Testing
In testing our theory, we should be aware that it can bias subjective observations. The urge to see what we expect is an ever-present temptation.
Principles of Psychology (1890)
James' influence reached even further through his dozens of well-received articles, which moved the publisher Henry Holt to offer a contract for a textbook of the new science of psychology. James agreed and began work in 1878. The text proved an unexpected chore and actually took him 12 years. More than a century later, people still read the resulting "Principles of Psychology" and marvel at the brilliance and elegance with which James introduced psychology to the educated public.
Cognitive founder(s)
Jean Piaget, Albert Ellis, Aaron Beck (mid 1900s)
Behavioral founder(s)
John Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner (1950s-1960s)
Plato
On Nature vs Nurture issue: Assumed that character and intelligence are largely inherited and that certain ideas are inborn.
John Locke
On Nature vs Nurture issue: He suggested that the mind is a blank sheet on which experience writes. John Locke introduced the concept of tabula rasa which is the belief that the mind is a 'blank slate' at birth and we are formed and develop from our own experiences with the environment.
Rene Descartes
On Nature vs Nurture issue: believed ideas are innate (inborn/natural). Two centuries later, his views gained support from a curious naturalist, Charles Darwin. MIND VS BODY ISSUE - In his works, he suggested that the human body operates like a machine (it has material properties); whereas, the mind (or soul) is non-material that does not follow the laws of nature. He proposed that the mind generally controls the body, but sometimes the body can also influence the mind when people act out of passion. This dual direction of control was termed dualism.
Ivan Pavlov
Pioneered the study of learning. ONE BEHAVIORIST FOUNDER Pavlov is best known for his classical conditioning study, also known as Pavlovian conditioning, as published in Conditioned Reflexes in 1926. He developed this theory with Ivan Filippovitch Tolochinov, his assistant, in 1901. They found that when a bell was closely associated with the delivery of food, a dog would begin to salivate when the bell was rung. The bell served as a conditioned stimulus, which elicits a conditioned reflex. Salivating in response to food alone, by contrast, is an unconditioned reflex to an unconditioned stimulus. The experiments that Pavlov conducted on the salivating dogs have become recognized throughout common culture with the term "Pavlov's Dogs." Pavlov's research into classical conditioning began to lay the foundation for the field of behaviorism and comparative psychology, and conditioning techniques are still used in behavior modification.
Descriptive Methods
Research methods whose main purpose is to provide objective and detailed descriptions of behavior and mental processes. The starting point of any science is description. Professional psychologists do much the same, though more objectively and systematically. CASE STUDY, NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION, SURVEY/QUESTIONAIRE
psychodynamic founder(s)
Sigmund Freud (late 1800s- early 1900s)
Nature vs. Nurture
The biggest and most persistent issue in psychology. "The Controversy over the relative contributions of biology and experience." Do our human traits develop through experience, or are we born with them? "The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture." Nurture works on what nature endows.
Jean Piaget
The last century's most influential observer of children. ONE FOUNDER OF COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE He is most famously known for his theory of cognitive development that looked at how children develop intellectually throughout the course of childhood. Prior to Piaget's theory, children were often thought of simply as mini-adults. Instead, Piaget suggested that the way children think is fundamentally different from the way that adults think.
critical thinking
Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
Introspection
Titchener aimed to discover the structural elements of the mind. His method was to engage people in self-reflective introspection (looking inward), training them to report elements of their experience as they looked at a rose, listened to a metranome, smelled a scent, etc. What were their immediate sensations, images, feelings? Introspection required smart, verbal people. It also proved to be somewhat unreliable, its results varying from person to person. Moreover, we often just don't know why we feel what we feel and do what we do.
Psychology
To encompass psychology's concern with observable behavior and with inner thoughts and feelings, today we define psychology as "the science of behavior and mental processes." It is a social science so it is understanding people in a scientific method. "Behavior" is how people act and is easier to observe. "Mental processes" are what people think. It is harder to observe because psychologists can't observe exactly what people are thinking.
biopsychosocial approach
Together, different levels of analysis form an integrated biopsychosocial approach, which considers the influences of biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors. "This integrated viewpoint incorporates various levels of analysis and offers a more complete picture of any given behavior or mental process." Like two-dimensional views of a three-dimensional object, each of psychology's perspectives is helpful. But each by itself fails to reveal the whole picture. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Behaviors and mental process influenced by: -Biological Factors (examines thoughts, feelings, and behaviors from a biological and thus physical point of view) -Psychological Factors (talk about the psychology of an individual that drive his actions to seek satisfaction.) -Social-Cultural Factors ( circumstances surrounding individuals and how their behaviors are affected specifically by their surrounding, social and cultural factors.) (Most psychologists do not fall into one school of thought. They take this approach)
Sq3r
a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review Countless experiment reveal that people learn and remember best when they put material in their own words, rehearse it, and then retrieve and review it again.
Margaret Floy Washburn
When Harvard denied Calkins the claim to be psychology's first female PhD, the honor fell to Margaret Floy Washburn, who later wrote the famous book "The Animal Mind," and became the second female APA president in 1921. Although Washburn's thesis was the first foreign study Wundt featured in his journal, her gender meant she was barred from joining the organization of experimental psychologists founded by Titchener, her own graduate adviser. 1ST WOMAN TO RECEIVE PHD IN PSYCHOLOGY (1894) ("wash me get this PhD")
functionalism founder(s)
William James (late 1800s-early 1900s)
William James
William James thought it would be useful to consider the evolved functions of our thoughts and feelings. Why does the nose smell and the brain think? Under the evolutionary theorist Charles Darwin, James assumed that thinking, like smelling, developed because it was adaptive-- it contributed to our ancestor's survival. James' greatest legacy came from his Harvard teaching and his writing. He admitted Mary Calkins into his graduate seminar.
Clinical Neuropsychologists
You might work in a hospital's neurology, neurosurgery, or psychiatric unit. Neuropsychologists also work in academic settings, where they conduct research and teach.
Random Sample
a sample in which every element in the population has an equal chance of being selected. For an accurate picture of a whole population's attitude and experience, there's only one game in town-- the representative sample. The best basis for generalizing is from a representative sample of cases.
Survey (descriptive)
a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group. But asking questions is tricky, and the answers often depend on the ways questions are worded and respondents are chosen. The best basis for generalizing is from a representative sample of cases. -lots of information - FAST! -population -random sample -stratified sample -wording The problem is lieing, and wording affects because people are not willing to admit something bad.
Humility
an awareness of our own vulnerability to error and an openness to surprises and new perspectives. In the last analysis, what matters is not my opinion or yours, but the truths nature reveals in response to our questioning. (its ok to be incorrect)
Theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events. By linking facts and bridging them to deeper principles, a theory offers a useful summary. As we connect the dots, a coherent picture emerges.
Case Study (descriptive)
an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles Case studies often suggest direction for further study, and they show us what can happen. But individual cases may mislead us if the individual being studied is atypical. Can lead to mistaken judgments and false conclusions. Individual cases can suggest fruitful ideas. What's true of us can be glimpsed in any one of us. But to discern the general truths that cover individual cases, we must answer questions with other research methods. -in-depth research -Can we generalize?
Forensic Psychologists
apply psychological principles to legal issues. They conduct research on the interface of law and psychology, help to create public policies related to mental health, help law-enforcement agencies in criminal investigations, or consult on jury selection and deliberation processes. "Forensic psychology, as defined by the American Psychological Association, is the application of clinical specialties to the legal arena. This definition emphasizes the application of clinical psychology to the forensic setting. "
Developmental Psychologists
conduct research on age-related behavioral changes and apply their scientific knowledge to educational, child-care, policy, and related settings
"Scientific Attitude"
curiosity, skepticism, humility (kinda includes empiricism) Historians of science tell us that these three attitudes helped make modern science possible.
Community Psychologists
deal with broad problems of metal health in community settings; believe behavior is influenced by the interaction of people and their physical, social, political, and economic environments "Community psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with person environment interactions and the ways society affects individual and community functioning. Community psychology focuses on social issues, social institutions, and other settings that influence individuals, groups, and organizations."
Psy.D.
doctorate in psychology - 6 years beyond B.A.
Counseling Psychologists
help people adapt to change or make changes in their lifestyle. Although similar to clinical psychologists, counseling psychologists typically help people with adjustment problems rather than sever psychopathology. "It focuses on how people function both personally and in their relationships at all ages. Counseling psychology addresses the emotional, social, work, school and physical health concerns people may have at different stages in their lives, focusing on typical life stresses and more severe issues with which people may struggle as individuals and as a part of families, groups and organizations."
Humanistic perspective
historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth Humans have the ability to grow (against Freud) -Importance of free will and acceptance [this approach emphasizes individuals' inherent drive towards self-actualization, the process of realizing and expressing one's own capabilities and creativity.]
social-cultural perspective
how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures What role does your environment play in dictating a person's thoughts and behaviors. [cultural factors such as language, art, social norms and social structures can play a significant role in the development of our cognitive abilities] Q: How are we humans alike as members of one human family? As products of different environmental contexts, how do we differ?
psychodynamic perspective (psychananalytic)
how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts. Some of the thoughts we have, we are unaware of (unconscious mind). [see human functioning based upon the interaction of drives and forces within the person, particularly unconscious, and between the different structures of the personality.] -role of unconscious -sex and aggression -importance of early childhood events -eventually became the psychodynamic school Q: How can someone's personality traits and disorders be explained in terms of sexual and aggressive drives or as the disguised effects of unfulfilled wishes and childhood traumas?
evolutionary perspective
how the natural selection of traits promotes the perpetuation of one's genes The way we act and think now is a product of our species' evolution. Q: How does evolution influence behavior tendencies?
cognitive perspective
how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information Studies human's thoughts and thought processes. -Thinking, memory, language, perception [A cognitive personality theory may explain individual differences in behavior with respect to differences in the way people think and process information.] Q: How do we use information in remembering? Reasoning? Solving problems?
Behavioral Perspective
how we learn observable responses The only thing we can study is observable, measurable behavior. [The researchers and scientists who study behavioral psychology are trying to understand why we behave the way we do and they are concerned with discovering patterns in our actions and behaviors.] Q: How do we learn to fear particular objects or situations?
Psychiatrists
medical doctors licensed to prescribe drugs and otherwise treat physical causes of psychological disorders
Health Psychologists
researchers and practitioners concerned with psychology's contribution to promoting health and preventing disease. They may help individuals lead healthier lives by designing, conducting, and evaluating programs to stop smoking, lose weight, improve sleep, etc.
Psychometric Psychologists
study the methods and techniques used to acquire psychological knowledge "According to AllPsychologyCareers.com, 'Psychometricians are concerned with the design and development of the tests, the procedures of testing, instruments for measuring data, and the methodology for understanding the results."'
I/O Psychologists (Industrial/Organizational)
study the relationship between people and their working environments. They may develop new ways to increase productivity, improve personnel selection, or promote job satisfaction in an organizational setting. Work in business or corporation to increase productivity of workers in that industry. Ex: They might distribute a survey and see that workers need comfier chairs to be more productive.
Control
the standard by which the test results can be compared Ex: I devise an experiment that requires the control of all variables.
Overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments. Once people know the answer to something, hindsight makes it seem obvious-- so much so that they become over confident. Hindsight bias and overconfidence often lead us to overestimate out intuition. But scientific inquiry can help us sift reality from illusion
Hindsight Bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (also known as the i-knew-it-all-along phenomenon) Finding that something has happened makes it seem inevitable. Such errors in our recollections and explanations show why we need psychological research. Just asking people how and why they felt or acted can sometimes be misleading-- not because common sense is usually wrong, but because common sense more easily describes what has happened than what will happen. Good ideas are like good inventions. Once created, they seem obvious.
Empiricism
the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation We use the empirical approach.
