Unit 2: Psych/Soc

role conflict vs. role strain vs. role exit

Role conflict: difficulty in satisfying the requirements or expectations of *multiple* roles ex: single mom who works a part time job Role strain: difficulty in satisfying multiple requirements of the *same* role ex: single mom who struggles to cook, clean, pick up the kids, etc. Role exit: dropping of one identity for another

What is the most common first-line treatment for depression?

SSRIs selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors ￫ block reuptake of serotonin by the presynaptic neuron = ↑ levels of serotonin in the synapse

Social norms of reciprocity

Social norms that help develop social trust. "I'll scratch your back if you scratch mine"

disorganized thought

Speech may be incoherent ("word salad"), tangential, or derailed ("loose associations").

SYMLOG

System for the Multiple-Level Observation of Groups a theory about member characteristics and effects on group interaction as well as a methodology that produces a three-dimensional "snapshot" of a group at a given point in time there are 3 fundamental dimensions of interaction: ① dominance vs. submission (↑ top vs. ↓ bottom) ② friendliness vs. unfriendliness (⟶ positive vs. ⟵negative) ③ instrumentally controlled vs. emotionally expressive OR nonacceptance vs. acceptance) (↗︎ forward vs. ↙︎ backward) (Bale)

teacher expectancy

Teachers treat students differently according to preconceived ideas about their capabilities. ￫ Influences students' achievements ￫ example of a self-fulfilling prophecy

la belle indifference

Term used to describe the lack of concern over physical illness (conversion disorder)

actor-observer bias vs fundamental attribution error

The FAE is strictly about attributions for *others'* behaviors, where we are biased toward making dispositional attributions vs. situational ex: "They are stupid losers." The actor-observer bias is about the relative *difference* in attributions about one's *own versus others'* behaviors ex: "I am a victim, but they brought it upon themselves."

acculturation

The adoption of cultural traits, such as language, by one group under the influence of another.

characteristic institution

The basic organization of society ￫ in prehistoric times: the kin, clan, or sib ￫ in modern times, particularly in the West with cities now as urban centers of trade & commerce: the bureaucracy

What is the relationship between p-values and H₀?

The p-value evaluates how well the sample data support the devil's advocate argument that the null hypothesis is true. How likely is the effect observed in your sample data if the null hypothesis is true? (random chance) ￫ High P values: your data are likely with a true null (big chance that the difference observed was a random fluke and there is no actual difference) ￫ Low P values: your data are unlikely with a true null. (it would be hard to get this data if no real difference existed). A low P value suggests that your sample provides enough evidence that you can reject the null hypothesis for the entire population. ❗️It does *NOT* measure support for the alternative hypothesis

circumstantial speech

The person will eventually answer a question, but in a markedly roundabout manner.

Positive Predictive Value (PPV)

The probability that the patient with a positive test result actually has the condition

p value

The probability that the test statistic (x̅) was obtained by random chance (assuming H₀ is true). always a # between 0 and 1. We compare our p-value to some significance level (α), with 0.05 usually being appropriate. If it's very low, then it's very UNLIKELY that the test statistic was random, and it's VERY LIKELY that the H₀ is FALSE If it's > 0.05, then it's likely that the test statistic was a random fluke, and it's unlikely that the H₀ was wrong.

evangelization

The proclamation of the Good News of Jesus Christ through words and witness.

Negative predictive value (NPV)

The proportion of patients/clients with a negative test result who do not have the condition of interest. ❗️NPV depends on prevalence!

active phase of schizophrenia

The stage of schizophrenia during which one or more psychotic symptoms, such as delusions or hallucinations, appear. can be brought on by psychological stressors

self-enhancement bias

The tendency to overestimate our performance and capabilities and to see ourselves in a more positive light than others see us.

echolalia

The uncontrollable and immediate repetition of words and utterances spoken by another person (schizophrenia)

Michaelangelo phenomenon

"A sculptor simply releases and uncovers the ideal figures that are hidden within stone." - Michaelangelo Since the concept of *self* is made up of both the *intra*personal self and the *inter*personal self, the *ideal self* can thus be "sculpted" with help from others.

Criteria for Major Depressive Disorder

"SIG E CAPS" (5/9) *Sadness* + -Sleep Disturbances (insomnia or Hyper) -Interest (loss of interest/Anhedonia) -Guilt or Feelings of worthlessness -Energy loss -Concentration problems -Appetite/Weight Changes -Psychomotor Retardation/Agitation -Suicidal Ideation - MUST include either depressed mood or anhedonia - MUST Last > 2 weeks - MUST cause significant distress or impairment in functioning *no manic or hypomanic episodes*

stage 4 population pyramid

"contracting"

stage 5 population pyramid

"declining" pyramid is top heavy because people are living longer but the bottom is contracting because birth rates are extremely low

urbanization

"dense areas of population creating a pull for migration" ⟶ cities are formed as individuals move into and establish residency in these new urban centers

paternalism (medicine)

"doctor knows best" mentality

Stage 2 of demographic transition

"early expanding" developing country Mortality rates drop due to improvements in healthcare, nutrition, sanitation, and wages fertility rates remain high. There is a rapid increase in population, particularly among the younger age groups

mere exposure effect

"familiarity effect" the tendency for liking to increase with the frequency of exposure in general, people prefer stimuli that they have been exposed to more frequently ✷ often used in marketing

proletariat

"have-nots" or working class

Stage 1 of demographic transition

"high stationary" preindustrial society both birth and death rates are high

Stage 3 of demographic transition

"late expanding" birth rates decline due to improvements in contraception, women's rights, and a shift from agricultural to industrial economy. Also now, it takes more for a kid to leave the house (school, etc.) so they stay w/ parents longer death rates continue to decline but slower natural increase rates begin to moderate (high growth, but less than in stage 2)

Stage 4 of demographic transition

"low stationary" - developed country both birth rates and mortality rates are low slow but *stable* population growth

"I" and "me" theory of the self

"me" is the socialized aspect of the person and how the *generalized other* sees us "I" is the *active* aspect of the person. The "I" is the *response* of the individual to the attitude of the community and acts creatively, though within the context of the "me". It thinks about what all the stuff the "me" deals with actually means. ✷You need both to have a personality/self but not always in equal amounts (it's dynamic and depends on the situation) ex: the "me" observes that people in the U.S. typically go from high school to college. The "I" might wonder if this is really best...? Should they travel/work first? these form during the *game stage* "me" matches with Freud's "censor" and "I" matches with Freud's "ego" (George Mead) ✷✷✷(symbolic interactionism)✷✷✷

Emile Durkheim on religion

"sacred and profane" People conform to the rules of their religion and in effect yield to the moral authority of society. Religion is a collective act. Religion perpetuates social unity by strengthening the collective conscience. (Functionalism)

stage 5 demographic transition

"speculative" birth rate << death rate though life expectancy is high, not enough new births to cause + population growth First case of negative population growth: birth rates are now *very* low and cannot replace the people that are dying to keep a positive growth trend causes vary by specific country (Japan, Russia, etc.) describes a "Malthusian scenario"

cluster A personality disorders

"weird" - odd or eccentric

cluster B personality disorders

"wild" - dramatic, emotional, or erratic

Cluster C personality disorders

"worried" - anxious or fearful ① Avoidant PD ② Dependent PD ③ Obsessive-Compulsive PD (OCPD)

incidence

# new cases/at-risk population during a period of time

What are the characteristics of a bureaucracy?

(6) ① Paid, *non*-elected officials on a fixed salary ② Officials are provided rights and privileges as a result of making their career out of holding office ③ Regular salary increases, seniority rights, and promotions upon passing exams or milestones ④ Officials enter the organization by holding an advanced degree or training ⑤ Responsibilities, obligations, privileges, and work procedures *rigidly* defined by the organization ⑥ Responsibility for meeting demands of one's position ✷ combination of all of these makes them *slow* to change and *less* efficient than other organizations

types of cues used to make attributions

*Consistency* Cues - The consistent behavior of a person over time *Consensus* Cues - The extent to which a person's behavior differs from others *Distinctiveness* Cues - The extent to which a person engages in similar behavior across a series of scenarios (if behavior often varies we are more likely to form a situational attribution to explain it) (Attribution theory of social perception)

Criteria for PTSD

*HARMED* - Horrifying event - *Avoidance symptoms* - Re-experiencing (*intrusive* memories, nightmares, flashbacks) - Month (1-3 = acute, >3 = chronic) - Energy overload (*arousal symptoms*: hypervigilance/exaggerated startle) - *D*eficient/*D*istant(*negative symptoms*: inability to recall key features of the event, negative mood/emotions, feeling "distant", persistent negative view of the world) overall, 4 types of symptoms: *avoidance*, *intrusion*, *negative cognitive*, and *arousal*

The term "cult" is currently being phased out due to pejorative and derogatory meanings attached to the word in popular language. Instead, social scientists are beginning to use the term ____________.

*NRM* ("New Religious Movement")

What are the cardinal symptoms of a major depressive episode?

*Sad*ness ① sadness - prominent and relatively persistent depressed mood + *SIG E CAPS* ② *I*nterest (anhedonia) ③ *S*leep disturbances ④ *G*uilt or feelings of worthlessness (sometimes delusional) ⑤ ↓ *E*nergy ⑥ *C*oncentration/thinking difficulty ⑦ *A*ppetite disturbances/substantial weight changes ⑧ *P*sychomotor symptoms ⑨ *S*uicide attempts/thoughts of death ✴︎ 5 out of the 9 must be present ✴︎ 1. or 2. MUST be present for diagnosis, but not necessarily both

Instinct theory is associated with which psychologist(s)?

*William McDougall*: humans were driven to all thoughts & behaviors by 18 distinctive instincts, including *flight* and *acquisition* *William James*: proposed human actions are derived from 20 physical instincts & 17 mental instincts aligns with *Darwin* too though it was beyond his time

Healthcare is still not adequate for disadvantage groups in terms of...

*access* and *quality* Explanation: many physicians do not accept Medicare or Medicaid so even though the individual has insurance, they can't use it, especially if they are limited by ability to travel outward

differential association theory

*deviance* can be learned through intimate interactions with others when associations with deviants are more numerous than those with normal people. "She fell into the wrong crowd." The person interacts with people who engage in deviant behavior, laying the groundwork for him to join in; however, he also encounters norm-abiding people so *differential association* is the degree to which one is surrounded by ideals that adhere to social norms vs. those that go against them. (Sutherland)

personality disorder

*ego-syntonic* pattern of behavior that is inflexible and maladaptive, causing distress or impaired functioning in at least 2 of the following: ￫ cognition ￫ emotions ￫ interpersonal functioning ￫ impulse control

social institution vs. formal organization

*institution* refers to both abstract and physical entity whereas *organization* strictly refers to a physical entity

internalization vs. identification

*internalization* is changing ones behavior to fit with a group while also privately agreeing with the ideas of the group, *identification* refers to the outward acceptance of others ideas without personally taking on those ideas.

How does *child abuse* most commonly manifest?

*neglect*

How does *elder abuse* most commonly manifest?

*neglect* of an older relative, with the source usually being the actual caretaker other forms: physical, psychological, and financial abuse

Which group tends to have better overall health profiles, White Americans or Hispanic Americans?

*overall*, white Americans, though it is mixed. Hispanic Americans are better in some areas and worse in others, but again, overall their health profiles are worse.

Which group tends to have better overall health profiles, White Americans or Native Americans?

*overall*, white Americans, though it is mixed. Native Americans are better in some areas and worse in others, but again, overall their health profiles are worse.

What is the central idea of symbolic interactionism?

*symbols* are the key to understanding how we view the world and communicate with one another

bridging social capital

*weak* ties that link different ethnic and occupational backgrounds, including formal or informal social participation within the same community a subset of *horizontal social capital* so they are still within the same social strata it's *inclusive* - *between* groups, organizations, etc. ￫ distant friends and associates, religious organizations, civil rights movements

What groups of people does Medicare cover?

- 65+ - those w/ ALS - those w/ end-stage renal disease

Characteristics of rational choice theory

- Every outcome of a given social interaction can be associated with particular rewards and punishments - An individual carefully considers all possible rewards and punishments of each social action and chooses the option that has the highest *benefit-to-harm ratio* - It's like a mental "pros and cons" list

Anomic conditions

- Excessive individualism - Isolation - Social inequality ⟶ NET RESULT = erosion of social solidarity/social inclusion, social trust, and social capital

Parkinson's disease treatment

- L-Dopa - precursor of dopamine that gets converted once in brain - Regenerate dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra using stem cells placed in CNS ❗️medications can lead to schizophrenic sx

Parkinson's Disease Pathology

- bradykinesia - resting temor - pill rolling temor - masklike facies - cogwheel rigidity - shuffling gait and stooped posture - depression (not characteristic, but common) - dementia (common, not characteristic either) - ↓ dopamine *production* in substantia nigra, so low function of basal ganglia (which initiate and terminate movement, and sustain repetitive motor tasks and smoothen motions)

Alzheimer's Disease Pathology

- diffuse atrophy of brain on CT or MRI (dark spots) - flattened *sulci* in the cerebral cortex - enlarged cerebral vesicles, shown in pic - deficient blood flow in parietal lobes, (correlated to cognitive decline) - reduced acetylcholine - reduction in choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), the enzyme that produces acetylcholine - reduced metabolism in temporal and parietal lobes - senile plaques of β-amyloid (misfolded protein in β-pleated sheet form) - neurfibrillary tranges of hyperphosphorylated tau protein

What are some norms associated with education?

- doing homework - preparing for lectures - being kind to other students

Effects of the Affordable Care Act

- increased coverage rate and affordability of insurance for all Americans - reduced overall costs of healthcare ❗️disadvantaged groups still affected by disparities to healthcare in terms of *access* and *quality*

Why might a victim of domestic violence find it challenging to leave the abusive relationship?

- lack of safe haven to escape to - financial restrictions - psychological disorders (and learned helplessness)

With what can rituals be associated?

- milestones: baby-naming, graduation ceremony, wedding, funeral - holidays - regular activities: Catholic mass, pregame pep rally, showering, eating breakfast

Various forms of domestic violence

- physical violence - sexual abuse - emotional abuse - financial abuse

People using the peripheral route of processing tend to use what details when listening to an argument?

- qualities of the presenter (more handsome = more convinced) - sheer # of arguments - their own mood at the time ✴︎ susceptible to *mere exposure effect* if they continue hearing the same argument spread out over time (assuming they are still using the peripheral route with regard to that topic.) ❗️Remember, when processing this way, the persuasion is stronger than when processing centrally ONLY AT FIRST. It fades quickly and leads to little behavior change long-term.

cognitive skills used in foraging

- spatial awareness - memory - decision making - learned behavior (observation when young to learn the ways of the species) - some species have strict rules (e.g. wolves have an order of who can eat after a hunt)

Malthusian scenario/catastrophe

The model forecasting that the exponential population growth of third-world nations as they will outpace growth in food and other resources, with a resulting population die-off. will lead to social degradation, mass starvation, and disorder

8 factors indicative of groupthink

1) illusion of vulnerability 2) collective rationalization: ignoring warnings 3) Illusion of morality 4) excessive stereotyping 5) pressure for conformity 6) self-censorship: withholding of opposite views 7) Illusion of unanimity 8) mindguards: appointment of members to the role of protecting against opposing views

A rural area must contain less than __________ people per square mile.

1,000

What are the 4 types of attachment?

1. Secure(60% of infants) 2. Avoidant (15% of infants) 3. Ambivalent (10% of infants) 4. Disorganized (15% of infants) (Ainsworth)

impression management strategies

1.* Self-disclosure*: give info about oneself to establish an identity 2. *Managing appearances*: use props, appearance, emotional expression, etc with others to create a positive image 3. *Ingratiation*: use flattery or conforming to expectations to win someone over 4. *Aligning actions*: make questionable/unexpected behavior acceptable through excuses 5. *Alter-casting*: imposing an identity onto another person

As many as ______% of individuals with major depressive disorder die by suicide

15%

A woman would need to give birth to at least ______ children to replace herself and the father.

2 stable fertility rate

What constitutes a *group*?

2 or more individuals sharing characteristics *and* a sense of unity

What is a stable replacement fertility rate?

2.1 children per woman Explanation: stable fertility rate is when the birth rate = mortality rate. This number includes the 2 parents and many other factors, such as child mortality

play stage (Mead)

3 - 5 years bigger focus on actual communication, using symbols, etc. and social relationships reflected in children's ability to "play" other people now able to take on perspectives of others and *role-taking* - mentally assuming the perspectives of another person and acting based on their perceived point of view different from imitation bc children are able to *respond* and not just mimic social interactions but *create* them second stage of Mead's *self*

In order to classify as a major depressive episode, the patient must exhibit ____ out of 9 cardinal symptoms

5 ❗️one of which *must* be depressed mood or anhedonia

game stage (Mead)

5+ years able to consider the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of those closest to them AND the *generalized other* (society as a whole) start to realize that people act according both to what they personally believe, as well as what society expects of them realize that people can take on multiple roles at once Sees teacher at supermarket: "My teacher does MORE than just teach????!?!" Realize that other people have perceptions about them, and these are influenced by how they act and what say, so they themselves are influenced by these perceptions and care about what people closest to them think about them This last point leads to the development of the "I" and the "me"

Every child has a roughly _____% chance of being female

50

According to Mary Ainsworth, at what age does a child need a secure base (consistent caregiver) most and why?

6 months - 2 years old this is when they *explore* the world and *develop*

If your patient receives a negative test result, and the NPV is given as 78%, what is the probability that the patient truly does not have the disease?

78%

What is the fastest-growing age cohort in the United States?

85+

Currently, what portion of the global population lives in what are considered urban areas?

> 50%

thought broadcasting

A delusion that one's thoughts are being broadcast out loud so that they can be perceived by others.

L-Dopa

A drug for Parkinson's disease that contains the precursors to dopamine so that once it is in the brain, it will be converted to dopamine.

delusions of grandeur

A false belief that one is a famous person or a powerful or important person who has some great knowledge, ability, or authority.

ritual

A formalized ceremony that usually involves specific material objects, symbolism, and additional mandates on acceptable behavior.

Evolutionary Stable Strategy (ESS)

A genetically distinctive set of rules for behavior that, when adopted by a certain proportion of the population, *cannot* be replaced by any alternative strategy. natural selection will *prevent* alternative strategies from arising, so this strategy is thus inherited as traits within the population objective: be more fit than competitors

According to the relative deprivation theory, when will a person join a social movement?

A key assumption of this theory is that the person has already exhausted all conventional means to address the deprivation before joining the movement.

seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

A major depressive episode with seasonal onset (winter months). ❗️Not a freestanding diagnosis in the DSM-V. Often treated with bright light therapy (due to abnormal melatonin metabolism)

Spirituality vs. Religion

A person with spiritual needs does not necessarily have to participate in religious rituals and practices. From the religious perspective, spirituality can be defined as encompassing the ideology of God

clang associations

A sequence of thoughts stimulated by the sound of a preceding word Ex: "I'll kill with a drill or a pill - God, I'm ill - what swill."

false consciousness

A term used by Karl Marx to describe an attitude held by members of a class that does not accurately reflect their objective position. a misperception of one's actual position within society ￫ can't see how truly bad the state of affairs was ￫ could not relate their own experiences to others' ￫ too clouded to assemble into revolutionaries

correspondent inference theory

A theory of social perception that states that people pay closer attention to *intentional* behavior than accidental behavior when making attributions, especially if the behavior is unexpected.

inappropriate affect

Affect is clearly discordant with the content of the individual's speech ex: laugh hysterically while describing a parent's death

Which group of people have the lowest life expectancy of any racial or gender category?

African American males

Which racial/ethnic group of Americans tend to have the worst health profiles?

African Americans

Karl Marx vs. Max Weber

Agreed that a *source* of conflict in the capitalist system is economic inequality. They disagreed regarding the *outcomes* of conflict.

ego-expressive function of attitude

Allows us to communicate and solidify our self-identity "value-expressive" ex: someone who identifies with the Steelers may often wear one of their hats around town

With which sociological perspective is Durkheim most affiliated with?

Although he wrote on conflict, he is most closely associated with the *functionalist* perspective

Hawk-Dove game

An evolutionary game where members of the same species or population can breed to follow one of two strategies, Hawk and Dove, and depending on the payoffs People compete for resources by different strategies. The Hawk displays open aggression, the dove displays aggression at first but will run away from the actual conflict. If there is no aggression, it will share the resource. 3 potential outcomes: Hawk + Dove = Hawk will win the resource, dove will lose Hawk + Hawk = It will win the resource half of the time. Dove + Dove = The resource is shared. payoff: Reward - cost of fighting *simultaneous* and *non-zero sum* games

re-socialization

An old behavior is intentionally discarded in favor of a new behavior. ex: military

Which group tends to have better overall health profiles, White Americans or Asian Americans?

Asian Americans

What is the most common form of hallucination?

Auditory - hearing voices

The concept of the "looking-glass self" is most related to which sociological paradigm? A. social constructionism B. symbolic interactionism

B Explanation: This concept is the idea that humans define their identities based on how others see them. In other words, people create their identity similarly to others. This is similar to *symbolic interactionism*, which states that people interact through the shared meaning of symbols—in this case, the shared symbol is an identity. (A) doesn't work because *social constructionism* is the idea that certain intangible things exist only because of mutual agreement, such as money, citizenship, or freedom. The *looking-glass self theory* only states that identity is *shaped* by interaction rather than existing because of it.

Prototype willingness model

Behavior is a function of: ① past behavior ② attitudes ③ subjective norms ④ our intentions ⑤ our willingness to engage in a specific type of behavior ⑥ prototypes/models. Argues that a lot of our behavior is carried out from prototyping

cultural capital

Benefits one receives from knowledge, abilities, and skills

(*KA*) During reading time, students are required to sit quietly and listen attentively to the story the teacher is reading. The children who are able to do this are rewarded at the end of the week with a prize. How would the functionalist perspective describe this interaction? A. These children are being informally taught social and political norms. This is a manifest function of education. B. These children are formally learning about social roles and how to listen respectfully. This is a latent function of education. C. These children are being openly socialized to prepare for later roles in adult life. This is a manifest function of education. D. These children are being openly taught reward and punishment for their actions. This is a latent function of education.

C

What is the difference between periphery and semi-periphery countries? A. Periphery countries have a weak central government and an economy based on raw materials, while semi-periphery countries have a strong central government and an economy based on high skill jobs. B. Periphery countries have a strong central government and an economy based on raw materials, while semi-periphery countries have a weak central government and an underground economy. C. Periphery countries have a weak central government with little industrialization, while semi-periphery countries often have a stable government and an expanding middle class. D. Periphery countries are industrialized and have a strong central government, while semi-periphery countries have a weak government and an economy based on the barter system.

C

(*KA*) To conduct a cross-country study of workplace culture for women in the US and Mexico, a researcher interviews 100 women ages of 25 to 50 in an American city, and 100 women in the same age group in a Mexican city. This study would be classified as: A. Content analysis B. Participant observation C. A survey D. Network analysis

C Explanation: The researcher *samples* individuals (women) from a larger *population* (workplaces in US and Mexico). The researcher identified and selected potential sample members (women, ages 25-50) from a larger population. Surveys provide a way to sample and measure the self-reported behaviors, attitudes, or perceptions of women in the workplace in the US and Mexico.

(*KA*) American English commonly uses words that originate from various African, Asian, and non-English-speaking European cultures. This is an example of: A. Cultural relativism B. Dominant culture C. Cultural diffusion D. Linguistic relativism

C Explanation: This demonstrates how language or culture is borrowed from foreign sources. This also demonstrates the spread of the language or the culture. Diffusion is the process by which an idea, invention, or some other cultural aspect is borrowed from a foreign source.

Choice shift vs Group polarization

Choice shift = group as a whole Polarization = at individual level

factitious disorder

Condition in which a person acts as if he or she has a physical or mental illness when he or she is not really sick *with no intent for external gain* ❗️different from somatic symptom because symptoms are *intentional* but different from malingering but there need not be intent for external reward

cult vs. sect

Cults, like sects, are *new* and often integrate elements of existing religious theologies, but cults tend to create more esoteric theologies synthesized from many sources. Cults, unlike sects, can form without breaking off from another religious group, though this is by no means always the case. ✴︎✴︎Cults are not advocating a return to pure religion but rather the embracing of something new or something that has been completely lost or forgotten (e.g., lost scriptures or new prophecy), often brought forth by the *charismatic leader* Cults tend to emphasize the individual and individual peace (though there are 3 diff. types, and one of them is *service-oriented*)

____________ is based on the assumption that participants in social movements are rational people. A. Relative deprivation theory B. Social constructionist theory C. Value-added theory D. Resource mobilization theory

D

basic model of emotional expression

Darwin: emotional expression is consistent with evolutionary theories and should be *similar across cultures*. It involves... ① facial expressions ② behaviors ③ postures ④ vocal changes ⑤ physiological changes also claimed that animals and primates exhibit rudimentary muscle actions that resemble those humans use for facial expressions since Darwin, researchers found that a # of basic human emotions are universally experienced and their corresponding facial expressions are universally recognized (Darwin, Ekman, and others)

avoidance symptoms

Deliberate attempts to avoid the memories, people, places, activities, and objects associated with the trauma (PTSD)

What is the DSM-5 based on?

Description of *symptoms* of database of psychological disorders, *not* etiology or treatments Has 20 diagnostic classes of psychological disorders.

nonmaleficence

Do no harm ￫ physician has responsibility to avoid treatments or interventions in which the potential for harm outweighs the potential for benefit

True or False: Deviance necessarily implies judgement

FALSE Explanation: definition: an act or behavior that goes against social norms.

True or False: Socioeconomic status is determined solely by merit.

FALSE Explanation: SES is determined by merit (achieved status) AND external characteristics like skin color and gender (ascribed status)

True or False: The United States has a centrally organized and planned healthcare system

FALSE Explanation: this describes a governmental healthcare system which we definitely do not have. ❗️most industrialized nations DO have a governmental system, we are one of the few that don't

True or False: Agoraphobia and panic disorder are one in the same

False Explanation: DSM-5 separated them when they realized that agoraphobia can arise without panic disorder

True or False: Depression always include feelings of sadness

False Explanation: In older men, depression may manifest as anhedonia without feelings of sadness

True or False: Group polarization always leads to riskier decisions

False Explanation: It could also lead to more cautious decisions, it depends on the *initial tendencies* of the group toward risk or caution. Initial ideas tend not to be extreme, but through discussion with the group, become more and more extreme. So instead of "risky shift" (antiquated term), it's now called *choice shift*

True or False: Urbanization is a modern phenomenon

False Explanation: Jerusalem, Athens, Timbuktu

True or False: Negative feelings towards an out-group are based on a sense of dislike towards the characteristics of the out-group.

False Explanation: rather, they are based on favoritism for the in-group and the absence of favoritism for the out-group in other words, not actually anything wrong with the out-group, it's just "not the in-group" ex: a Puerto Rican male at a Puerto Rican pride parade (in-group) does not necessarily *dislike* people from Ireland (out-group), but he just likes and is proud of being Puerto Rican

True or False: The group must be physically together for group polarization to occur.

False Explanation: social media

True or False: Major depressive disorder is more serious than persistent depressive disorder both in terms of severity and duration

False! Explanation: persistent depressive disorder must be present for at least 2 years (longer than major depressive disorder, which needs only 1 episode that lasts longer than 2 weeks) it is more severe though

Durkheim's sacred and profane

French sociologist Emile Durkheim, religion is important in explaining anything that surpasses the limits of our knowledge. As human beings, we define most objects as *profane*, or ordinary, but we define some things as *sacred*, or extraordinary, inspiring a sense of awe and reverence. (Functionalism)

Max Weber

German sociologist that regarded the development of rational social orders as humanity's greatest achievement. Saw bureaucratization (the process whereby labor is divided into an organized community and individuals acquire a sense of personal identity by finding roles for themselves in large systems) as the driving force in modern society. (Conflict Theory)

Which of the following demographics can be measured in events per 1000 people per year? I. Birth rate II. Fertility rate III. Mortality rate

I and III only Explanation: fertility rate is measured in # of children per woman during her *lifetime*

Which of the following is true regarding bipolar disorders? I. They have little, if any, genetic heritability II. They are associated with increased levels of serotonin in the brain III. They all require at least one depressive episode for diagnosis

II only Explanation: *highly* heritable ↑ NE and serotonin Bipolar I can be diagnosed with a single manic episode and does *not* require a major depressive episode Bipolar II requires at least one hypomanic episode and one major depressive episode Cyclothymic disorder contains at least one hypomanic episode and dysthymia

Suppose that a vaccine study produced a P value of 0.04. What does this tell you about the vaccine?

If the vaccine had no effect, you'd obtain the observed difference or more in 4% of studies due to random sampling error. Explanation: This isn't a lot, so this is strong evidence against the H₀ and results are less likely to be random. ￫ Say p-value was 0.12, then you'd observe the difference in 12% of studies due to random sampling error, and this ↑ the chance that the observed difference is random, which is weak evidence against the H₀. ✴︎ In either case, H₀ MUST BE TRUE

shuffling gait

In Parkinson's Disease, short steps, that lack heel strikes and low foot clearance (Parkinson's Disease)

disorganized behavior

Inability to carry out activities of daily living ex: paying bills, maintaining hygiene, and keeping appointments.

What historical event begat a doctrine of "separate spheres" for men and women?

Industrial Revolution Explanation: - men were "breadwinners" and protectors of $ and family safety - women were caretakers of kids and home

Malingering Disorder

Intentionally pretending to be sick or injured to avoid work or responsibility

What is a criticism of the perspective of relative deprivation theory?

It fails to explain why some people who feel discontent fail to take action and join social movements ⟶ People may not join a social movement because of lack of resources Explanation: some people can't join a movement because they don't have the means to do so, even though they are discontent.

How is race socially constructed?

It is an invented classification system based on *phenotypic* differences between groups of people, and society's perception of it are subject to change

Who authored the *Communist Manifesto*?

Karl Marx w/ Fredrick Engles

Solomon Asch Conformity Experiment

Line experiment with one test subject and multiple confederates, proved how people tend to give into conformity even when they know the others are incorrect

fundamentalism

Literal interpretation and strict adherence to basic principles of a religion (or a religious branch, denomination, or sect). opposite of *secularization*

How is the health sector organized?

Local > State > National > Global* global is newer: (WHO, American Red Cross, etc.)

neologisms

Made-up words that typically have only meaning to the individual who uses them.

Who coined the term "social action"?

Max Weber "actions and behaviors that individuals are conscious of and performing *because others are around*." Ex: If Katie predicts a negative reaction from kids at school, she might very well modify her behavior. ❗️contrasts with social *inter*action

Which theorist is responsible for creating the notion of a church-sect typology continuum?

Max Weber (Conflict Theory)

organic mental disorder

Mental or emotional problem caused by brain pathology (i.e., brain injuries or diseases) rather than a psychiatric illness

In the most recent census, where did the largest proportions of immigrants emigrate from?

Mexico, the Caribbean, and India

What neurotransmitters are elevated in bipolar disorders?

NE and serotonin

In depression, which neurotransmitters are reduced?

NE, serotonin, dopamine ✴︎Since both the NT's themselves *and* their metabolites are low, this means their actual production is decreased, not that their degradation is increased

In a monarchy, does the royal ruler possess ultimate power?

NO Explanation: their power may be significantly limited by the presence of a constitution or parliamentary system

Using the same test in a population with higher prevalence ___________ sensitivity.

NO EFFECT sensitivity is a characteristic of the test

Using the same test in a population with higher prevalence ___________ specificity.

NO EFFECT specificity is a characteristic of the test

How does peer pressure relate to group size?

NO RELATION

Is race strictly defined by genetics?

NO ￫ classifies individuals on *superficial* traits like skin color

Do individuals with dissociative fugue always assume a new identity?

Not always

OCD vs OCPD

OCD: ego-dystonic OCPD: ego-syntonic

polyandry

One female, several males.

polygyny

One male, several females.

class consciousness

Organization of the working class around shared goals and recognition of a need for collective political action (Marxist theory)

If a subject's screening test is positive, what can you use to determine the *probability* that the subject actually has the condition?

PPV If PPV is documented as 40%, then your subject has a 40% chance of actually having the disease Explanation: measures true +'s divided by total +'s, in other words, how correct the testing is. ❗️PPV depends on *prevalence*

What important assumption is made by the relative deprivation theory?

Person has exhausted all conventional means to address the deprivation

pull factors

Positive attributes of the new location that attract the immigrant

Show on a distribution curve how to identify the power of this hypothesis test.

Power & Type II error can only be measured on a curve where H₀ is false and Hₐ is true. whereas Type I error can be found on a curve where H₀ is true (type I error = H₀ is true, but we rejected it). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0R5Zscd_Mp8

prejudice vs. stereotype

Prejudice: *affect*; inclination toward or against people based on group membership not reason Stereotype: *cognition*; specific preconceived traits/characteristics associated with people based on their group membership given limited information

cultural sensitivity

Recognition and respect of differences between cultures, and research ethics.

compulsions

Repetitive behaviors or mental acts that are performed to prevent or reduce anxiety but cause significant impairment in a person's life

Religion vs. Ideology

Though religion IS an ideology, religions focus on answering the world-view including afterlife and other things that are not in the materialistic world, whereas most ideologies focus on providing a world-view about the materialistic world

True or False: In depression, there is sometimes a decreased need for sleep

True Explanation: "disturbance in sleep" is one of the 9 cardinal symptoms of depression

True or False: Stages 1-4 of the Demographic Transition Model all have positive population growth.

True Explanation: The demographic transition theory assumes that the death rate is higher than the birth rate only in the last, *speculative* stage (negative population growth)

True or False: Men and women experience similar levels of arousal when exposed to the same sexually explicit videos

True ✴︎ although women were more likely to act like they weren't and report that it disgusted/offended them

True or False: Female life expectancies are almost universally higher than male life expectancies across the globe.

True!

When would you want to minimize the false negatives?

We don't want many false negative if the disease is often asymptomatic and... • is serious, progresses quickly and can be treated more effectively at early stages OR • easily spreads from one person to another Ex: cancer that quickly can turn metastatic if not caught early or TB outbreak

temporal ambiguity

When it is not clear whether the exposure affects the disease or the disease affects the exposure. can't tell if cause preceded effect Ex: vaccine paper: autistic kids were all found to have been vaccinated, but we don't know when the autism developed (before or after vaccination)

Can cults eventually develop into denominations?

YES Ex: Christian Science and Nation of Islam are now denominations in the U.S. but both began as cults

Are social constructs subject to change?

YES Explanation: because they *depend on the society itself*, they can change over time as social norms and opinions continue to develop

social class

a category of people who share similar opportunities, similar economic and vocational positions, similar lifestyles, and similar attitudes and behaviors

thought insertion

a delusional belief that others are putting ideas or thoughts into the client's head; that is, the ideas are not those of the client

thought withdrawal

a delusional belief that others are taking thoughts of out the client's mind, and the client is powerless to stop it

dysthymia

a depressed mood that isn't severe enough to meet criteria of a major depressive episode

Compliance is modification of behavior due to ____________.

a direct request

masklike facies

a facial expression consisting of static and expressionless facial features, staring eyes, and a partially open mouth (Parkinson's Disease)

reflective-thinking method

a five-step method for directing discussion in a problem-solving small group ① Experiencing - define problem ② Analyze problem ③ Establish criteria for solutions ④ Generate potential solutions ⑤ Select best solution and how it can be implemented now the standard agenda used in classrooms (Dewey)

secondary group

a formal, impersonal group in which there is little social intimacy or mutual understanding temporary in nature

structural holes

a gap between two individuals (or clusters) who have complementary sources to information (+): An individual who acts as a mediator between 2 or more closely connected groups of people could gain important comparative advantages. In particular, the position of a bridge between distinct groups allows him or her to transfer or gatekeep valuable information from one group to another. In addition, the individual can combine all the ideas he or she receives from different sources and come up with the most innovative idea among all. (-) At the same time, a broker also occupies a precarious position, as ties with disparate groups can be fragile and time consuming to maintain

intersex

a general term used for a variety of conditions in which a person is born with a reproductive or sexual anatomy that doesn't seem to fit the typical definitions of female or male

inclusive fitness

a measure of an organisms success in a population, based on number of offspring, success in supporting offspring, and the ability of offspring to then support others ✴︎ not only how many viable offspring produced, but also new theories propose that it also concerns the species as a whole ✴︎ explains *altruism*

tangential speech

a mild form of *derailment*, where the listener's train of thought wanders & responds by taking the topic in a different, but related direction never returning to the initial topic of the conversation gives irrelevant responses shows a lack of focus (schizophrenia)

experimental bias

a mistake in the design of an experiment that makes a particular result more likely

bipolar disorder (manic depression)

a mood disorder characterized by both depression and mania

engagement

a mutual promise to marry

prisoner's dilemma

a particular "game" between two captured prisoners that illustrates why cooperation is difficult to maintain even when it is mutually beneficial *simultaneous* and *non-zero sum* games

mandated reporter

a person who is required by law to report suspected maltreatment of *elder* or *child* abuse ❗️domestic abuse does NOT fall under these laws

vomeronasal organ

a portion of the mammalian olfactory system that is sensitive to pheromones found in other animals, but we humans lack many of the genes necessary for its function, so it's debatable if we are actually affected by pheromones

mini-max principle

a principle for *decision-making* worth of relationship = Rewards - Costs

psychosis

a psychological disorder in which a person loses contact with reality, experiencing irrational ideas and distorted perceptions

that's-not-all technique

a sales technique in which the persuader makes an offer and then adds something extra to make the offer look better before the target person can make a decision

stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype, contributing to anxiety and decreased investment in the activity and even decreased performance (self-fulfilling prophecy)

total institution (Goffman)

a setting in which people are physically isolated from the rest of society and manipulated by an administrative staff with the aim to standardize and control all aspects of life within ex: prison, insane asylum

mass hysteria

a shared, intense, concern about the threats to society ex. Salem witch trials ✴︎ many factors of *groupthink* at play here, esp. pressure for conformity, leading to a shared delusion that is augmented by distrust, rumors, propaganda, fear mongering

Role strain is difficulty in satisfying the requirements of ____________ role(s).

a single

lower class

a social class composed of those who work part time or not at all and whose household income is typically low greatly reduced amount of sociopolitical power

courtship

a social interaction similar to dating but with the sole purpose of eventual marriage

marriage

a socially recognized relationship that may involve physical and emotional intimacy as well as legal rights to property and inheritance

sick role

a socially recognized set of rights and obligations linked with illness ￫ patient is not responsible for the illness and is exempt from normal social norms ￫ mid-20th century the patient was expected to play this out, but she had the obligation to want to become well and seek out competent help ￫ now, it's more about prevention and we ARE responsible for our own health

egalitarian society

a society in which all persons of a given age-sex category have equal access to economic resources, power, and prestige.

symbolic ethnicity

a specific connection to one's ethnicity in which ethnic symbols and identity remain important, even when ethnic identity does not play a significant role in everyday life Ex: Irish Americans only celebrate their "Irishness" on St. Patrick's Day Others: attending folk festivals, visiting specific cultural locales for holidays, participating in an ethnic pride rally

avolition

a symptom of schizophrenia marked by apathy and an inability to start or complete a course of action

social stratification

a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy related to *SES*

What constitutes a *social structure*?

a system of people *within a society* organized by a characteristic *pattern of relationships*

relative deprivation theory

a theory of *social movements* that focuses on the actions of oppressed groups who seek rights or opportunities already enjoyed by others in the society *relative* indicates that the discontent can be anywhere on the social ladder, not necessarily lower class (even though it's most likely to be felt by those whose economic position is least secure)

implicit personality theory

a theory of *social perception* claiming that people make fast assumptions (often subconsciously) about *how* different types of people, their traits, and behavior are related ex: A Catholic priest could never molest little boys ex: A sports hero like O.J. could not possibly stab two people to death

resting tremor

a tremor that appears when muscles are not being used (Parkinson's Disease)

dramaturgical approach

a view of social interaction in which people's statuses are seen as parts in a play/role in a script, and the people themselves are theatrical performers *front stage self* and *back stage self* (Erving Goffman)

cult

a*new*, non-traditional group of people with an obsessive/extreme devotion to a person or set of principles may be deviant often belief in a divine element in the *individual* inherently ephemeral/esoteric and loosely organized

empathy

ability to vicariously experience the emotions of another

manic episodes

abnormal persistent elevated mood lasting 1 week with 3 of the following: *DIG FAST* ￫ *D*istracted ￫ *I*nsomnia or decreased need for sleep ￫ *G*randiosity or inflated self esteem ￫ *F*lying/racing thoughts ￫ *A*gitation or increased goal-directed activity ￫ *S*peech that is talky or pressured ￫ *T*houghtlessness/high risk behavior ✴︎ may include psychosis generally more rapid onset and shorter duration than depressive episodes

What changes in the amygdala are seen with depression?

abnormally ↑ glucose metabolism

negative symptoms

absence or insufficiency of normal behavior

In broad terms, Kohlberg's postconventional stage is ___________.

abstract

A systematic error affects ____________.

accuracy Explanation: *systematic error* = inaccurate reading instrument and *accuracy* = ability of an instrument to measure a true value Result is *bias*

Graph for low accuracy and high precision

accuracy = fluctuations that cause data to be skewed in one direction (narrow range) due to a tool that measures the incorrect value constantly with each measurement.

Class systems stratify by ____________.

achieved SES

If the same symptoms of PTSD are present but last for less than the required time, it may be called _____________.

acute stress disorder time: less than one month (which is required for PTSD) but still has to be more than 3 days for this dx

positive symptoms

addition of abnormal behavior 2 dimensions: "psychotic" and "disorganized"

crude rate

adjusted to a certain population size over a specific period of time and multiplied by a constant to give a whole number

Panic disorder is often seen in association with what other psychiatric diagnosis?

agoraphobia Explanation: agoraphobia = fear of open places you can't escape Fear of having a panic attack in public and not being in a familiar place makes them not want to leave home

indirect therapy

aims to increase social support by educating and empowering family and friends of affected individual

Laughing off an inappropriate comment as a joke is an example of which impression management strategy?

aligning actions provides socially acceptable reasons for unexpected behavior

simultaneous move game

all players make their choices without knowing what choice the other has made i.e. players either act at the same time, or in ways that make it impossible to know how the other player acted.

promiscuity

allows a member of one sex to mate with any member of the opposite sex without exclusivity

_____________ is the custom that the post-marital couple can reside with or near either of the couples' families or tribes.

ambilocality

A child's mother is sometimes socially active and attentive to the child's needs, but she is occasionally not as responsive. This exemplifies which kind of attachment? Secure Avoidant Ambivalent Disorganized

ambivalent Explanation: *inconsistent* and key to eliminating "disroganized" is the socially active - disorganized are usually socially withdrawn

exurb

an area similar to a suburb, but unconnected to any central city or densely populated area

organization

an entity set up to achieve a specific goal.

Attitude to behavior process model

an event triggers our attitude (something that will influence our perception of an object) Then, attitude + some outside knowledge of appropriate behavior together determines behavior ex: Tommy has attitude thank junk food is unhealthy bc many of his relatives have heart related diseases associated with poor eating habits. He also has read many scientific journals about how these foods deteriorate health. So he does not eat chips/soda/candy and maintains a healthy lifestyle no matter where he is.

alter-casting

an impression management strategy in which one imposes an identity onto another person Ex: "If you were a good friend, you would loan me $50."

non-zero sum game

an interaction in which both participants can win (or lose)

generalized other

an internalized sense of the total expectations (norms, values, attitudes, beliefs, etc.) of others in a variety of settings - regardless of whether we've encountered those people or places before society as a whole (Mead)

glass ceiling

an invisible limit on women's climb up the occupational ladder

network

an observable pattern of relationships among individuals or groups.

environmental injustice

an uneven distribution of environmental hazards in communities lower-income neighborhoods may lack the social and political *power* to prevent the placement of environmental hazards in their neighborhoods

___________ cause a breakdown between the individual and society, and erode the social solidarity.

anomic conditions

___________ refers to a lack of social norms, or the breakdown of social bonds between an individual and society.

anomie

majority influence

another term for *conformity* occurs when the beliefs held by the larger number of individuals in the current social group prevail

___________ refers to socialization that one undergoes in preparation for entering a social environment.

anticipatory socialization ex: what high school seniors do before going to college

Neuroleptics

antipsychotic drugs that alleviate the symptoms of severe disorders such as schizophrenia by blocking dopamine receptors side effects include *sedation* (hence "neuroleptic")

social anxiety disorder

anxiety due to social situations persistent fear when exposed to social or performance situations that may result in embarassment ex: giving a speech, using a public restroom

specific phobia

anxiety is produced by a specific object or situation

mindguards

appointment of members to the role of protecting against opposing views (Groupthink)

golden ratio

approximately 1.618 and is believed to be aesthetically pleasing in people, art, and architecture

social construction model of emotional expression

argues that emotional responses are not biologically predetermined and that all emotional expression is based entirely on experience and the situational context in which the emotion takes place "Emotions are transitory social *roles.*" - person must know the social norms for a certain emotion to perform the corresponding behaviors in a given situation. emotions can only exist within social encounters and that emotions are expressed *differently* (and play diff. roles) across cultures ❗️much diff. than the basic model that claims they are expressed similarly!

How do early functionalists view society?

as a living organism for smooth function, parts and systems must work together in harmony

Caste and estate systems stratify by ____________.

ascribed SES

_____________ is the modification of behavior due to absorbing the standards of a *secondary group*.

assimilation

Currently, what is the state of America's social inequality?

at its highest point in over a century, with huge gapes between the upper vs. the middle + lower classes less room for true social mobility

In order to classify as a major depressive episode, the duration must be....

at least 2 weeks ❗️must also fit other criteria

cyclothymic disorder

at least 2 years of combination of hypomanic episodes and periods of dysthymia that are not severe enough to qualify as major depressive episodes

What changes in the hippocampus are seen with depression?

atrophy (w/ long duration of illness)

stereotype content model

attempts to classify stereotypes based on two binary criteria, warmth and competence, based on a hypothetical "in-group" and "out-group" 4 categories: ① Paternalistic - low status, not competitive (elderly, housewives, disabled) ② Admiration stereotype - high status, not competitive (in-group, close allies) ③ Contemptuous stereotype - low status, competitive (welfare recipients, poor people) ④ Envious stereotype - high status, competitive (Asians, Jews, feminists)

game theory

attempts to explain *decision-making* between individuals as if they are participating in a game ex: hawk-dove game, prisoner's dilemma, rock-paper-scissors, chicken

continuity theory of aging

attempts to understand the choices one makes to maintain consistency in social roles as one ages

learning theory of attitudes

attitudes are developed through different forms of learning ① direct contact with the object can influence attitudes ex: child forms a positive *attitude* towards sweets almost immediately after *tasting* them ② direct instruction from others can also influence attitudes ex: child *taught by parents* never to use curse word will form a negative *attitude* about those words ③ our attitudes can be influenced by others' attitudes ex: teen has a positive *attitude* about smoking because all his *friends think it's cool* and do it too ④ attitudes may be formed through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning

In what context would olfactory and gustatory hallucinations be seen?

aura before a seizure ❗️least common of all hallucinations

What diseases are disproportionately high in the Ashkenazi Jew population?

autoimmune diseases

How long does a generation last?

averages about 25 years — from the birth of a parent to the birth of a child

positional social inequality

based on how connected one is within a network, and one's centrality within that network

structural poverty theory

based on the concept of "holes" in the structure of society rather than poverty due to the actions of the person. ❗️not necessarily the same individuals that occupy these holes year to year, but % of the society that falls under the poverty line stays ~ constant due to these holes.

In a socialist economy, how is compensation provided?

based on the work contribution of each individual into the system, with profit being distributed *equally* to the workforce

Prodromal phase of schizophrenia

beginning of deterioration; mild symptoms clear evidence of deterioration, social withdrawal, role functioning impairment, peculiar behavior, inappropriate affect, and unusual experiences that are present before schizophrenia is actually diagnosed

antinormative behavior

behavior against the norm, can be caused by deindividuation

fad

behavior that is *transiently* viewed as popular and desirable by a large community ex: pet rocks; catchphrases; Rubik's cubes; viral videos

gender roles

behaviors expected of a given gender

Yerkes-Dodson law of social facilitation

being in presence of others will significantly raise arousal which enhances ability to perform tasks one is *already good at* (simple tasks) and hinders performance of less familiar tasks (complex tasks). ✴︎ Yerkes-Dodson law can also describe stress (sympathetic arousal), in which case the relationship focus is often not on simple tasks (linked here: https://ibb.co/dHmvPf). This is because social facilitation reflects the idea that performance is not solely influenced by individual ability, but also by social environment and *awareness* of that environment.

What is social acceptance to a child?

being most like the social norm of the group, regardless of positive or negative connotations

culture of poverty thesis

belief that poor people, resigned to their position in society, develop a unique value structure to deal with their lack of success *social reproduction* could explain social inequality by these terms ❗️many other factors that contribute to poverty besides such a mindset/value system

illusion of morality

belief that the group's decisions are morally correct (Groupthink)

Where does the *denomination* lie on the church-sect typology continuum?

between the church and the sect on the continuum

A systematic error introduces ____________.

bias Explanation: *systematic error* = inaccurate reading instrument produces errors that are *constant* and always of the same sign (skewed in one direction) and thus may not be reduced by averaging over a lot of data because the average is a completely different value than the true average. *bias* = systematic error due to flaws in data that skew it in one direction. Bias generally does not impact *precision*.

In what direction(s) does institutional influence flow?

bidirectional (both ways): gov/economy can affect the individual and in turn, the individual can choose who to vote for

Cultural sensitivity is a part of what model of medicine?

biopsychosocial

bipolar disorders versus major depressive disorder

bipolar disorders contain *manic* (or hypomanic) episodes, while major depressive disorder does not

preparatory stage (Mead)

birth - 3 years "interacting" with others without understanding their behavior through *imitation* basically incapable of taking on the perspectives of others first stage of Mead's *self*

Symptoms of antipsychotic medications

blunting and flat affect ✴︎ ironically, they can cause the sx seen in the actual disease, so it's hard to tell if the sx is part of a specific type of schizophrenia, or if it's due to meds

affective symptoms

blunting, flat affect, inappropriate affect (schizophrenia)

Splitting is a defense mechanism commonly seen with which personality disorder?

borderline personality disorder

What type of treatment is offered in the biopsychosocial approach to psychological disorders?

both *direct therapy* and *indirect therapy*

Why are individuals with Down syndrome at an increased risk for Alzheimer's disease?

both tied to mutation in chromosome 21

Which strategy, the hawk or the dove, is more evolutionary stable?

both ￫ they are in *equilibrium* If reward >>> cost : hawks have advantage If cost >>>> reward: doves have advantage

How did Gumplowicz expand on the works on Karl Marx?

by asserting that civilizations are shaped by war and conquest

Risk Factors for Schizophrenia

by genetics, it's esp. 1st degree relative (*genetic loading*) + mother's stress level during pregnancy + older fathers (over 50 yrs) + prenatal exposure to virus + hypoxemia at birth + excessive marijuana as an adolescent + structural brain changes (not understood well yet)

What is the negative effect of master statuses?

can lead to *pigeonholing* ￫ view an individual only through the lens of master status, without regard to any other personal characteristics

Which economic system encourages division of labor?

capitalist

ambivalent attachment (resistant)

caregiver has inconsistent response to distressed child child distressed when caregiver leaves, mixed (ambivalent) response upon return

avoidant attachment

caregiver has little or no response to a distressed child child shows no preference for the caregiver compared to strangers

disorganized attachment

caregiver is erratic or abusive, and often socially withdrawn child shows no clear pattern of behavior in response to the caregiver's absence or presence and may show repetitive behaviors (like rocking) confused: may be resistant, avoid, or even fear caregiver upon return ❗️could be a red flag for abuse

catatonia

certain motor behaviors characteristic of some people with schizophrenia may refer to one of two things: ① 📸 a state of immobility & unresponsiveness to one's outside environment, usually including muscle rigidity, staring, and inability to communicate ② useless and bizarre movements not caused by any external stimuli, *echolalia*, or *echopraxia*

compliance

change in behavior based on a direct request from someone with no actual power/authority over you This is when a person may publicly show themselves go along with the behavior of the group to gain their approval or to avoid disapproval. Internally however their opinions may be different and this conformity may happen only when in the presence of the group. weakest level of conformity

demographic shifts

changes in the makeup of a population over time

internalization

changing one's behavior to fit with a group while also privately agreeing with the ideas of the group type of *conformity* (deepest level)

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

characterized by *obsessions*, which produce tension, and *compulsions* that relieve tension but cause significant impairment in a person's life egodystonic

birth rate

children per 1000 people per year

fertility rate

children per woman per lifetime in a population

Examples of social interaction

choice shift and groupthink Explanation: shows how two or more individuals influence *each other's* behavior.

ideas of reference

client's inaccurate interpretation that general events are personally directed to him or her, such as hearing a speech on the news and believing the message has personal meaning like delusions of reference, but less extreme (schizotypal personality disorder)

Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion

cognitive approach, focuses on the "how" and the "why" of persuasion 2 approaches (routes): ① Central route - the degree of attitude change depends on the *quality of arguments* ② Peripheral route - superficial, nonverbal persuasion cues (attractiveness, expertise, status of the presenter)

Which type of culture views conformity more favorably?

collectivist (Eastern)

Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder

common term in neurology adopted by the DSM-5 to refer to *conversion disorder*

McDonaldization

commonly used to refer to a shift in focus toward efficiency, predictability, calculability, and control in societies allows businesses to focus on *calculable* outcomes of a choice (profit and loss analysis, market share, etc.)

interspecific communication

communication between members of different species ex: skunks mark their territory to other animals with their scent

intraspecific communication

communication between members of the same species

muticulturalism

communities or societies containing multiple cultures where there is celebration, encouragement, and respect of cultural *differences* without one dominating ❗️ contrasts with cultural assimilation (melding of cultures - usually uneven though)

Gemeinschaft

community groups united by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry, or geography ex: families, neighborhoods, church groups, co-workers

Yerkes-Dodson Law applies to __________ tasks.

complex or those you're not well-versed

activity theory of aging

concerned with the replacement of certain jobs and activities lost due to an aging population

____________ is aligning behavior to unstated social expectations due to fear of rejection by peers.

conformity

An additional influence on the dependent variable aside from the independent variable describes a _____________.

confounder

impression management (self-presentation)

conscious or unconscious process whereby people attempt to manage their own image by influencing the perceptions of others

In a capitalist economy, success or failure in business is primarily driven by what?

consumerism very little intervention from central governing bodies

dependent personality disorder

continuous need for reassurance need this person to take actions and make all decisions

A woman going blind shortly after watching her son die tragically could hypothetically be categorized as what psychological disorder?

conversion disorder Explanation: symptoms seen in this disorders may also connected with the traumatic event in a poetic way

Motor or sensory symptoms in the absence of an underlying physical or neurological disease indicates what psychiatric diagnosis?

conversion disorder onset may be associated with trauma (psychological or physical) much more common in women

A group whose values, beliefs, and norms place its members in opposition to the broader culture, is referred to as a ____________.

counterculture

illusion of invulnerability

creation of optimism and encouragement of risk-taking (Groupthink)

What is the least socially accepted type of religious organization?

cult

Which type of religious movement is most likely to be led by a charismatic leader?

cult

cultural barriers

cultural difference impedes interactions with others

______________ is the process by which an idea, invention, or some other cultural item is borrowed from a foreign source.

cultural diffusion

counterculture

cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society

What has been proposed by sociologists as a solution to ethnocentrism?

cultural relativism

display rules

culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors (e.g. emotions) are appropriate to display rules for how you can express yourself in a given culture

What makes human societies unique from one another?

culture

______________ is the personal disorientation a person may feel when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life due to immigration or changes in social environments.

culture shock

mortality rate

deaths per 1000 people per year

Using the same test in a population with higher prevalence ___________ negative predictive value (NPV).

decreases Explanation: NPV depends on *C* and *D*. If we test in a high prevalence setting, it is more likely that persons who test negative actually do have disease, (↑ *C* or *false negatives*) making the denominator *larger* than if the test is performed in a population with low prevalence.

The bystander effect __________ with increased danger.

decreases Explanation: more serious - more likely to help

The bystander effect __________ with increased group cohesion.

decreases Explanation: your friend - you help

As the sample size increases, the margin of error ___________.

decreases both types of error go ↓

racialization

definition or establishment of a group as a particular race Ex: Judaism was originally just a religion, but now there's a Jewish race

Which delusions are also common in bipolar I disorder?

delusions of *grandeur* (presumably when *manic*)

_________________ assigns new meanings to a behavior, which was judged to be "sick" or related to the appropriate behavior for someone who is sick, but is now judged to be normal.

demedicalization ￫ normalization of "sick" behavior (Symbolic interactionism)

iron law of oligarchy

democratic or bureaucratic systems naturally shift to being ruled by an elite group criticism of them

A ______________ is a non-state sponsored, large, mainstream religious organization

denomination

Most of the major Christian bodies formed post-reformation, i.e. Baptists, Methodists, Lutherans, Seventh-day Adventists, are examples of _____________.

denominations Explanation: Denominations come into existence when churches lose their religious monopoly in a society.

structural social capital

density of *social networks* or patterns of civic engagement ￫ one of the 4 major types of social capital

An out-of-body experience is characteristic of which psychological disorder?

depersonalization specifically

Failure to recognize one's reflection is characteristic of which psychological disorder?

depersonalization/derealization disorder

What cardinal symptom(s) must always be present in a major depressive episode?

depressed mood or anhedonia

mating system

describes the way in which a group is organized in terms of sexual behavior ex: monogamy, polygamy, etc.

What is a criticism of the *five ethnicities model*?

despite the numerous policies created to encourage equality in the law, socioeconomic inequality remains high in America It has been reasoned that this could be due to our oversimplification of race/ethnicity and overreliance on models such as these, which mandate strict boundaries on race and ethnicity when in reality, the boundaries are much more ambiguous and fluid.

derealization

detached from surroundings world often has a dreamlike or insubstantial quality

Marxist theory proposes that the proletariat could over the bourgeoisie as well as the entire capitalist economy by...

developing *class consciousness* and working together as one unit, they could take control and lay the groundwork for a *socialist* state

sensory bias

development of a trait to match a preexisting preference that exists in the population ex: fiddler crabs are naturally attracted to structures that break up the level horizon because they may indicate a food source, so *male crabs take advantage of this by building pillars around their territory to attract mates*

David Rosenhan

did study in which *sane* patients were admitted to psychiatric hospitals and diagnoses with schizophrenia Even though they had nothing wrong with them, the people in the places were not immediately convinced, and it still took the patients an average of 3 weeks to get discharged, and they were *still* given the diagnosis in remission. showed that *once you are diagnosed with a disorder, the label*, even when behavior indicates otherwise, *is hard to overcome in a mental health setting*

primary group

direct interaction, with close bonds providing warm, personal, and intimate relationships to members

____________ is biased action against a person or group of people.

discrimination

dissociative fugue

disorder in which one suddenly travels away from home or drastically changes day-to-day activities and is unable to remember details of his past, often including his identity may arise in cases of dissociative amnesia

generalized anxiety disorder

disproportionate and persistent worry about many different things for at least six months often w/ physical symptoms

antisocial personality disorder

disregard for and violation of the rights of others ￫ repeated illegal acts, deceit, aggression, lack of remorse ￫ serial killers, career criminals ￫ 3 X more common in males

A sect breaks away from a denomination, often due to ____________.

doctrinal issues often *protest* e.g. such as a return to a pure or fundamental version of the denomination.

primary deviance

does not incur major consequences and no big effect on person's self esteem and he is able to continue the behavior without feeling morally wrong ex: in a body building competition, you take steroids. But then again, so is everyone else, so it's not really a big deal and you keep taking them (*Labeling Theory*)

hypomania

does not significantly impair functioning, nor are there psychotic features although the individual may be more energetic and optimistic 4 day minimum duraction

consensus cues

does this match others' behavior? if yes: situational if no: dispositional

distinctiveness cues

does this person use similar behavior in other situations, or is it just this specific context? if yes: dispositional if no: situational ex: friend always cancels lunch plans, does that friend cancel other things? if yes: she's flaky if no: maybe she likes to pack her lunch

What is the #1 cause of injury to American women?

domestic violence

What neurotransmitter is elevated in schizophrenia?

dopamine

When are visual and tactile hallucinations most often seen?

drug use or withdrawal

What is the simplest of social groups?

dyad (2 people) followed by triad, etc.

An ____________ is religious group that includes most members of a society and is closely affiliated with or holds state or secular power.

ecclesia

church vs. ecclesia

ecclesias include characteristics of churches with the exception that they are *generally less successful at garnering absolute adherence* among all of the members of the society and are *not* the sole religious body. e.g. The state churches of some European nations

A democracy allows every citizen a political vote, usually through...

electing representatives to office (representative democracy)

Dopamine levels are ___________ in schizophrenia.

elevated

Paul Ekman

emotion; found that facial expressions are universal 6 basic emotions, later revised to 7

Emotional support vs. esteem support

emotional support = listening, affirming, empathizing esteem support = affirms qualities and skills of person

How is culture defined?

encompasses the entire lifestyle for a given group, binding our nation-states, political institutions, marketplaces, religions, and ideologies

population

entire set of individuals or objects with characteristics of interest Ex: "...Researchers devised a study to determine whether a causal link existed between income level and psychosis in *urban communities*..." "...The experiment's conclusion was that *individuals with borderline personality disorder* struggle more with self-regulation under high-pressure situations..."

Error vs. discrepancy

error = uncertainty in measurements discrepancy = difference between your own measurement and some generally accepted value.

What is the problem with the way the government assesses poverty level (*poverty line*)?

estimates min. income requirements for families to acquire basic necessities of life: food, water, shelter, clothing the *problem* is that it *fails* to account for geographical variables: living in NYC > $ than Mobile, AL.

___________ is the tendency to use one's own culture to judge the values, practices, or customs of other societies

ethnocentrism

ethnocentrism vs. cultural relativism

ethnocentrism (-): judgements about other cultures based on values and beliefs of one's own culture cultural relativism (+): recognition that social groups and cultures must be studied on their own terms and that different qualities are not inferior/superior, but "just different" both: individual considers another group to which he/she does not belong difference is in the *reaction* to that other group

How can the icreased population of the United States be explained in terms of fertility rate?

even though fertility rates have trended downward over time, the rate is still above 2

What did Charles Cooley believe about the role others play in our perceptions of ourselves?

everyone that a person interacts with during his entire lifespan can influence his self-identity through some process or another hint: he developed *looking-glass self*

disengagement theory of aging

examines the self-reflection that occurs as one ages and how aging causes a separation of society

Individuals making rational, self-interested choices is an assumption of which theory?

exchange theory ✷ some other assumptions not listed: *"Social interactions change over time"* *"Rewarding actions will be repeated, but the reward diminishes over time."*

_____________ posits that interactions are determined by weighing rewards and punishments of each action.

exchange theory key word: *interactions* somewhat similar to *operant conditioning* int hat behavior that is met with approval by others will reinforce that behavior, or vice-versa

rational choice theory vs exchange theory

exchange theory is an extension of rational choice theory that focuses on interactions in *groups* rather than just looking at the individual independently of social interactions.

According to James, many of our instincts are in direct conflict with each other and could be overridden by ____________.

experience

affect

experience and display of emotion

sensitivity (statistics)

experiment concludes there is a difference between groups and there is actually a difference ￫ the test will correctly diagnose a case, or the probability that any given case will be identified by the test ￫ given by the *PPV*

specificity (statistics)

experiment concludes there's no difference between groups and there's actually no difference ￫ the probability that the test will correctly identify a *non*-diseased person ￫ given by the *NPV*

ethnographic methods

experimental methods used to study the ethnicity or culture of a group

political process theory

explanation of social movements positing that movements achieve success by exploiting a combination of internal organizational factors as well as external changes in society Needs: ① political opportunities ② "insurgent consciousness" - change is needed!

emotion work

expression of an emotion, often because of a role requirement, that a person does not really feel or trying to create the right emotion for a certain ocassion (e.g. thinking of sad things so that you can cry at a funeral)

avoidant personality disorder

extreme shyness and fear of rejection sees herself as socially inept, and is isolated despite *intense desire* for social affection and acceptance stay in same jobs, relationships, etc. despite wanting change

Which form of nonverbal communication is more highly conserved between species, facial expressions or body language?

facial expressions so bared teeth and lunging forward is perceived almost universally (people, animals, bugs, etc.) as signs of aggression of readiness to attack

Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD)

fall under "obsessive-compulsive and related" a person has an unrealistic negative evaluation of his or her personal appearance and attractiveness, usually directed toward a certain body part

delusions

false beliefs discordant with reality and *not shared by others in the individual's culture* that are maintained in spite of strong evidence to the contrary ❗️means that shamanism is NOT a delusion in places like the Caribbean, where it is endorsed by the predominant culture

What is the one major barrier to class consciousness as predicted by Marx?

false consciousness

In schizotypal personalty disorder, patients are friendly to everyone except...

family

examples of social institutions

family education religion government economy health medicine

traditional social institutions

family, religion, education, government, economy

Primary socializing agents

family, school, church

symptoms of a panic attack

fear and apprehension sweating hyperventilation sense of unreality "sense of impending doom"

agoraphobia

fear or avoidance of situations, such as crowds or wide open places, where one has felt loss of control and panic

psychomotor symptoms

feeling "slowed down"

Depersonalization

feelings of detachment from one's mental processes or body

Who is more likely to be insured, males or females?

females

Who is more likely to visit their primary care physician, males or females?

females

Who has worse morbidity rates, males or females?

females their conditions are less often life-threatening though

According to Maslow, how are needs met?

first have to satisfy bottom, primitive needs, and you can sequentially move up the pyramid. satisfied based on *priority*

In the context of biology, game payoffs refer to ___________.

fitness

pill-rolling tremor

flexing and extending the fingers while moving the thumb back and forth, as if rolling something in the fingers (Parkinson's Disease)

Conflict Theory

focuses on how power differentials are created and how these differentials contribute to the maintenance of social order

altruism

form of helping behavior in which the person's intent is to benefit someone else *at the cost to him or herself*

Capitalists focus on what type of trade?

free market

Globalization is the process of integrating the global economy with ______________ and the tapping of foreign markets.

free trade

How do *social constructs* arise?

from humans communicating and working together to agree on the significance of a concept or principle

What diseases are disproportionately high in the Native American population?

gallbladder & biliary tree diseases

Who is more likely to have an eating disorder, a gay man or a straight man?

gay

______________ is the unequal access to aspects of society because of gender-based socioeconomic rankings.

gender stratification

_______________ is the forced movement of less affluent members of neighborhoods due to price pressures from urban renovations.

gentrification

lowball technique

getting an initial commitment from a person and then raising the cost of that commitment, whether it be money, time or effort

A ___________ is an area where specific racial, ethnic, or religious minorities are concentrated, usually due to social or economic inequities.

ghetto Ex: Venetian ghetto where Jews resided

Why are female animals often less colorful than males?

gives them greater degree of camouflage and protection when caring for their young also serves as communication between the males and females, as sex is readily apparent this way

What is cultural assimilation on a large scale?

groups with different cultures begin to merge into one

_____________ describes desire for harmony or conformity that results in a group of people coming to an incorrect or poor decision.

groupthink consensus decisions are reached to minimize conflict among members, but no alternative ideas have been assessed ￫ loss of independent critical thinking ￫ isolates and ignores external viewpoints ￫ own ideas are correct without question (Irving Janis) Famous example: Bay of Pigs invasion

Where do *institutionalized sects* fall on the continuum of religious development?

halfway between sects and denominations: They have a mixture of sect-like and denomination-like characteristics Ex: the Amish

How do functionalists define *dysfunctions*?

harmful consequences of people's actions because they undermine a social system's *equilibrium*

Bourgeoisie

haves

What diseases are disproportionately high in the Mediterranean and African populations?

hemoglobinopathies

What diseases are disproportionately high in the Chinese population?

hep B and liver cancer Mnemonic:......

Individuals with __________ self-esteem are more likely to exhibit the self-serving bias

high Explanation: they feel the need to protect their image conversely, those with depression have *reverse attributional bias* ⟶ success = external: "I got lucky this time"; failure = internal: "It was all my fault"

___________ arousal levels are optimal for tasks that require physical endurance and stamina.

higher

core nations

higher skills and higher paying productions thus exploit peripheral nations for lower-skilled productions

According to Mead, when there is a predominance of the "me" in the personality, we speak of a person as a *conventional* individual, which means what?

his ideas are exactly the same as those of his neighbors conformist/excessive concern for what people think

Who is more likely to die of HIV/AIDS, a Hispanic American or a white American?

hispanic

Who is more likely to die of diabetes, a Hispanic American or a white American?

hispanic same w/ Native Americans: they are more likely than whites to die from diabetes and actually have the highest mortality rate from diabetes

Who is more likely to die of alcohol/drug use, a Hispanic American or a white American?

hispanic same w/ Native Americans: they are more likely than whites to do from alcohol/drug use

population pyramids

histogram of the population size of various age cohorts

mate bias

how choosy members of the species are while choosing a mate an evolutionary mechanism aimed at increasing fitness of the species

account

how people use a common language to explain, justify, rationalize, legitimize, or excuse behavior to themselves and to others ✴︎ *motives* - a type of account that verbalize the "why" of our behavior

age stratification theory

how the age of a generation regulates that generation's behavior

Malthusian theory

how the exponential growth of a population can outpace growth of the food supply and lead to social degradation and disorder

Follow this link to see how p-values can show statistically significant results on a graph.

http://blog.minitab.com/blog/adventures-in-statistics-2/understanding-hypothesis-tests-significance-levels-alpha-and-p-values-in-statistics

How do you set up a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis?

https://www.dummies.com/education/math/statistics/how-to-set-up-a-hypothesis-test-null-versus-alternative/ You always decide on Hₐ before collecting data so as not to influence results. When creating Hₐ, it depends on your goals. If you are a competitor to some pie company, you might set your Hₐ: μ > 5 for the claim, H₀: μ = 5, if you want to prove that, for example, it actually takes longer to prepare something that was only claimed to take 5 minutes. However, if you are a founder of the company, and you are looking to market the pie as ready in 3 minutes, versus, 5, you might set your Hₐ: μ < 5 if the claim, H₀: μ = 5 If you are truly impartial and just want to see if the company's estimation is correct, you set Hₐ: μ ≠ 5 for the claim H₀: μ = 5.

A ____________ would view globalization as being driven by a legitimate process.

hyperglobalist

For all anxiety disorders, clinicians must rule out ______________.

hyperthyroidism

Illness Anxiety Disorder was previously referred to as...

hypochondriasis

Bipolar II disorder

hypomania (less severe mania) with at least one major depressive episode

What is the antiquated name for conversion disorder?

hysteria

ascribed social status is based on...

identifiable external characteristics

How is the rational choice theory challenged by the concept of altruism?

if an individual does something to benefit another person at a *cost* to herself, then she is not choosing the option with the highest *benefit-to-harm ratio* for herself.

How can low levels of monoamine oxidase (MAO) contribute to increased risk-seeking behavior?

if enzyme that degrades monoamines (like epi) is low, then the NT will persist, which may lead to motivation to want to experience ↑ arousal

According to Conflict Theory, when there is an existing power differential, how does the group with the upper hand gain dominance over other groups?

if it successfully outcompetes other groups for economic, political, and social resources

collective rationalization

ignoring warnings against the idea of the group (Groupthink)

In _____________, the person is preoccupied with fears that he has - or will come down with - a serious disease, and these fears continue even after medical exams and tests have returned negative results.

illness anxiety disorder

echopraxia

imitating another's actions (schizophrenia)

migration rate

immigration rate - emigration rate

Reactive Attachment Disorder

in children, a pattern of inhibited, withdrawn behavior toward adult caregivers

in situ

in its original place, in position

According to Mead, when there is a predominance of the "I" in the personality means what?

in many ways this is Mead's ideal — the person who has a *definite* personality, who replies to the organized attitude in a way that makes a significant difference.

loose associations (derailment)

in schizophrenia, an aspect of disorganized thinking wherein the patient has difficulty sticking to one topic and drifts off on a train of associations evoked by an idea from the past

When can increased goal-directed activity be pathological?

in the context of a *manic* episode

semi-peripheral nations

in-between nations, not powerful enough to dictate policy but acting as a major source of raw materials and an *expanding middle class* marketplace government is *stable*

Robbie is Hawaiian and prefers to spend time with other people from Hawaii because he identifies as part of their social group and shares many of the same cultural values. This is an example of: Individual discrimination. In-group ethnocentrism. Cultural relativism. Stereotype.

in-group ethnocentrism Explanation: no negative feelings towards other groups, just prefers his in-group he's not acting on any prejudices (discrimination) he's not shown to form impressions on an out-group (stereotype) however, he's not considering the differences of other cultures either (cultural relativism)

dissociative amnesia

inability to recall past experience ✴︎ dissociative = not caused by a neurological disorder

Postindustrial modern life has result in an ____________ in anomic conditions.

increase Explanation: more urbanized, self-oriented, materialistic

In depression, levels of cortisol are _____________.

increased

indirect phenotypic benefits

increased genetic fitness *for offspring* ex: birds pick a male with a large song repertoire because they tend to *produce more viable offspring*

Using the same test in a population with higher prevalence ___________ positive predictive value (PPV).

increases Explanation: PPV depends on *A* and *B*. If we test in a high prevalence setting (↑ *A* or *true positive*), it is more likely that persons who test positive truly have disease than if the test is performed in a population with low prevalence

As the sample size, N, increases, the power ___________.

increases Explanation: This is because a larger sample size narrows the distribution of the test statistic (less variation) 📸 *N* is depicted as height of the curve ❗️The price paid for this increase in power is the higher cost in time and resources required for collecting more data.

Deindividuation ____________ with group cohesion.

increases Explanation: familiar, close group doing something ￫ you're more likely to do it

Deindividuation ____________ with anonymity.

increases Explanation: if you can't be implicated for your actions, you're more likely to engage

types of discrimination

individual and institutional

Individualist/collectivist cultures are more likely to make fundamental attribution errors

individualist Explanation: with collectivist, it's all about the community and interdependence: "If he is suffering, it concerns us all." individualists are all about independence: "If I can do it, so can he, so he must be lazy."

The Amish are an example of what type of religious movement?

individualized sect

depersonalization/derealization disorder

individuals feel detached from their own mind and body (depersonalization) or from their surroundings (derealization) - can be one or the other or both - automation - failure to recognize one's reflection ❗️though there is impairment of regular activities, there are *NO* psychotic sx like hallucinations or delusions

psychotic disorder

individuals suffer from one or more of the following conditions: ￫ delusions ￫ hallucinations ￫ disorganized thought ￫ disorganized behavior ￫ catatonia ￫ negative symptoms hallmark is *schizophrenia*

persistent depressive disorder

individuals who suffer from *dysthymia* most of the time for at least 2 years may also give this diagnosis to people w/ major depressive disorder that lasts at least 2 years or people with a combination of the two

privilege

inequality in opportunity

Blindly agreeing to someone else's opinion is an example of which impression management strategy?

ingratiation conforming to expectations to win someone over

Complimenting a friend before asking for a favor is an example of which impression management strategy?

ingratiation using flattery to win someone over

What are the 4 primary factors that influence motivation?

instincts, arousal, drives, and needs

What is meritocracy based on?

intellectual talent and achievement a means to advance up the social ladder

If the onset of schizophrenia is ___________, the prognosis is better.

intense and sudden

How does the biomedical approach treat psychological disorders?

interventions that rally around *symptom reduction* it's a biomedical disturbance that should be treated with biomedical treatments ex: chemo for cancer, often has negative effective on other aspects of life

acrophobia

irrational fear of heights

prejudice

irrational positive or negative (usually -) attitude toward a person, group, or thing *without actual prior experience* *affect*

consistency cues

is this behavior consistent over time? if yes: dispositional if no: situational

How can culture help explain altruistic behavior?

it creates a sense of loyalty and allegiance

According to the Iron Law of Oligarchy, what will happen to a group originally established with democratic principles and complete egalitarianism?

it will still ultimately centralize, placing power in the hands of a few key leaders

Why is institutional discrimination difficult to change?

it's built into the structure of society (covert), and because it is a part of society, it is perpetuated by simply maintaining the status quo

How do functional theorists view deviance?

it's necessary for social order ￫ it provides a clear perception of social norms and acceptable boundaries, encourages unity within society, and can even promote social change

What is the correlation between social mobility and education?

it's not direct, although it can certainly help Ex: pro athlete did not necessarily go to college, so *athletics* and *music* are opportunities other than education that can allow for social mobility

halo effect

judgements of a specific elements of an individual's character can be affected by the overall impression of the individual (or her attractiveness) ex: brings cookies to workplace, the perceiver has not tried them yet but says: "Glenn is a great worker and is super nice, so I'm sure these cookies are fantastic"

word salad

jumble of incoherent speech with no structure but prosody (rhythm, stress, and intonation) remains intact (schizophrenia) may also be seen in *Wernicke's aphasia*

Thomas Szasz would be MOST critical of the commonly used criterion to diagnose psychological disorders that relates to...

labeling people as "mentally ill" Explanation: he argues that most disorders of the mind are not really illnesses, but rather are traits or behaviors that *differ from the cultural norm* By labeling them as mentally ill, you are forcing them to change and conform to societal norms rather than allowing them to attack the societal causes of their problems

labeling theory

labels given to people affect not only how others respond to that person, but also the person's self-image *a behavior is deviant if people have judged and labeled that behavior as deviant* There can be *primary deviance* and *secondary deviance* ex: a women labeled by society as "promiscuous" could lead either to further promiscuity (deviance) or a change in behavior that's more in line with society (conformity). ❗️Note that groups may embrace deviant labels though (e.g. motorcycle clubs)

lacunae

lacks a superego (antisocial PD)

Capitalists focus on what type of politics?

laissez-faire Explanation: minimum governmental interference in the economic affairs of individuals and society

church

large, universal religious group that can be divided into multiple coexisting denominations

hypomanic episode

less severe and less disruptive version of a manic episode that is one of the criteria for several mood disorders

anhedonia

loss of interest in all or almost all formerly enjoyable activities i.e. a diminished ability to experience pleasure

How is poverty defined?

low SES and lack of possessions or financial resources

___________ arousal levels are optimal for highly cognitive tasks.

lower

Conflict Theory normally falls under a ________________ perspective.

macrosociological

Functionalism normally falls under a ________________ perspective.

macrosociological

life course approach to health

maintaining and considering a comprehensive view of the patient's history beyond the immediate presenting symptoms

What needs does the government meet as an institution?

maintains social order & enforces laws

Types of mood disorders

major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder

ethnocentrism

making judgements about other cultures based on the values and beliefs of one's own culture

Who has worse mortality rates, males or females?

males

Mentioning associations you have with important researchers during an interview is an example of which impression management strategy?

managing appearances using associations with others to create a positive image

When patients are put on treatment for depression, they must be watched for signs of what other disorder?

mania Explanation: antidepressants may mask an underlying undiagnosed bipolar disorder

Bipolar disorders were formerly known as...

manic depression

Bipolar I disorder

manic episodes with or without major depressive episodes

Functions can be either...

manifest or latent • manifest ￫ intended to help some part of a system • latent ￫ unintended positive consequences on other parts of society. They may flow logically from manifest functions, but are *unstated* or *unrecognized*

institutional discrimination of women

marginalizes or devalues their contributions to society. - financial inequality - less promotions - glass ceiling

The American flag is an example of what type of culture?

material material = artifacts/things nonmaterial = ideas ✴︎material culture is often the tangible embodiment of the underlying ideas of symbolic culture (here, flag represents freedom)

_____________ is the custom of living with or near the wife's family or tribe.

matrilocality

_______________ is the process of changing a "bad" behavior into a "sick" behavior.

medicalization of deviance (Symbolic interactionism)

Symbolic Interactionism normally falls under a ________________ perspective.

microsociological

constricted affect

mild reduction in intensity of feeling tone that is less severe than that of blunted affect. (schizotypal personality disorder)

Johari Window Model

model of self-disclosure that summarizes how self-awareness is influenced by self-disclosure and information about yourself from others

resource mobilization theory

model of social movements that emphasizes political context and goals but also states that social movements are unlikely to emerge without the necessary resources social movements happen when groups are competing for scarce resources!

impression bias

model of social perception focusing on selection of cues to interpret other people ① perceiver meets unfamiliar target and takes in all cues *unfiltered* ② with time, uses these cues to *categorize* target ③ any additional time w/ target in the situation leads perceiver to confirm the categorization ④ perception of additional cues *becomes selective* so that they paint a picture of the target *consistent with the initial perceptions* (primacy effect) ⑤ sometimes, though, the most recent encounter with the target will prove more important in forming impressions (recency effect)

A poor person living in Beverly Hills would feel (more/less) *social exclusion* than a poor person living in Mobile Alabama.

more Explanation: feelings of alienation and powerlessness can be magnified when disadvantaged groups living in an affluent community similar to *anomic conditions*

The more mutual connections within the social network, the ___________ redundant the information.

more on the other hand, a network that has a position with access to multiple *non-interacting* groups has a good chance of receiving novel, non-redundant information and allows for much innovation. On the negative side, it could also produce constraints for the individual Ex: If we compare the two nodes, node A is more likely to get novel information than node B, even though they have the same number of links. This is so because nodes connected to B are also highly connected between each other. Therefore, any information that any of them could get from B, it could easily get from other nodes as well. Furthermore, the information, which B gets from different connections, is likely to be overlapping, so connections involving node B are said to be redundant. On contrary, the position of node A makes it serve as a bridge or a *'broker'* between three different clusters. Thus, node A is likely to receive some non-redundant information from its contacts. The term *'structural holes'* is used for the separation between non-redundant contacts. As a result of the hole between two contacts, they provide network benefits to the third party (to node A) but also the possibility of contradictory constraints

secondary deviance

more serious consequences that incur a stigmatizing deviant label that can result in even more deviant behavior label affects self-esteem and may cause an escalation in deviance ex: on a sports team, the best player takes steroids but everyone is opposed to it. Once they found out his secret, they exclude him from practice and replace his position, claiming he has no natural talent without the drugs. This may cause him to take even more steroids to prove himself. This spiral will likely give him a stigma for the rest of his career

As group size increases, the group is ___________ stable and __________ intimate.

more; less tradeoff: ↓ intimacy for ↑ stability

During demographic transition, which rate drops first?

mortality rate Explanation: standard of living increases, but they're still having lots of babies

actor-observer bias

most often with *negative* behavior: due to our unique knowledge about our own actions, we are more likely to make situational attributions for the self as compared to others ex: "I am a victim, but they brought it upon themselves."

sequential move game

moves are made in sequence with later players having knowledge of the previous players actions

Role conflict is difficulty in satisfying the requirements of ___________ role(s).

multiple

What is the former name of dissociative identity disorder?

multiple personality disorder

cogwheel rigidity

muscle tension that intermittently halts movement as an examiner attempts to manipulate a limb (Parkinson's Disease)

What are the genetic risk factors for Alzheimer's disease?

mutations in the presenilin genes (chromosomes 1 and 14) mutations in apolipoprotein E on chromosome 19 mutations in β-amyloid precursor protein gene (chromosome 21)

self-serving bias

my success = internal factors my failure = external factors also called "self-serving attributional bias*

peripheral nations

nations on the fringes of the global economy, dominated by core nations, with very little industrialization

Who is more likely to die at birth, a Native American infant or a white American infant?

native

histrionic personality disorder

needs to be center of attention constant attention-seeking behavior wears colorful clothing, dramatic, extroverted, may use seduction to gain attention

narcissistic personality disorder

needs to be love and admired by others Grandiosely self-important; preoccupied with success fantasies; expecting special treatment; lacking interpersonal empathy and relationships because they feel entitled to everything need for constant admiration and attention ❗️VERY fragile self-esteem, constantly concerned with how others view them (and can spark rage, inferiority, shame, humiliation, or emptiness when not viewed favorably)

push factors

negative attributes of the old location that encourage the immigrant to leave

A ____________ family lives away from both of the couples' families or tribes.

neolocal

The term ___________ is used to describe the observable pattern of social relationships among individuals or groups.

network pattern determined by mapping interactions b/w individual units (highly variable) could be b/w friends, family, societal institutions, etc. can be overlapping connections with the same individual ⟶ *network redundancy*

ventromedial hypothalamus injury

never satiated, can't stop eating

lateral hypothalamus injury

no appetite, never gets hungry

Prosody is an example of what type of communication?

nonverbal tone of voice does not actually include words

True or False: Learning requires a change in attitude.

nope Explanation: *learning* is defined specifically as "the way in which we acquire new behaviors." There's no mandated attitude component. ✴︎Key concept: In learning, there is clearly a change in behavior, but that change in behavior does not necessarily cause a change in attitude.

folkways

norms that are not strictly enforced, but are considered polite in social interactions ex: covering your mouth when you sneeze

cultural relativism

not judging a culture but trying to understand it on its own terms

Is social facilitation always positive?

not necessarily, it just describes how people perform at a *different* level based on the fact that others are around depends on the difficulty level of the task, among other things

____________ describes modifying behavior due to the presence of an authority figure.

obedience

phenotypic benefits

observable traits that make a potential mate more attractive to the opposite sex

attribute substitution

occurs when individuals must make judgments that are complex but instead they substitute a simpler solution or apply heuristic may not realize that you've made a substitution and are answering a slightly different question/scenario to avoid answering the hard one

schizotypal personality disorder

odd or eccentric thinking ￫ *ideas of reference* ￫ *magical thinking* (superstitiousness or a belief in clairvoyance) ￫ *inappropriate affect* or *constricted affect* ex: Johnny Depp as Willy Wonka

threat displays

often used by animals (but also humans, e.g. before a fight) to reduce the costs of maintaining territories by learning who neighbors are and switching defense mechanisms from actual combat to display only may or may not result in physical violence

race vs. ethnicity

one can choose whether or not to display ethnic identity, while racial identities are always on display Ex: black Latino

master status

one that pervades all aspects of an individual's life

adaptive function of attitude

one will be accepted if socially acceptable attitudes are expressed "social-adjustive" concerned with status, popularity, and how they are viewed by others and will seek objects that assist in developing their desired social image

What did George Herbert Mead believe about the role others play in our perceptions of ourselves?

only certain people can influence us and only at certain periods of life plus the *way* that others influence us changes across the lifespan ex: an infant is really not influenced by others in any way - they see themselves as the focus of their own (lack ability to take perspective of another person, like Piaget's egocentrism) As we grow up, we care about people's perceptions of us 3 stages that this happens: preparatory stage, play stage, game stage

emotional flattening

or "flat affect", virtually no signs of emotional expression

A bureaucracy is a specific example of a _______________.

organization specific goal: to perform complex tasks as efficiently as possible ❗️ironically, their rigid rules make them slow to change, and thus less efficient than other organizations

What needs does the economy meet as an institution?

organizes $, goods, and services

identification

outward acceptance of others' ideas without personally taking on these ideas type of conformity (middle level)

Network Redundancy

overlapping connections with the same individual in a social network

Exhibiting signs of panic and irrational fear without any instigating object present indicates _____________.

panic disorder

genetic loading

parents increase risk of offspring having a mood disorder

A ____________ family lives with or near the husband's family or tribe.

patrilocal

definition of religion

pattern of social activities organized around a set of beliefs and practices that seek to address the meaning of existence

social integration

peaceful movement into mainstream society

strong ties

peer group and kinship contacts which are quantitatively small but qualitatively powerful

sanctions

penalties and rewards for conduct concerning a social norm; means to maintain social control can be *formal* (enforced by social institutions) or *informal* (enforced by social behaviors)

splitting

people are either "all good" or "all bad" (borderline personality disorder)

age cohort

people born at roughly the same time who pass through the life course together

present-orientation

people do not plan for the future context: poor people

social cognitive theory of attitudes

people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by *direct observation* of others' behavior and replication of their actions in tandem with influence of personal and environmental factors. *reciprocal causation*: behavior + personal factors + environment factors ex: the work ethic of employees (behavior) is affected by: - how hard their colleagues work (observation of behavior) - their previous attitudes toward hard work (personal) - the systems and infrastructure of the company (environment). ❗️behavior is *NOT* learned through trial-and-error (Bandura)

reciprocal liking

people like others better when they believe the other person likes them ⁂ even if we disagree with someone on important issues, we will have increased interest in them if we can gather that they like us

social facilitation

people tend to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others supports the idea that people naturally exhibit a "performance response" when they know they are being watched. Even if others aren't actually evaluating him, it's the fact that he *perceives* evaluation that sparks his performance (*Yerkes-Dodson Law of Social Facilitation*)

How can relative deprivation be temporal?

people that experience expansion of rights or wealth, followed by stagnation or reversal of those gains

cognitive social capital

people's *perceptions* of the level of interpersonal trust, sharing, and reciprocity ￫ one of the 4 major types of social capital

subjective norms

people's beliefs about how others they care about will view the behavior in question

hallucinations

perceptions that are not due to external stimuli but have a compelling sense of reality

obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD)

perfectionistic and inflexible, tending to like rules and order discards worn-out stuff, lacks desire to change, stubborn, no sense of humor, careful adherence to routine ego-syntonic: "I just likes rules and order"

In trying to get more people to vaccinate their children, appealing to which route of processing would be most effective?

peripheral Explanation: In contrast to medication compliance or fitness routines, vaccinations are administered once. Thus, the more effective strategy in this case will be via the peripheral route, which tends to produce stronger initial results than the central route, even though there is less likelihood of lasting change.

A ____________ country will have a weak central government and an economy based mostly on raw materials and unskilled production of goods.

periphery

obsessions

persistent ideas, thoughts, or impulses that are unwanted and inappropriate, causing marked distress and tension

dissociative disorder

person avoids stress by escaping from his identity

Bandura's Reciprocal Determinism Model

personal, environmental, and behavioral variables interact to influence attitude ex: the work ethic of employees (behavior) is affected by: - how hard their colleagues work (observation of behavior) - their previous attitudes toward hard work (personal) - the systems and infrastructure of the company (environment). Reciprocally, this behavior may create a change in the employee's attitude toward work (personal) and the systems within the company (environment)

paranoid personality disorder

pervasive distrust of others and suspicion regarding their motives may be in *prodromal phase* of schizophrenia (*premorbid*)

borderline personality disorder

pervasive instability in interpersonal behavior, mood, and self-image unstable and intense interpersonal relationships may be profound identity disturbance, uncertainty of self-image, sexual identity, LT goals, or values fear of abandonment VERY common *splitting* is a common symptom, as well as suicide and cutting/burning ✴︎ 2 X more common in females

schizoid personality disorder

pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression

phenotypic benefits vs. indicator traits

phenotypic benefits: *quality* traits - vs. - indicator traits: *physical* traits that show the organism is healthy

How is aggression defined?

physical or verbal/nonverbal behavior intended to hurt someone or increase social dominance

Some fear that America's meritocratic system is quickly becoming a ____________.

plutocracy ￫ a rule by the upper classes Explanation: it's no longer enough to be motivated, have a strong work ethic, drive, and mastery of skills. meritocracy still applies in many areas though, i.e. academia

Medications for schizophrenia generally only treat ___________ symptoms.

positive negative sx are not treated and the meds even mimick the - sx

Fisherian/runaway selection

positive feedback mechanism in which a particular traits has no effect or a negative effect on survival becomes more and more exaggerated over time, just because it is deemed "sexually attractive" accounts for the evolution of exaggerated male ornamentation by persistent, directional female choice ❗️can lead to *maladaptive traits* ex: peacock feathers

How do you calculate the *power* of a test?

power = test yields a true positive result and represents the probability that we have correctly rejected the null hypothesis. always a # b/w 0 and 1 given by: 1 - β where β = type II error (false negative) In words, it's given by 1 - the # of people who have the disease but did NOT test positive. ￫ If the power is close to 1, the hypothesis test is very good at detecting a false null hypothesis (i.e. high power). ￫ The power may be as low as 0.8, and if that's the case, then the hypothesis test is not so good at detecting a false null hypothesis (i.e. low power).

What happens to power if you increase the significance level, α?

power ↑ Explanation: we are more easily able to reject the H₀ since there is less proof needed to reject it. Plus, it's clear that we reduced type II errors (β), and since Power = 1 - β, a smaller β ⟶ greater power

What happens to power if you decrease the significance level, α?

power ↓ Explanation: as you can see, type II errors increase because we are letting making more false negatives and letting more affected/guilty people go. This reduces power

Random error affects _____________.

precision Explanation: The *precision* of a measurement is how close a # of measurements of the same quantity agree with each other. The precision is limited by the random errors because some unknown thing (could be instrument, environmental conditions, mechanical vibrations, etc.) is causing fluctuations in the data that make it unreliable (all over the place, not narrow) vs. systematic error that does *not* fluctuate, but is similarly wrong every time (skewed in one direction). Precision may usually be determined by repeating the measurements Since random errors produce variations both above and below some average value, they can usually be overcome using a *large* sample size & averaging out over a large range of data.

Graph for high accuracy and low precision

precision = fluctuations in either direction due to *random error* that affect the average and cause data to be all over the place can be overcome using large sample size.

_____________ is a prejudgment based on thoughts or feelings about a group, rather than personal experience.

prejudice

Propaganda attempts to to create _________ in others.

prejudice Explanation: it often invokes messages of fear, and exaggerated negative depictions of the target group

automation

presentation of the depersonalization/derealization seen in this disorder i.e. they are detached, so everything is "automated" and devoid of feeling

urban decay

previously functional portion of a city deteriorates and becomes decrepit over time due to *suburbanization* ✴︎ can spontaneously reverse though too (*urban renewal*)

social movements that promote social change are termed ______________.

proactive Ex: Civil rights, gay rights, women's rights, environmentalism

secondary socialization

process of learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of the larger society outside the home based on learning the rules of specific social environments and making smaller changes and refinements to behaviors established in primary socialization ex: school, sports

Before schizophrenia is diagnosed, a patient often goes through a phase characterized by poor adjustment. This phase is called the _____________.

prodromal phase

ego-defensive function of attitude

protect our self-esteem or justify actions that we know are wrong ex: child who has difficult doing math may develop a negative attitude towards the subject to guard himself from being perceived as "stupid"

prevalence (statistics)

provide estimates of the percentage of people who have ever had symptoms in a particular period Prevalence = Total w/ disease/Total pop 𝘅 100 or P = (True ✚ + False ⊖)/All subjects 𝘅 100

knowledge function of attitude

provides consistency and stability: attitudes help provide organization to thoughts and experiences knowing the attitudes of others helps to predict their behavior! ex: someone who cares about political action you would predict would vote in an upcoming election

Social Perception (Social Cognition)

provides the tools to make judgments and impressions regarding other people in our social environment Components: ① A *perceiver* ② His/her *target* ③ *Situation*

material support (tangible support)

providing physical or monetary resources to aid a person

Somatic Symptom Disorder

psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form without apparent physical cause ① must have at least 1 somatic sx, which may or may not be linked to an underlying medical condition *AND* ② disproportionate concerns about its seriousness, devotion of excessive time and energy to it, or elevated anxiety

anxiety disorders

psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety

mood disorders

psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes

verbigeration

purposeless repetition of words or phrases

racial formation theory

racial identity is fluid and dependent on concurrent political, economic, and social factors

_____________ focuses on decision-making in an individual and attempts to reduce this process to a careful consideration of benefits and harms to the individual.

rational choice theory

bureaucracy

rational system of political organization, administration, discipline, and control with the specific goal of performing complex tasks as efficiently as possible

social movements that resist social change are termed ______________.

reactive Ex: white supremacist, counterculture, antiglobalization, anti-immigration

intrusion symptoms

recurrent reliving of the event, flashbacks, nightmares, and prolonged distress (PTSD)

STRONG social constructionism

rejects brute facts, believing that everything can be explained as an interaction between social constructs

bonding social capital

relations within homogenous groups i.e. *strong* ties that connect family members, close friends, neighbors, and colleagues. it's *exclusive* - *within* a group, family, etc. a subset of *horizontal social capital*

The classical example of a *church* is the Catholic Church, especially in the past (Roman Empire). Why, now, has it been forced into the *denomination* category in the United States?

religious pluralism, or competition among religions. However, in places like Latin America, it's not yet a denomination because most of the citizens remain Catholic

panic disorder

repeated panic attacks

perserveration

repetition of a particular response (such as a word, phrase, or gesture) to a particular question, regardless of the absence or cessation of a stimulus (delirium and other organic brain disorders, but may be seen in autism & even schizophrenia)

palilalia

repetition of only the last uttered word or phrase (chronic schizophrenia)

Stereotypy Behavior

repetitive or ritualistic acts in many different settings, irrespective of context ex: rocking, twirling, hand flapping, humming 3 or 4 notes

secure attachment

requires a consistent caregiver so the child is able to go out and explore, knowing he or she has a secure base to return to the child will show strong preference for the caregiver

The specific behaviors/expectations associated with a *status* are called ______________.

roles include beliefs, values, attitudes, norms

What is the relationship between status and role?

roles fit within our status

Since 1950, the United States population has ____________.

roughly doubled

downward drift hypothesis

schizophrenia causes a decline in socioeconomic status, leading to worsening symptoms, which sets up a negative spiral for the patient toward poverty and psychosis explains ↑ rates of it in homeless and indigents

How are lesbians discriminated against in the healthcare system?

screened less for cervical cancer and may not be screened for other STIs

foraging

searching for and exploiting food resources

_____________ is a term used to describe the exacerbation of health outcomes due to social injustice.

second sickness

The desire for nurturing, love, achievement, and aggression are examples of ___________ drives.

secondary Explanation: those that motivate us to fulfill nonbiological, emotional, or "learned" desires *primary drives* = motivate us to maintain homeostasis

____________ is the process of displaying oneself to society through culturally-accepted behaviors.

self-presentation ✴︎ it's implied that people use specific *strategies* to shape what others will think of them a/k/a *impression management*

In broad terms, Kohlberg's preconventional stage is ___________.

selfish

A ___________ country has a stable government and a diversified economy, but lacks global economic or political influence.

semi-periphery ✴︎ also have an expanding middle class

Periphery vs. semi-periphery country

semi-periphery country lacks global economic or political influence only. Their government is otherwise stable and economy is diversified whereas periphery countries have a *weak* central government and a non-industrialized economy based mostly on raw materials and unskilled production of goods. Obviously, they too lack global economic or political influence.

blunting

severe reduction in the intensity of affect expression (schizophrenia)

Kinsey Scale of Sexual Orientation

sexuality is fluid: 0—Exclusively heterosexual with no homosexual 1—Predominantly heterosexual, only incidentally homosexual 2—Predominantly heterosexual, but more than incidentally homosexual 3—Equally heterosexual and homosexual; *bisexual* 4—Predominantly homosexual, but more than incidentally heterosexual 5—Predominantly homosexual, only incidentally heterosexual 6—Exclusively homosexual

cultural syndrome

shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and behaviors among members of the same culture that are organized around a central theme they influence the rules for expressing or suppressing emotions, and can even influence the ways emotions ar eexperienced ex: in countries with collectivist cultural syndrome, happiness is rational and applied to group experiences, rather than to individual successes or experiences: "I am sharing happiness with others." vs. "I am happy" (individualistic)

self-disclosure

sharing fears, thoughts, and goals with another person and being met with empathy and nonjudgement

Historically, symbolic interactionism developed in response to...

significant influx of immigration in America in the first half of the 20th century Sociologists at the University of Chicago noticed that some immigrant populations sought to assimilate quickly, while others formed ethnic enclaves in urban areas. So they started studying the interactions of *race*, *ethnicity*, and *immigration*

lower-middle class

skilled and semi-skilled workers with fewer luxuries

___________ arousal levels are optimal for simple tasks.

slightly higher than complex, but much less than what's optimal for physical activities

If schizophrenia development is __________, the prognosis is especially poor.

slow

bradykinesia

slowness in movement (Parkinson's Disease)

A ____________ is an extremely densely populated area of a city with low-quality, often informal housing and poor sanitation.

slum

social action vs. social interaction

social action: considers JUST the individual that is surrounded by others social interactions: looking at the behavior and actions of two or more individuals who take one another into account

weak ties

social connections that are personally superficial but are large in number and provide connections to a wide range of other individuals ex. linkedin

Ethnicity is a ___________ that considers language, religion, nationality, and cultural factors.

social construct

Ethnicity is a ____________.

social construct

Gender is a ___________.

social construct

Race is a ____________.

social construct

_____________ focuses on how individuals put together their social reality.

social constructionism *construct* ￫ "put together" can be applied to the "intangible", i.e. definitions of "honor, and "justice" depend on the interactions & decisions of the individuals within that society or to the physical ￫ valueless paper w/ printed numbers = money (now imbued with valuable)

consistency cue

social cue referring to the consistent behavior of an individual over time "Does this person always act in this way?"

Examples of social action

social facilitation, deindividuation, bystander effect, social loafing, peer pressure Explanation: the effects that a group has on *individual* behavior

How does *mass society theory* describe social movements?

social movements are created with *suspect intentions* "Social movements are dangerous, dysfunctional, irrational, and motivated by suspicious intentions."

alternative movements

social movements that seek *limited* change in some aspect of people's behavior

What are the components of *social structure*?

social statuses/roles social groups social institutions/formal organizations

anomie strain theory

social strain causes deviance

spatial inequality

social stratification across territories and their populations ✴︎ how geography influences social processes Ex: Does a person living in a slum in India have the same access to water and electricity as someone living in London's West End? Also, different groups use spaces differently: for some people home is the heart; for others, it's a drop-off place to store clothes and sleep. 3 levels of spacial inequality: residential, environmental, global

Feminist theory focuses mainly on the subordination of women through...

social structures and institutional discrimination Takes many forms: - expected gender roles - sexuality - financial opportunity - social mobility

MAKE SURE TO PRACTICE KHAN ACADEMY "SOCIETY AND CULTURES" PRACTICE QUESTIONS

social structures: https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/society-and-culture/social-structures/e/understanding-social-structures-questions demographics: https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/society-and-culture/demographics/e/demographic-characteristics-and-processes culture: https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/society-and-culture/culture/e/culture-questions

____________ is the process of developing, inheriting, and spreading norms, customs, and beliefs.

socialization

How would a strong social constructionist view money?

socially constructed, not an institutional fact

How is one's ethnicity defined?

socially, by cultural characteristics

In broad terms, Kohlberg's conventional stage is ___________.

societal

norms

societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior govern the behavior of society and provide a sense of social control ❗️NOT laws

Gesellschaft

society groups that are formed because of mutual self-interests working together towards the same goal ex: companies, countries, governments, etc.

situational social inequality

socioeconomic advantage

How can culture affect evolution?

some genetic traits may have been favored because of cultural values and beliefs Ex: human beings are the only animals able to digest milk after adolescence and are the only animals that ingest another animal's milk. This may have arisen out of Northern European culture, which relied heavily on cattle farming for sustenance It all started out as a mutation permitting digesting of milk into adulthood and ended up imparting a nutritional and survival advantage (thus, it was retained in the population)

How does functionalists relate their theory to health and illness?

some have identified "illness" as a social phenomenon rather than a purely physical condition: - A sick person is unable to be a productive member of society and is therefore *deviant* - Now, he must adhere to the specifically patterned social *role* of being sick that disrupts the normal social order

division of labor

specific components of a larger task are separated and assigned to skilled and trained individuals, promoting *specialization* and *efficiency* ex: developing; manufacturing; quality testing; marketing of goods

demographic transition model

specific example of *demographic shift* referring to changes in birth and death rates in a country as it develops from a preindustrial to industrial economy

Which psychological disorders are most common in the United States?

specific phobia social anxiety disorder major depressive disorder alcohol use disorder PTSD generalized anxiety disorder panic disorder bipolar disorder

What is the most common type of anxiety disorder?

specific phobias

urban renewal

spontaneous reversal of urban decay in which city land is reclaimed and renovated for public or private use. ❗️not so great though, often fueled by *gentrification*, which will displace the low-SES population once the renovations are finished

emergent social institutions

sports, mass media, science/medicine, military

"high stationary stage" of demographic transition model

stage 1

"early expanding" stage of demographic transition model

stage 2

"late expanding" stage of demographic transition model

stage 3

"low stationary" stage of demographic transition model

stage 4

"speculative" stage of demographic transition

stage 5 ????? declining

What is the divorce trend over the last two decades?

starting to drop after the significant increase in the second half of the 20th century

__________ are positions within society used to classify individuals.

statuses

______________ are positions in society used to classify individuals.

statuses ✷ they exist in relationship to other statuses ex: *pre-med student* = status, but this has no meaning unless there are other statuses to compare it with, like *medical student* or *resident* ❗️statuses ≠ every single personal characteristic (i.e. being left-handed ≠ a status)

What would happen to systematic error in an infinitely large study population?

stay exactly the same Explanation: it affects the average but not the precision, the range is constant (and reliable), but *invalid* due to issues with the measuring tool.

A ____________ is an oversimplified idea or belief about a specific group of people.

stereotype

ethnography

study of culture and customs

In a ___________, the values and behaviors of a group distinguish themselves from the larger culture.

subculture "a world within a world"

upper-middle class

successful business and professional people

cultural lag

symbolic culture is slower to change than material culture Ex: smartphones, yet Americans still value privacy (but yes, younger people are starting to not care as much what's out there)

Both the medicalization of deviance and demedicalization are processes within the theory of _________________.

symbolic interactionism

George Mead's theory of "I" and "me" is most like which sociological theory?

symbolic interactionism

Bias is a ___________ error.

systematic Explanation: bias is a result of flaws in data during collection phase, i.e. when a faulty instrument is used. It affects *accuracy* (validity) of an experiment but does not affect precision because data is within a constant/narrow (but incorrect) range.

biomedical approach to psychological disorders

takes into account only the physical and medical causes of a psychological disorder more narrow approach, fails to account for lifestyle, SES, etc.

interaction process analysis

technique for observing, classifying, and measuring the interactions within small groups: a group member's communication pattern reveals aspects of his personality - communication is linked to group task and socio-emotional effectiveness and satisfaction (Bales) he later revised to *SYMLOG*

choice shift

tendency for groups to make decisions that appear more extreme than the decisions group members would have made on their own can be either more risky or more cautious, just depends on whatever the group's initial tendencies were

power

the ability to affect others' behavior through real or perceived rewards and punishments based on the unequal distribution of valued resources

Prestige (social stratification)

the amount of positive regard society has for a given person or idea Ex: physicians & Nobel prize = ↑ prestige

delusions of reference

the belief that common elements in the environment are directed toward the individual

delusions of persecution

the belief that people are out to get you

just-world hypothesis

the belief that people get what they deserve in life and deserve what they get karma ❗️caveat: victim blaming (e.g. homeless did something to get there)

null hypothesis

the claim that's on trial or, in clinical research: there is no correlation; the drug has no benefit

religious pluralism

the condition in which one or more religions coexist either as complementary to each other or as competing systems

excessive stereotyping

the construction of stereotypes against outside opinions (Groupthink)

What does relative deprivation theory aim to study?

the differences between perceived and actual reality

Munchausen syndrome

the extreme and chronic form of factitious disorder ex: guy on Grey's Anatomy who they always saw

social stigma

the extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society ex. mental illness has been stigmatized in american society

Criticism of strong social constructionism

the fact that they reject brute facts makes it difficult to explain certain social phenomena, such as acts of nature

illusion of unanimity

the false sense of agreement within the group (Groupthink)

censor (psychoanalysis)

the force identified by Sigmund Freud as operating to separate consciousness from the unconscious mind

fundamental attribution error

the general bias toward making dispositional attributions when assessing others' behaviors, thinking that their actions are the result of an internal quality rather than an external circumstance. used in social perception

paternalistic stereotype

the group is looked down upon as inferior, dismissed, or ignored high warmth (noncompetitive) low competence/status ex: housewives, elderly

"graying of America"

the growing percentage of older people in the U.S. population due to the Baby Boomers aging

cultural attribution theory

the idea that the type of culture an individual is the part that plays a role in the type of attributions the individual makes individualist cultures tend to make *dispositional* attributions collectivist cultures tend to make *situational* attributions

empathy-altruism hypothesis

the idea that when we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help that person for purely altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain ❗️lots of controversy, so now more accepted view is that people will help only when the benefits > costs for the individual

religiosity

the importance of religion in a person's life, including: - strength of beliefs - engagement in religious practices - attitudes about religion itself

intersectionality

the interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, class, immigration status, and gender that *compound* the discrimination/oppression or disadvantage on an individual.

social capital

the investments people make in their society in return for economic or collective rewards benefits you receive from group association the greater the investment ⟶ greater the level of *social integration* and *social inclusion*

cultural transmission

the manner in which a society socializes its members a/k/a cultural learning

self-enhancement

the motivational process where there is a need to maintain self-worth which can be accomplished through internal attribution of success and external attribution of failure basically, self-serving bias

replacement fertility rate

the number of children a woman needs to give birth to, so that one daughter can reach childbearing age

beneficence

the physician has a responsibility to act in the patient's best interest

respect for patient autonomy

the physician has a responsibility to respect patients' decisions and choices about their own healthcare

justice

the physician has a responsibility to treat similar patients with similar care, and to distribute healthcare resources fairly

clairvoyance

the power to see things that cannot be perceived by the senses

pressure for conformity

the pressure put on anyone in the group who expresses opinions against the group, viewing the opposition as disloyal "If you aren't with us, you're against us." also known as *dealing with dissenters* (Groupthink)

social readjustment

the process by which individuals re-acclimate to normal social function after a stressful event ✴︎ it's commonly accepted that more (and larger # of) stressful events make social readjustment more difficult

primary socialization

the process of learning that begins at birth and occurs in the home and family

Bioluminescence

the production of light by living organisms a visual display used as nonverbal communication in animals

An age cohort must be taken from...

the same generation

Mate choice/intersexual selection

the selection of a mate based on attraction and traits

cohabitation

the sharing of a household by an unmarried couple

social solidarity

the social ties that bind a group of people together such as kinship, shared location, and religion

sample

the subset of the population from which you are actually collecting data Ex: "*Study participants* were divided into two groups: a control group and an intervention group..." "...After devising the hypothesis, *randomly selected individuals* from different religious communities were invited to the lab..."

normative conformity

the tendency to go along with the group in order to fulfill the group's expectations and gain acceptance

reliance on central traits

the tendency to organize the perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics *that matter to the perceiver* ex:

patterns of kinship

the terms used to refer to different members of the family and the resultant responsibilities tied to those titles between different cultures. variable affect perceived familial responsibilities, loyalty, and even boundaries for what is considered incest Ex: Serbs call cousins "brat" and "sestra"

attribution theory

the theory of social perception where we explain someone's behavior by using *cues* to credit either the situation or the person's disposition ❗️caveat: fundamental attribution error and self-serving bias

emotional regulation

the use of cognitive and behavioral strategies to influence one's emotional experience: - emotional work - display rules - qualifying, amplifying, or deamplifying feelings - masking an emotion with another emotion - neutralizing any emotional expression whatsoever

role set

the various roles associated with a status

social cognition

the ways in which our attitudes and the way people think about others impact behavior.

role performance

the ways in which someone performs a role; showing a particular "style" or "personality" ex: part of a doctor's *role* is to translate medical info into comprehensible language for the patient. Some are great at this, while others lack in this area ✷ changes based on social situation/context (and *role partner*) ex: doctor-doctor interaction vs. doctor-patient interaction vs. doctor-wife interaction

self-censorship

the withholding of opposing views (Groupthink)

linguistic relativism

the worldview of a culture is shaped and reflected by the language its members speak

world system theory

theory of global inequality that categorizes countries and emphasizes the inequalities of the division of labor at the global level 3 types of nations: core, periphery, semi-periphery

strain theory

theory that *deviance* is a natural reaction to the disconnect between social goals and social structure. i.e. it's more likely to occur when a gap exists between cultural goals and the ability to achieve these goals by legitimate means ex: the "American Dream"

biopsychosocial approach to psychological disorders

there are biological, psychological, and social components to an individual's disorder: • biological ￫ something *in* the body (e.g. genetics) • psychological ￫ stems from thoughts, emotions or behaviors • social ￫ his/her surroundings, including perceived societal class, and even discrimination or stigmatization ✴︎ treatment likewise includes all 3

church-sect typology continuum

there is a continuum along which religions fall, ranging from the protest-like orientation of *sects* to the equilibrium maintaining *churches*. Along this continuum are several additional types

How is the appraisal model of emotion distinct from the basic model of emotion?

they are closely related: the appraisal model, like the basic model, accepts that there are biologically predetermined expressions once an emotion is experienced... however, it's different in that it proposes there is a *cognitive antecedent* (the appraisal) to emotional expression

What was the former classification of obsessive-compulsive and related disorders?

they fell under *anxiety and somatic symptom dirsorders* but now there are 3 separate categories for all of these: ① Anxiety disorders ② Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders ③ Somatic symptom and related disorders

Organizations are entities set up to achieve specific goals. How are they characterized?

they have *structure* and *culture* ex: schools, companies, sports teams, sororities, political organizations, etc.

symbols

things to which we attach meaning - how concepts are coded into language - hand gestures - body language - role of certain behaviors ✴︎ vary across cultures

direct phenotypic benefits

those associated with increased fitness *to the mate* through direct material advantages ex: females display a preference for a male ornament that gives the female some benefit like providing more or better food, protection from predators

envious stereotype

those in which the group is viewed with jealousy, bitterness, or distrust low warmth (competitive) high competence/status ex: celebrities, Asians

admiration stereotype

those in which the group is viewed with pride and other positive feelings high warmth (noncompetitive) high competence/status ex: in-group, close allies

contemptuous stereotype

those in which the group is viewed with resentment, annoyance, or anger low warmth (competitive) low competence/status ex: welfare recipients, poor people ✷ competitive because they are getting resources for free and you are not

warm groups

those that are not in direct competition with the in-group for resources 2 types: paternalistic & admiration (stereotype content model)

competent groups

those that have high status within society 2 types: contemptuous & envious (stereotype content model)

middle-middle class

those who have been unable to achieve the upper-middle lifestyle because of educational and economic shortcomings

In what type of families is domestic violence most commonly seen?

those with drug abuse, esp. alcoholism

vertical social capital

ties between individuals of different social strata hierarchical or unequal relations due to differences in power or resource bases and status ￫ one of the 4 major types of social capital a/k/a *linking social capital* Includes the capacity to leverage resources, ideas, and information from formal institutions beyond the community, which facilitates cooperative relationships where power and control by one side are higher than on the other side. it's *inclusive* - *between* boundaries

horizontal social capital

ties between individuals within the same social strata ￫ one of the 4 major types of social capital 2 subsets: ① bonding ② bridging

monoamine/catecholamine theory of depression

too much norepinephrine and serotonin in the synapse leads to mania, while too little leads to depression w/ depression, there's also reduced dopamine ❗️usually not this simple

prevalence

total # cases/total population during a period of time

indicator traits

traits that signify overall good health and well-being of an organism, increasing its attractiveness to mates ✷✷ may or may not be genetic ex: female cats more attracted to male cats with clean and shiny coats, where a dirty coat may be due to an underlying genetic issue OR malnutrition/infection

A ___________ perspective views the world order imposed by globalization as dynamic, influenced by many factors, and therefore unable to be described adequately.

transformationalist

direct therapy

treatment that acts directly on the individual ex: medication or periodic meetings with a psychologist

True or False: Chronicity of illness describes only the duration of the disease, not anything about the severity or significance for the patient

true

True or False: Overweight or obese patients are less likely to be screened for diseases like breast and colon cancer.

true!

social trust

trust that extends beyond one's own group or social network to include most people in a society • 2 primary sources: ￫ *social norms of reciprocity* ￫ *social networks*

African American infants have __________ the infant mortality rate as white infants.

twice

social group

two or more people who share similar characteristics and a sense of unity counterexample: a group of people waiting to cross the street at a crosswalk *≠* a social group because there is no common characteristic b/w them. This is an *aggregate*

dissociative identity disorder (DID)

two or more personalities that recurrently take control of a person's behavior components of a person's identity *fail to integrate* seen w/ sexual abuse as kids, etc. ❗️controversial diagnosis in medical community - does it truly exist?

What happens to type I errors if you increase the significance level, α?

type I error ↑ Explanation: shifted α left to make area under curve bigger, making α less strict/less proof needed to reject H₀ i.e. include more room for false positives (*decreasing burden of proof*, it's easier to convict) In the real world, think about a court trial. We don't want true criminals getting away when they are really guilty (type II error), so we are risking making more type I errors (arresting more innocent people) to make sure that dangerous criminals aren't roaming the streets.

What happens to type I errors if you decrease the significance level, α?

type I error ↓ Explanation: shifting α right makes it stricter, i.e. increasing burden of proof. less likely to make false positives because it's harder to fit the criteria

What happens to type II errors if you decrease the significance level, α?

type II error ↑ Explanation: shifting α right to make area under curve smaller makes it stricter, i.e. increasing burden of proof it's more likely to make false negatives because it's harder to fit the criteria. More people guilty people can get off easily.

What happens to type II errors if you increase the significance level, α?

type II error ↓ Explanation: shifted α left to make area under curve bigger, meaning less proof needed to reject H₀, so we are able to reject more nulls less false negatives In the real world, think about a court trial. We don't want true criminals getting away when they are really guilty (type II error), so we are risking making more type I errors (arresting more innocent people) to make sure that dangerous criminals aren't roaming the streets. In effect, we are widening the parameters (*decreasing burden of proof*) to make sure no one slips through the cracks at the expense of putting away innocent people.

An ___________ economy is a market that is not regulated, taxed, or protected by the government.

underground

evolutionary perspective of emotion

universal facial expression makes adaptive sense because such expression signal others about our current emotional state everything we do, think, and feel is based on specialized functional programs designed for any problem we encounter. These programs are functionally coordinated in order to produce a cohesive response guide sensory processing, physiological response, and behavior developed from more primitive (fear) ⟶ social (guilt, pride)

gentrification

upper and middle class populations begin to purchase and renovate neighborhoods in deteriorated areas, displacing the low-SES population

doughnut of income and SES

urban centers concentrated with poverty, surrounded by a ring of progressively affluent suburbs. Way further out are lower-SES exurbs and rural areas

How do late functionalists view society?

use the term *function* to refer to the beneficial consequences of people's actions: *functions help keep society in balance*

When groupthink is at play, what is the group's view on risk-taking?

very often there is optimism and encouragement towards risk-taking This is called the *illusion of invulnerability*

cognitive neoassociation model

we are more likely to respond to others aggressively when whenever we are feeling negative emotions (being tired, hungry, sick, frustrated, in pain) ex: riots are more likely to happen on hot days than cold ones ex: drivers with no AC are more likely to honk and display road rage ex: snapping at a waiter when hungry

Theory of Planned Behavior

we consider the *implications* of our actions before we decide how to behave the best predictor of our behavior is the strength of these intentions 3 Things that Affect our Intentions: ① *attitudes* ② *subjective norms* - how we think others think about a behavior ③ *perceived behavioral control* ex: studying for an exam - Attitude: I favor studying this week (+) - Subjective norms: My friends think studying is a waste of time - Perceived behavioral control: I also have to work 40 hours this week on top of studying In this case, our actual studying will be low even though our attitude was positive

social institutions

well-established social structures that dictate certain patterns of behavior or relationships and are accepted as a fundamental part of culture they regulate behavior of individuals in core areas of society. Ex: *family* encourages learning of acceptable behavior, socialization, and bonding

How does opponent-process theory explain *withdrawal*?

when a drug is taken repeatedly, the body attempts to counteract the effects by changing its physiology, and these effects last longer the drug itself, resulting in *withdrawal* symptoms that manifest in the exact opposite way these unpleasant sx cause dependence on the drug

According to the functionalist perspective, when is society in a normal state?

when all parts of society fulfill their *functions*

identity shift effect

when an individual's state of harmony is disrupted by a threat of social rejection, the individual will often conform to the norms of the group Upon doing so, however, she will begin to experience *internal conflict* because the behavior is outside her normal character. To eliminate the sense of internal conflict, she experiences an *identity shift* ⟶ now adopts the standards of the group as her own ✷ Cognitive dissonance at play!

According to the functionalist perspective, when is society in a pathologic (abnormal) state?

when not all parts of society fulfill their *functions*

tactile hallucinations

when someone experiences some perception related to touch when it is not really there

Under what circumstance would you really want to minimize the false positives?

when the costs or risks of followup therapy are high and the disease itself is not life-threatening Ex: prostate cancer in elderly men

Who is more likely to die of HIV/AIDS, a Native American or a white American?

white

Who is more likely to die of cancer, a Hispanic American or a white American?

white same w/ Native Americans: whites are more likely

Who is more likely to die of heart disease, a Hispanic American or a white American?

white same w/ Native Americans: whites are more likely

Who is more likely to die at birth, a Hispanic American infant or a white American infant?

white same w/ Native Americans: whites are more likely

authentic self

who the person actually is, including both positive and negative attributes (impression management)

tactical self

who we market ourselves to be when we adhere to others' expectations of us similar to the ought self (*self-concept*/identity) (impression management)

ideal self

who you want to be under optimal circumstances, *your* perfect version (impression management)

In attribution theory, we are looking to explain...

why the *perceiver* thinks the target did the action DOES NOT MATTER WHY THE TARGET ACTUALLY DID THE THING

mores

widely observed and have great moral significance not laws, but regulate social behavior and thus are a form of *social control*

Which gender is at greater risk for Alzheimer's disease?

women

Who receive more services per healthcare visit, men or women?

women

Who is more likely to be delayed or unable to obtain necessary medical care, dental care, and prescription medicines, men or women?

women!

Examples of social constructs

work ethic, acceptable dress, money, gender roles, honor, justice

A company claims that the time to make their ready-to-bake pie is 5 minutes. This means that the H₀: μ = 5. If you only want to see whether the time turns out to be greater than what the company claims (that is, whether the company is falsely advertising its quick prep time), what alternative hypothesis would you use?

you use the greater-than alternative, and your two hypotheses are: H₀: μ = 5 vs. Hₐ: μ > 5

What is the age group most likely to smoke?

young adult decreases w/ age

A stable replacement fertility rate is also sometimes referred to as ____________ because the birth rate is equal to the mortality rate.

zero population growth

Ways the education system influences society

• Dispersal of information & cognitive skills: facts, figures, mental processes • Emphasizes social role ￫ creates statuses within society and stimulates learners to add to their knowledge base - *hidden curriculum*: transmits social norms, attitudes, and beliefs to students

What is required for the diagnosis of *schizophrenia*?

• continuous signs of the disturbance for at least 6 months • this 6-month period must include at least 1 month of "active symptoms" (delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech)

What are some examples of a *behavior* causing a change in *attitude*?

• foot-in-the-door phenomenon - small task (behavior) increases likelihood you'll agree (agreeing means you have a more positive attitude towards it) • role-playing - imitating others (behavior) causes you to think differently about the world (attitude)

What effect does globalization have on global equality?

↓ Explanation: ↑ unemployment, prices, pollution, civil unrest, global terrorism

positive symptoms of schizophrenia

① "Psychotic dimension" • *Delusions*: ￫ of reference ￫ of persecution ￫ of grandeur ￫ thought broadcasting ￫ though insertion ￫ thought withdrawal • *Hallucinations* ② "Disorganized dimension" • *Disorganized Thought* ￫ loosening of associations ￫ word salad ￫ clang associations ￫ neologisms ￫ circumstantial and tangential speech • *Disorganized Behavior* ￫ catatonia ① rigidity or ↓ mobility or ② useless & bizarre unwarranted movements, echolalia, or echopraxia

What are the primary components of attitude?

① *A*ffective - emotional ② *B*ehavioral ③ *C*ognitive Mnemonic; *ABC*

According to Merton's strain theory, what are the 5 possible ways that people can adapt when faced with strain?

① *Conformity*: pursuing cultural goals through socially approved means. ("Hopeful poor") ② *Innovation*: using socially unapproved or unconventional means to obtain culturally approved goals. Example: dealing drugs or stealing to achieve financial security. ("surviving poor") ③ *Ritualism*: using the same socially approved means to achieve less elusive goals (more modest and humble). ("passive poor") ④ *Retreatism*: to reject both the cultural goals and the means to obtain it, then find a way to escape it. ("retreating poor") ⑤ *Rebellion*: to reject the cultural goals and means, then work to replace them. ("resisting poor") not accepting any goals and means

Social networks can create 2 types of social inequity:

① *situational*: socioeconomic advantage ② *positional*: how connected one is within a network, and one's centrality within that network

The Hawk-Dowk game represents pure competition between individuals. However, *social influences* also apply in nature and can result in 4 possible alternatives for competitors when dealing with strategic interactions:

① Altruism - donor gives to recipient at a cost to himself ② Cooperation - both donor and recipient benefit ③ Spite - both donor and recipient are negatively impacted ④ Selfishness - donor benefits, recipient is negatively impacted

What are the two variations of *strain theory*?

① Anomie ② Relative Deprivation

What are the two main classification systems for defining psychological disorders?

① Biomedical approach ② Biopsychosocial approach

How do individuals deal with cognitive dissonance?

① Changing dissonant thought ② Adding to dissonant thought ③ Minimizing one of the dissonant thoughts

7 characteristics of churches

① Claim universality, include all members of the society within their ranks, and have a strong tendency to equate "citizenship" with "membership" ② Exercise religious monopoly and try to eliminate religious competition ③ Are very closely allied with the state and secular powers; frequently there is overlapping of responsibilities and much mutual reinforcement ④ Are extensively organized as a hierarchical bureaucratic institution with a complex division of labor ⑤ Employ professional, full-time clergy who possess the appropriate credentials of education and formal ordination ⑥ Primarily gain new members through natural reproduction and the socialization of children into the ranks ⑦ Allow for diversity by creating different groups within the church (e.g., orders of nuns or monks) rather than through the formation of new religions (Johnstone)

Types of Personality Disorders

① Cluster A ￫ Paranoid ￫ Schizotypal ￫ Schizoid ② Cluster B ￫ Antisocial ￫ Borderline ￫ Histrionic ￫ Narcissistic ③ Cluster C ￫ Avoidant ￫ Dependent ￫ Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD)

Factors that affect the bystander effect

① Degree of emergency (more dangerous = more likely to help) ② Degree of responsibility of the bystander (how competent he is, whether he knows the victim, whether he believes victim deserves aid) ③ Cohesiveness of group overall (more cohesive = more likely to help)

5 mechanisms for choosing a mate (mate choice)

① Direct phenotypic benefits ② Sensory Bias ③ Fisherian Runaway Hypothesis: ④ Indicator Traits ⑤ Genetic Compatibility - mate pairs that produce progeny with complementary genetics (explains why we are naturally attracted to people with very different genetic makeups than us [ex: by smell] so that we don't produce recessive genetic disorders seen in incest)

types of anxiety disorders

① Generalized anxiety disorder ② Specific phobias ③ Social anxiety disorder ④ Agoraphobia ⑤ Panic disorder

What are the 4 components of the functional attitudes theory?

① Knowledge ② Adaptability (Social-Adjustive) ③ Ego Expression (Value-Expressive) ④ Ego Defense there's also *utilitarian* which is all about rewards and punishments

Types of Obsessive- Compulsive and Related Disorders

① OCD ② body dysmorphic disorder

Types of Trauma & Stressor-Related Disorders

① PTSD ② Reactive attachment disorder

What are the 4 primary factors used to assess the completeness of immigrant assimilation?

① SES ② geographic distribution ③ language attainment ④ intermarriage

When in groups, why are people less likely to notice danger or anything out of the ordinary?

① Social etiquette - it's "rude" to watch others ② Humans take *cues* from other people - if no one else is reacting, she is less likely to perceive danger

Types of Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders

① Somatic Symptom Disorder ② Illness Anxiety Disorder (previously referred to as Hypochondriasis in DSM-IV) ③ Conversion Disorder (Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder) ④ Psychological Factors Affecting Other Medical Conditions ⑤ Factitious Disorder

A *generation* needs what 3 common aspects?

① a sociocultural location or common experiences ② a temporal location (20 to 25 years in length per generation) ③ a historical location or commonality of era.

When describing impression management, there are 3 "selves" which are...

① authentic self ② ideal self ③ tactical self

What are the 4 key tenets of medical ethics?

① beneficence ② nonmaleficence ③ respect for patient autonomy ④ justice

What are the components of symbolic culture?

① cognitive - values, beliefs, expectations, attitudes, decisions, ideas, knowledge, accounts ② behavioral - norms, mores, sanctions, rituals, communication styles/language, gestures, folkways

Types of Dissociative Disorders

① dissociative identity disorder ② dissociative amnesia + can include dissociative fugue ③ depersonalization/derealization disorder

After a sect develops, what are the 3 possible pathways it can take?

① dissolution ￫ ↓ membership ② institutionalization ￫ if a conscious effort is made to maintain some of the *spontaneity* and *protest* components of sects, an institutionalized sect can result ③ eventual development into a denomination ￫ If the membership increases, the sect is forced to adopt the characteristics of denominations in order to maintain order

negative symptoms of schizophrenia

① disturbance of affect ￫ blunting: severe reduction in the intensity of affect expression ￫ inappropriate affect: might laugh hysterically while describing someones death ② avolition: lack of motivation/flat affect

Types of social support

① emotional ② esteem ③ material ④ informational ⑤ network

How do social movements further their goals?

① establish coordinated organizations Ex: NAACP developed out of the Civil Rights movement ② political involvement through lobbying & carefully-directed donations ③ share their message thru media and demonstrations

What factors influence groupthink?

① group cohesiveness ② group structure ③ leadership ④ situational context

What are the 3 types of cults?

① mystically-oriented illumination type ② instrumental type, in which inner experience is sought solely for its effects ③ service-oriented type that is focused on aiding others.

According to the Iron Law of Oligarchy, why does the shift to rule by an elite group occur?

① need of a core group to carry out day-to-day activities ② increased need for specialization ③ leadership characteristics of certain group members

How are formal organizations different from groups?

① organizations continue despite departure of an individual member ② organizations have *expressed* goals (usually written format, that guide members & activities) ③ organizations have enforcement procedures that seek to control activity of members ④ organizations have hierarchical allotment of formal roles/duties to members they can be quite large!

Why can't a p-value be interpreted as error rate?

① p-values are calculated based on the assumptions that the null is true for the population and that the difference in the sample is caused entirely by random chance. Consequently, p-values can't tell you the probability that the null is true or false because it is 100% true from the perspective of the calculations. ② while a low p-value indicates that your data are unlikely assuming a true null, it can't evaluate which of two competing cases is more likely: ￫ The null is true but your sample was unusual. ￫ The null is really false. To determine this, you must replicate the study. Ex: Suppose that a vaccine study produced a P value of 0.04. The correct way to interpret this is: Assuming that the vaccine had no effect (H₀ is true), you'd obtain the observed difference or more in 4% of studies due to random sampling error. ￫ Which isn't a lot, so this is strong evidence against the H₀ and results are less likely to be random. ￫ Say p-value was 0.12, then you'd observe the difference in 12% of studies due to random sampling error, and this ↑ the chance that the observed difference is random, which is weak evidence against the H₀. ✴︎ In either case, H₀ MUST BE TRUE The *incorrect* way to interpret this: If you reject the null hypothesis, there's a 4% chance that you're making a mistake. ❗️p-value CANNOT measure the error rate.

What factors influence interpersonal attraction?

① physical attractiveness (e.g. *golden ratio*) ② similarity ③ self-disclosure ④ reciprocity ⑤ proximity

How is a game defined?

① players ② information and actions available to each player at decision points ③ payoffs associated w/ each outcome

What are the 3 types of social inequality that can influence prejudice?

① power ② prestige ③ class unequal distribution of wealth, power, and resources may lead to ⟶ prejudice ✷ these same factors also may lead to discrimination

What are the stages of Mead's theory of self (role-taking process)?

① preparatory stage ② play stage ③ game stage last is full comprehension of generalized other, though most sources state that this starts in the game stage, so it's not it's own separate stage

List some cognitive biases that affect social perception (*impression biases*)

① primacy effect ② recency effect ③ reliance on central traits ④ halo effect ⑤ just-world hypothesis ⑥ self-serving bias

What are the 3 patterns of population change?

① rapid growth ② slow growth ③ negative growth ✷first two are both *positive* growth

What are the 8 characteristics of *denominations*?

① similar to churches, but unlike sects, are on relatively good terms with the state and secular powers and may even attempt to influence government at times ② maintain at least tolerant and usually fairly friendly relationships with other denominations in a context of *religious pluralism* ③ rely primarily on birth for membership increase, though it will also accept converts; some actively pursue evangelization ④ accept the principle of at least modestly changing doctrine and practice and tolerate some theological diversity and dispute ⑤ follow a fairly routinized ritual and worship service that explicitly discourages spontaneous emotional expression ⑥ train and employ professional clergy who must meet formal requirements for certification ⑦ accept less extensive involvement from members than do sects, but more involvement than churches ⑧ often draw disproportionately from the middle and upper classes of society (Johnstone)

Both the birth and mortality rates can be reported in multiple forms:

① total rate for a population ② *crude rate* ③ age-specific rates

Egosyntonic vs Egodystonic

● Egosyntonic is behaviors, values, feelings that are in harmony with or acceptable with one's ideal self-image. they think they're behavior is totally fine, it's just the way they like things ex: OCPD ● Egodystonic refers to thoughts and behaviors (e.g., dreams, impulses, compulsions, desires, etc.) that are in conflict, or dissonant, with a person's ideal self-image. person is aware that their behaviors are abnormal and get in the way of their normal function ex: OCD

actor-observer bias vs. fundamental attribution error vs. self-serving bias

￫ FAE - all about the other person = dispositional ex: "They are stupid losers." ￫ actor observer - all about justifying *negative* behavior, if you = situational, if others = dispositional ex: "I am a victim, but they brought it upon themselves." ￫ self-serving bias - considers both + and - behaviors *of you only* ex: "I did well on my test, I'm so smart; I failed my test, the teacher did not give enough time."

negative cognitive symptoms

￫ an inability to recall key features of the event ￫ negative mood or emotions ￫ feeling distanced from others ￫ persistent negative view of the world (PTSD)

upper class

￫ great wealth ￫ recognized reputations/lifestyles ￫ large influence on society's political & economic systems ✴︎ high *prestige* and *power*

arousal symptoms

￫ increased startle response ￫ irritability ￫ anxiety ￫ self-destructive or reckless behavior ￫ sleep disturbances (PTSD)

What are some exceptions to the "respect for patient autonomy" tenet of medical ethics?

￫ significant psychiatric illness interfering w/ decision-making capacity ￫ children ￫ public health threats ❗️patients DO have the right to refuse life-saving therapies