Uworld - P/S - Sensation, Perception, & Consciousness
Occipital lobe (back) - visual info from the eyes Temporal lobe (side) - hearing, language & memory - Wernicke (in temporal) - language comprehension Frontal lobe (front) - movt, cognition, reasoning The somatosensory cortex (in parietal lobe) - touch & prioception
The occipital lobe (back) - visual information from the eyes, The temporal lobe (side) - hearing, listening, language and memory. The frontal lobe (front) - movt, cognitive processes (eg, reasoning) The somatosensory cortex (in parietal lobe) - touch & prioception Wernicke (in temporal lobe) - language comprehension.
The opponent-process theory - 3 color combinations gives 3 opposing pairs of colors: black/white, blue/yellow, and red/green. - No two members of a pair are seen simultaneously, which is why we do not see colors such as "reddish green" or "bluish yellow."
The opponent-process theory - color information from cones is combined in such a way that we perceive three opposing pairs of colors: black/white, blue/yellow, and red/green. No two members of a pair are seen simultaneously, which is why we do not see colors such as "reddish green" or "bluish yellow."
The organ of Corti = sound processing & transmission of auditory info to the temporal lobe
The organ of Corti (cochlea of the inner ear) - Unlike the vestibular organs, the cochlea is not directly involved in processing spatial information. - main role is sound processing and transmission of auditory information to the temporal lobe of brain.
- The prefrontal cortex - executive functions - critical thinking, problem solving, planning, decision-making - contains the primary motor cortex and Broca area - The cerebellum - movt - The amygdala - emotion, particularly fear and anger
The prefrontal cortex - executive functions -eg- critical thinking, problem solving, planning, impulse control, decision-making. - contains the primary motor cortex (movt) and Broca area (involved in speech production). The cerebellum - motor coordination and motor learning. The amygdala - emotion, particularly fear and anger.
1) Cones - sensitive to colors and high-intensity light. - more densely packed in the fovea 2) Rods - sensitive to low light, cause night vision - More numerous than cones, periphery of the retina. - The retina contains blood vessels but the - fovea is avascular (no blood vessels interference) - Visual acuity is sharpest at the fovea. - Optic disc = "blind spot" - no photoreceptors here
The retina - back of the eye - converts light rays into impulses that travel to the brain. 2 types of photoreceptors in the retina 1) Cones - sensitive to colors and high-intensity light. - have opsin proteins that respond to certain wavelengths (colors) of light, typically to short (blue), medium (green), and long (red) wavelengths. - more densely packed in the fovea, (the central portion of the retina that receives information from the central visual field) 2) Rods - sensitive to low levels of light, and are responsible for night vision but not color vision. - More numerous than cones, rods are present primarily in the periphery of the retina. - The retina contains blood vessels but the - fovea is avascular (no blood vessels interference) - Visual acuity is sharpest at the fovea. The optic disc is known as the "blind spot" because there are no photoreceptors in this area.
Young-Helmholtz theory aka trichromatic theory - all the colors we see are due to combination of three types of photoreceptors: blue, green, red
Young-Helmholtz theory aka trichromatic theory - all the colors we see are the result of the combined activity of three types of photoreceptors: Those that respond to short (blue), medium (green), and long (red) wavelengths of light.
REM SLEEP FACTS - dreaming occurs during both REM (most common) and NREM sleep - REM rebound (more REM sleep than usual the next night) - Sleep deprivation affect performance on memory tasks
- Individuals who are deprived of REM sleep one night exhibit more REM sleep than usual the next night (ie, REM rebound). - Sleep-deprived individuals tend to perform worse on memory tasks than those who are not sleep deprived. - Studies suggest that dreaming occurs during both REM and NREM sleep but is more common during REM sleep.
- Dreaming is most common during REM sleep, particularly closer to waking.
Adult - 75% of sleep time in NREM sleep - 25% in REM sleep. - last cycle contains the most REM sleep. - dreaming is most common during REM sleep, particularly closer to waking. - REM dreams tend to be more vivid and memorable and are more likely to be recalled upon waking. - Lucid dreaming occurs only during REM sleep An individual sleeping from 10:00 PM to 6:00 AM would have the greatest chance of lucid dreaming during the last sleep cycle, from 4:00 AM to 6:00 AM, because the greatest proportion of REM sleep occurs just before waking.
- amplitude = loudness - frequency = pitch Place theory = (how high or low a tone/pitch/freq is) Cochlea (hair cells, organ of corti, basilar membrane) - hair cells at base of basilar membrane = ↑freq sounds - hair cells at apex of basilar membrane = ↓freq sounds *Think of a turd - smaller (freq) at top (apex); larger (freq) at bottom (base)*
Auditory processing - brain interpret sound stimuli. - amplitude = loudness - frequency = pitch Place theory - explains how the ear perceives high- & low-pitched frequencies (how high or low a tone is) Cochlea - hair cells at base of basilar membrane=↑freq - hair cells at apex of basilar membrane=↓freq
Circadian rhythms - 24-hr intervals - sleep/wake cycle Biomarker; 1) Core body temperature, - 38°C (daytime) and 36°C (just before waking) 2) Plasma melatonin level (from pineal gland) - peaks (sleep/dark) low (during waking hours/light) 3) Cortisol (from adrenal cortex) - peaks (immediately after waking) lowest (just before sleep)
Circadian rhythms, are cycles in physiological activity 24-hour intervals - sleep/wake cycle A biomarker is a measurable indictor of a biological phenomenon. 1) Core body temperature, - 38°C (daytime) and 36°C (just before waking) 2) Plasma melatonin level, - peaks (sleep) low (during waking hours) 3) Cortisol, - peaks (immediately after waking) lowest (just before sleep)
Constancy = object's characteristics remain stable no matter what - door is rectangular (open or closed)
Constancy - perception that an object's characteristics remain stable even when the sensory input from that object changes due to alterations in the environment such as distance or lighting. -eg- shape, color, brightness, and size. - door is perceived as a rectangle whether it is open or closed; - a banana is seen as yellow despite shadow or lighting; - object's size appears to stay constant even when the distance increases
nucleus accumbens in the brain's reward pathway may help alleviate anhedonia (inability to feel pleasure), allowing depressed individuals to feel pleasure again.
Depression - sadness, hopelessness, anhedonia, difficulty concentrating, fatigue, body aches, and changes in sleep and appetite. Stimulation of the nucleus accumbens in the brain's reward pathway may help alleviate anhedonia, allowing depressed individuals to feel pleasure again.
Dopamine - gives pleasure - reward pathway enhance addictive behaviors. - Blocking the action of dopamine in the reward pathway is expected to decrease addictive behavior.
Dopamine - released during pleasurable or rewarding experiences The reward pathway = dopaminergic cell bodies in midbrain (ventral tegmental area) -VTA sends projections to the prefrontal cortex, nucleus accumbens, amygdala, hippocampus, and other areas. - responsible for perceiving and remembering the pleasurable or rewarding experience. Rewarding stimuli (including commonly abused drugs) increase dopaminergic activity in the brain by increasing the production of dopamine, interfering with its clearance from receptors, or directly stimulating dopamine receptors in the brain. In turn, the reward system is activated and the brain learns to associate the drug with reward. Studies show that blocking the activity of dopamine can disrupt the reward pathway and decrease addictive behavior.
- Longitudinal studies - Data gathered at multiple times - Cross-sectional study-Data gathered at one time - Ethnographic studies-observe + interview people in their own communities (cultures, behaviors, norms) - A randomized controlled trial - randomly sorts subjects into treatment and control groups. - Case studies study one or a few individuals with trait of interest - more thorough, in-depth analysis
Longitudinal studies - collecting data over a period of time. - can be either experimental (in which a variable is manipulated) or observational A cross-sectional study - observational study that measures a variable in a population or subpopulation at one time point. Ethnographic studies - observe + interview people within their own communities - provides info about their cultures, behaviors, norms, and values. A randomized controlled trial - randomly sorts subjects into treatment and control groups. Case studies - study one or a few individuals who possess a trait or condition of interest, eg genetic mutation, rare condition or illness - more thorough, in-depth analysis of the trait or condition of interest.
MAOIs - decreasing breakdown of serotonin, dopamine, and epinephrine in presynaptic neuron SSRIs - selectively block the reabsorption (reuptake) of serotonin into the presynaptic neuron - prolonging the presence of serotonin in the synaptic cleft.
Many antidepressant medications - increase conc or prolong the function of one or more of these neurotransmitters at the synaptic cleft. These drugs usually function via - increasing the production of NTs, - promoting their release, - blocking their reuptake, or - decreasing their breakdown within the presynaptic neuron. MAOIs, - inhibits the enzyme monoamine oxidase, decreasing the breakdown of serotonin, dopamine, and epinephrine. SSRIs - selectively block the reabsorption (reuptake) of serotonin into the presynaptic neuron, thereby prolonging the presence of serotonin in the synaptic cleft.
Mechanoreceptor = detect Movement, pressure, vibration - Stimuli - Sound waves, touch -eg- Hair cells (ear) Chemoreceptor = detect Chemicals - Stimuli - Molecules, solutes -eg- Taste buds (tongue) Thermoreceptor = detect Temperature - Stimuli - Heat, cold -eg- Skin Photoreceptor = detect Light waves - Stimuli - Visible light -eg- Rods, cones (retina)
Mechanoreceptor = detect Movement, pressure, vibration - Stimuli - Sound waves, touch -eg- Hair cells (ear) Chemoreceptor = detect Chemicals - Stimuli - Molecules, solutes -eg- Taste buds (tongue) Thermoreceptor = detect Temperature - Stimuli - Heat, cold -eg- Skin Photoreceptor = detect Light waves - Stimuli - Visible light -eg- Rods, cones (retina)
Monoamine hypothesis = model of depression. - less monoamine NTs in CNS = depression Monoamines = have 1 NH group in structure and are associated with emotion regulation. - Serotonin - positive mood, feelings of satisfaction, and social dominance. - Norepinephrine - alertness, attention, form memory - Dopamine - feelings of pleasure and reward.
Monoamine hypothesis = model of depression. - idea that less monoamine neurotransmitters in the CNS directly causes depression symptoms. - attributes depression symptoms to several monoamine neurotransmitters. The monoamines (serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine) are NTs with 1 NH group in their molecular structure and are associated with emotion regulation. Serotonin - positive mood, feelings of satisfaction, and social dominance. Norepinephrine - alertness, attention, and memory formation. Dopamine - feelings of pleasure and reward.
Monocular cues = (depth cues) - one eye only - Interposition - overlap (closer overlap) - Light & shadow - depth (3D) - Texture gradient - details (closer have finer details) - Relative size: same size (closer is perceived as larger) - Relative height - same height (closer is perceived shorter) - Linear perspective - parallel lines appear narrower as they become further away - runway of pilot
Monocular cues = (depth cues) - perceived using one eye only and - often rely on comparisons between objects. - Interposition: Closer objects will overlap in front of objects that are further away - Light and shadow: Highlights and shadows help to give objects the appearance of depth - Texture gradient: Closer objects show more fine detail than objects that are further away - Relative size: Further objects appear smaller than closer objects of the same size. - Relative height: Further objects are perceived at higher distances within a field. - Linear perspective: Distances between parallel lines appear narrower as they become further away - runway of pilot
Parallel processing = brain's ability to perceive diff visual stimuli all at once (simultaneously) - parvo pathway - processes color and form, and (retina --> ventral (lower) layers of LGN --> temporal) - magno pathway - processes motion and depth (retina --> dorsal (upper) layers of LGN --> parietal)
Parallel processing - explains why humans are capable of perceiving various aspects of visual stimuli simultaneously - color, shape/form, motion, and distance (depth) - parvo pathway - processes color and form, and - magno pathway - processes motion and depth.
Parkinson disease - due to death of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra in basal ganglia
Parkinson disease - caused by death of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, located in the midbrain (mesencephalon). - The substantia nigra is part of a group of neural structures collectively known as the basal ganglia, which are involved in the selection and execution of voluntary motor programs. DBS in portions of the basal ganglia has been shown to relieve motor abnormalities
Piaget's theory of cognitive development Sensorimotor <2 - object permanence, stranger anxiety Preoperational~2-7 - pretend play, egocentrism, language Concrete operational~7-11 -logically think, conservation Formal operational >12 - hypothetical, abstract thinking, Moral reasoning develops
Piaget's theory of cognitive development Sensorimotor<2 - Experiencing the environment via senses & actions - Object permanence - Stranger anxiety Preoperational~2-7 - Representing real things with words & images - Pretend play - Egocentrism - Language development Concrete operational~7-11 - Thinking logically about concrete events - Grasping concrete analogies - Performing arithmetic - Conservation - Mathematical transformation Formal operational>12 - Thinking about hypothetical scenarios - Grasping abstract thoughts - Abstract logic - Moral reasoning develops
Principles of perceptual organization = top down - diff. people with diff. expectations might view the same thing differently
Principles of perceptual organization - top-down cognitive processes, - guided by prior experience and expectations. - diff. people with diff. expectations might view the same thing differently (one person -cup; another - wastebasket)
REM sleep = paradoxical sleep - awake, alert state, Educational objective: - During REM sleep, ↑HR, ↑B.P, irregular, ↓Temp - rapid closed-eye movements, muscle paralysis, and brain activity resembling a waking state TO MONITOR EACH STATE; Monitor - REM - closed-eye/rapid eye movements stage 1 - Sudden, jerking body movements stage 2 - EEG measurements showing K-complex stage 3,4 - Spikes in the release of growth hormone (GH)
REM sleep = paradoxical sleep = dream - resembles the beta waves seen in an awake, alert state, except there is no muscle tone in the body. This prevents the dreamer from acting out the dream, which could result in injury. - The only exceptions to this systemic paralysis are the muscles controlling the eyes and the cardiopulmonary system. Although the body is functionally paralyzed during REM sleep, the eye muscles are very active and cause the characteristic closed-eye movements (ie, rapid eye movements) from which this state derives its name. - Therefore, researchers can track closed-eye movements to monitor a dream state. - During REM sleep, body temperature drops to its lowest point, while cardiovascular and respiratory activities become irregular and increase. Sudden, jerking body movements occur when an individual first falls asleep and enters stage 1 sleep. EEG measurements showing K-complexes demonstrate the presence of stage 2 sleep. Spikes in the release of growth hormone (GH) coincide with deep sleep stages 3 and 4.
photoreceptors in the eye - Rods (light sensitive) - Cones (color sensitive)
Rods (light sensitive) Cones (color sensitive)
REM sleep - resembles wake state, but body is paralyzed (NREM) sleep - (stages 1-4)
Sleep is divided into - non-rapid eye movt (NREM) sleep (stages 1-4) - rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. REM sleep - rapid closed-eye movts, brain activity resembling a waking state & body paralysis, except for the muscles controlling respiration and eye movement.
Sleep-wake disorders - cause disturbed sleep, distress, and impaired functioning. - Parasomnias - children - due to abnormal NS function during sleep (sleepwalking & night terrors) - Dyssomnias - adults - interfere with the quality or timing of sleep, sleep apnea, narcolepsy
Sleep-wake disorders - disturbed sleep causing distress and/or -impaired functioning. 1) Parasomnias - common in children and involve - abnormal function of the nervous system during sleep, while falling asleep, or when rousing from sleep. - eg- sleepwalking and night terrors 2) Dyssomnias - common in adults and involve - interference with the quality or timing of sleep, such as difficulty falling or remaining asleep, or periods of excessive sleepiness during waking hours. -eg- insomnia (difficulty sleeping), sleep apnea (impaired breathing during sleep), and narcolepsy (extreme daytime sleepiness). While the "short sleeper" phenotype may include sleeping less than average and having shorter-than-average diurnal circadian rhythms, this should not be considered a sleep-wake disorder because individuals with the mutation do not experience distress or impaired functioning.
Spatial orientation and balance - due to visual, vestibular, and somatosensory system: - Visual input - visual cues - Vestibular input - semicircular canals & otolith organs (utricle and saccule) - Somatosensory input - Proprioceptors in skeletal muscles, tendons, skin, and joints
Spatial orientation and balance relies on coordinated input from the visual system, the vestibular system, and the somatosensory system: Visual input: - Visual cues provide info about orientation of our bodies, objects, and light within our surroundings. Vestibular input: - The vestibular organ (inner ear) --> 3 semicircular canals - detect angular acceleration --> otolith organs (utricle and saccule) - detect linear acceleration Somatosensory input: - Proprioceptors, found in skeletal muscles, tendons, skin, and joints, provide information about the location and movement of our body in space Sensory input is processed by the brainstem and cerebral cortex, and by the cerebellum, which coordinates balance.
Binocular cues (depth cues) --> Stereopsis - both eyes - Retinal disparity (distance between the two eyes) - *diff images from L/R retina - form 2D --> 3D images - Convergence - *focus* - The closer an object is , the more the eyes turn inward (or converge) to focus on that object. Bino gives less info than Mono as distance increases
Stereopsis - perception of depth that arises from the integrated information received from both eyes. Binocular depth cues allow accurate perception of depth through the integration of slightly different information from the left and right eyes. Retinal disparity (distance between the two eyes) - results in slightly different images projected onto the respective retinas. - Higher-order processing in the brain compares the difference between the 2-D retinal images to help give rise to the perception of 3-D depth. Convergence - angular positioning of the eyes: - The closer an object is , the more the eyes turn inward (or converge) to focus on that object. - The brain interprets the angle of convergence as an indication of distance from the observer. Binocular cues are less informative at great distances because retinal disparity and convergence decrease as distance increases. Therefore, monocular cues become more important for depth perception over great distances.
The Ames room = constructed so that the principle of size constancy is overridden.
The Ames room is constructed so that the principle of size constancy is overridden. - Because the viewer can see the room with only one eye (through a monocular peep hole), binocular depth cues are absent and the arrangement of the room is in a trapezoidal configuration. - However, to the viewer, it appears that the room is constructed as a normal rectangle and that person A is the same distance away and much smaller than person B.
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (linguistic relativity) -language influences cognition & perception(color) linguistic determinism - language controls/limits cognition & perception.
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, aka linguistic relativity/determinism - language influences our perception and cognition. -eg- if a person's native language does not have separate names for the colors blue and indigo (instead referring to both as "blue"), that person may have difficulty discriminating blue from indigo in isolation but could learn to differentiate them with practice
Hypothalamus --> have suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) --> regulates melatonin release --> in pineal gland *lesion if Hypothalamus will disrupt sleep/wake cycle*
The hypothalamus - command center for the endocrine system, - produces hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, BP, temp, appetite, and sleep. The hypothalamus has several nuclei that have specialized functions; one of these nuclei is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which regulates the circadian pacemaker that controls circadian rhythms. Light levels impact neurons in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus, which regulates melatonin release that establishes the body's 24-hour cycle (circadian clock).
REM sleep & antidepressants - REM sleep is suppressed by several classes of antidepressants, yet these drugs do not appear to disrupt learning or memory processes - contrary to the belief that REM sleep is critical for memory consolidation.
The hypothesis that memories are consolidated (processed and stored) during REM sleep has not been supported by data. While it appears that sleep is involved in the consolidation of certain types of memory, research has yet to determine which types are consolidated during specific sleep stages. REM sleep is suppressed by several classes of antidepressants, yet these drugs do not appear to disrupt learning or memory processes. Therefore, this observation disconfirms the hypothesis that REM sleep is critical for memory consolidation.
Gestalt principle of perceptual organization - The law of continuity = objects in the same row, or lined up, are perceived as together. - subjective contours = mind fills in the gaps (shadow) - Invariance = can still recognize object upsidedown - Common Fate = objects that move together are grouped together - fishes, birds
The law of continuity - objects in the same row, or lined up, are perceived as together. subjective contours (reification or illusory contours) - mind fills in the gaps. -eg- subjective contours of a circle or a cup are perceived despite their contours not being explicitly shown. Invariance - objects can be recognized despite alterations in orientation, lighting, scale, and slight alterations in the objects' component features. Common Fate - objects that move together are grouped together -eg- a school of fishes
The nativist hypothesis - language is innate process if exposed to it early in life
The nativist hypothesis - language is not learned the way other skills/behaviors are learned but is rather an innate process hardwired in the brain. - As long as humans are exposed to language during a critical (time-sensitive) period in early life, language development is biologically predetermined.