3JJ3 Final Exam!
explain Bandura and the social cognitive learning theory
-Importance of observational learning -Reintroduction of the person into the S ---> R equation by focus on cognitive steps in learning through observation
Four features of mother's behavior associated with quality of attachment
-Sensitive and responsive -Behaviour guided by baby's cues -Accepting of baby and minimal frustration -Physically and psychologically available
what are some ways babies are biologically prepared for social interaction? (5)
-development of biological rhythms (ex; sleep-wake cycle) -visual preparation for social interaction (attracted to faces) -auditory preparedness (preferring high pitch and baby talk) -smell, taste, touch (prefer mothers smell) -beyond faces and voices (face-to-face play, regulating interactions with gaze)
what are some appropriate units for studying social development?
-individual child -Social dyads -A pair of social partners, such as friends, parent and child, or marital partners -Social triads -Peer groups -Depends on the nature of your question -Or are all units important?
describe the following study and what it is an example of in relation to what we have learned in class: MacGowan and Schmidt (under review). Shyness, RSA, and empathy in. children
132 typically developing children (M age = 63.5 months, 62 males) Collect 5 minutes baseline respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) → heart rate variability Coded observed shyness from birthday speech Measure of how regulated an individual can be Coded observed empathy (cognitive and affective) from a feigned injury task by female experimenter -Cognitive empathy - the child's attempts to understand the victim's distress, expressed through gaze, verbal inquiries, and physical exploration -Affective empathy - affective expression of concern for the victim (ex. Facial, gestural, and vocal signs of sympathy and/or sadness) Children who were classified as shy and had relatively lower RSA (lower, stable heart rate variability) showed the lowest amount of cognitive empathy Shows that some shy children may have a bias towards an inability to regulate physiological arousal in some contexts Situation was so arousing for shy child that they're not going to ask for help if they're injured or help someone who is → problematic
by ___ to ___ months, infants reliably display facial expression of anger
2-3
from ____ to _____ months, infants develop wariness, which they exhibit when they encounter events they do not understand
3-7
STUDY Fox et al. G x E chapter 1&3 5-HTT allele and a mothers social support
5-HTT allele and a mothers social support 5-HTT Allele: individuals with the short allele tend to be more shy. Environmental factor is social support the mother reported. If you carry the short allele and a mother who perceives as having low social support you are at the greatest risk of shyness at age seven its genes and environment that matters, not either/or
From ___ to ___ months of age, infants begin to show genuine fear
7-9
what is attachment?
A strong bond that forms between infant and caregiver in the second half of the child's first year
reflex smiles
An upturned mouth seen in the newborn that is usually spontaneous and appears to depend on some internal stimulus rather than on something external such as another person's behavior. these smiles have an adaptive value and helps ensure caregiver attention as an aid to survival between 3-8 weeks
fear of heights- visual cliff
At about 6 months of age, infants begin to refuse to crawl from the shallow side to the deep side, indicating that they see and fear the drop
operant conditioning
Attachment development based on visual, auditory, and tactile stimulation that infants receive from their caregivers Parents are the most reliable sources of this type of stimulation
Harlow's research in theories of attachment
Baby monkeys preferred to cling to the cloth "mother"- especially in moments of stress-- even though it dispensed no food It is something about contact that nonhuman primate craves Thus, oral gratification and drive reduction are inadequate explanations for attachment
based on research by Sroufe and the NICHD study of early child care and youth development, compared with insecurely attached children, what are traits that securely attached children possess?
Based on research by Sroufe, compared with insecurely attached children, securely attached children... -Were rated by teachers as more emotionally positive, more empathetic, and more socially competent at ages 4-5 -Whined less, were less aggressive, and displayed fewer negative reactions when other children approached them -Had more friends and were considered more popular by classmates -Continued to be rated as more socially competent when they are 8 and 12 years old -Were more likely to develop close friendships with peers and form friendships with other securely attached children Based on the NICHD study of early child care and youth development, compared with insecurely attached children, securely attached children.... -Were rated as being more socially competent and having fewer externalizing and internalizing behaviour problems in preschool and first grade -Had better social problem solving skills, were less lonely, and had better quality friendships between ages 4 and 10
what is the central point made about learning theories when it comes to theories of attachment?
Central point: attachment is not automatic; it develops over time as a result of satisfying interactions with responsive adults
what are the two traditional learning theory perspectives?
Classical conditioning (Pavlov, Watson) Operant conditioning (Skinner, Bijou, and Baer)
what is the study of social development?
Description of children's: -Social behaviour and how it changes over time -Knowledge of themselves and others -Ideas about relationships with peers and adults -Emotional expressions and displays -Ability to function in social groups And examination of how other aspects of development underlie children's social behaviour
what are the four developmental stages from Piaget?
Developmental stages -Sensorimotor (0-2) -Preoperational (2-7) -Concrete operations (7-12) -Formal operation (>12)
what are Thomas and Chess' 3 states of temperament?
Difficult babies (10%) - slept and ate irregularly, became easily upset by new situations, and experienced extremes of fussiness and crying Easy babies (40%) - friendly, happy, and adaptable Slow-to-warm up (15%) - low in activity level but tended to respond negatively to new stimuli at first but slowly adapted to new objects and novel experiences after repeated contact with them
learning theory
Drive-reduction learning theorists suggested that the mother becomes an attachment object because she is associated with the reduction of the baby's primary drive of hunger
what is one way to measure endogenous environments?
EEG
describe the following study and what it is an example of in relation to what we have learned in class: Schmidt and Trainor (2001) Frontal EEG and musical emotions
EEG caps illustrating standard 10-20 system and dense arrays Focused on alpha band- shows stress and arousal Schmidt and Trainor Frontal brain electrical activity (EEG) distinguishes valence and intensity of musical emotions Present different musical excerpts Judged as positive or negative and calm or aroused Higher scores means less activity Emotion of fear is showing the most overall activity Sadness shows the least activity For the positive emotions there is more activity in the left side of the brain For the negative emotions there is more activity in the right side Evidence that we can distinguish these different types of emotions on a brain level
what are Rothbart's 3 broad dimensions of temperament?
Effortful control -Attention control - the capacity to focus attention as well as to shift attention when desired -Inhibitory control - the capacity to plan future action and to suppress inappropriate responses Negative affectivity -Frustration - negative affect related to interruption of ongoing tasks or goal blocking -Fear - negative affect related to anticipation of distress Extraversion-surgency -High-intensity pleasure - pleasure derived from fun activities involving high intensity or novelty -Smiling and laughter - positive affect in response to changes in stimulus intensity
what is the biological perspective on emotional expressions?
Emotional expressions are innate and universal, rooted in human evolution, and based on anatomical structures Facial expression of basic emotions are the same in different cultures All infants began to smile at 46 weeks post conception- regardless of how long they have been exposed to smiling faces Each emotion is expressed by a distinct group of facial muscles The left cerebral hemisphere controls the expression of emotion of joy; the right hemisphere, the expression of fearIdentical twins are more similar than fraternal twins in the age at which they first smile, the amount they smile, the onset of their fear reactions to strangers, and their general degree of emotional inhibition
STUDY Boyce et al. differential susceptibility (2 studies: human and nonhuman primates)
Empirical evidence: Differential susceptibility (DRD4 gene) to environmental influences (parenting) in predicting externalizing problems in children -When parent sensitivity is high or low children with the DRD4 7- gene have the same CBCL externalizing outcomes. -For those with the DRD4 7+ (long allele) gene they have more externalizing related behaviours in a low parental sensitivity environment than in a high parental sensitivity environment Externalizing problems: aggression, anti-social, acting out Take home point Some individuals are differentially susceptible to environmental influences for "better" or "worse"
exogenous vs endogenous in terms of multiple meanings of environment
Exogenous (ex; SES, sociodemographic, parenting, familial, peers, etc.) -External to the individual Endogenous (ex; physiology, electrochemical, metabolic, cellular resting state homeostatic, etc. -Reside in the individual and can also affect gene expression
what types of children lead to what types of problems? -fear, shy children -poor, effortful children
Fearful, shy children ---> internalizing problems -Childhood behavioural problem in which the behaviour is directed at the self rather than others, including fear, anxiety, depression, loneliness, and withdrawal Poor, effortful control --> externalizing problems -Childhood behaviour problem in which the behaviour is directed at others, including hitting, stealing, vandalizing, and lying
evolutionary development theory
Focus on behaviours that have ensured past survival of the species The main questions are how and when in the course of childhood these adaptive capabilities emerge Central principle: parents give their children attention and resources to ensure the passage of their genes through the next generation
STUDY' Differential Susceptibility - Bakermans-Kranenburg & Van IJzendoorn G X E chapters 1 and 3
For Better and For Worse: Differential Susceptibility to Environmental Influences For better and for worse *remember things in a general sense, good and bad DRD4 long in the presence of left frontal asymmetry ("positive endogenous environment") = For better (behaviourally and affectively well-regulated: positive affect, social) DRD4 long in the presence of right frontal asymmetry ("negative endogenous environment") = For worse (behaviourally and affectively dysregulated: negative affect, distressed, sensitive to sensory)
describe the following study and what it is an example of in relation to what we have learned in class: Santesso, Schmidt, and Trainor (2007) Frontal EEG and heart rate responses to infant-directed speech
Frontal brain electrical activity (EEG) Patter of overall frontal EEG power in distinguishing affective valence of ID speech in 9-month-old infants Fear shows lower activity while comfort shows the most Also looked at heart rateNo discrimination across the categories as it applies to heart rate Conclusions: -Examination of affective valence (positive vs. negative) and affective arousal (intense vs. calm) using 2 psychophysiological measures in adults (EEG) and infants (EEG and heart rate) -Frontal EEG activity distinguishes affective valence and affective intensity in adults -Frontal EEG and HR patterns distinguishes affective intensity and may reflect attentional aspects of sensory processing in infants
genotype vs phenotype
Genotype- set of genes a person inherits from his or her parents Phenotype - visible expression of the persons physical and behavioural characteristics; created by the interaction with genes and environment
STUDY Poole et al. ELBW/steroid, shyness, equifinality (why?) chapter 1 and 3
Graph showing the mean developmental trajectory of shyness from childhood to adulthood based on birth weight status and prenatal corticosteroid exposure -Normal birth weight babies decrease in shyness -Extremely low birth weight babies that were given steroids prenatally stayed in the same range of high shyness -Low birth weight babies that were not given steroids started with low shyness but then increased in shyness to the same range as those who had been given steroids example of equifinality because they start off with different exposures and over development they converge and end up at the same point in terms of shyness take home point: We speculate that individuals exposed to multiple prenatal stressors (i.e. ELBW+S) may be developmentally programmes to be more sensitive to detecting social threat, with one manifestation being early developing, stable shyness, While increasing shyness among ELBW +NS individuals may reflect a later developing shyness influenced by a postnatal context
what are some aspects of biology that underlie social behaviour?
Hormones Brainwaves DNA Physical appearance Reflexes and unconditioned responses
describe the following study and what it is an example of in relation to what we have learned in class: MacGowan and Schmidt (under review). Positive shyness and Theory of Mind
Hypothesis: Assumes that children with positive shyness would have more sophisticated theory of mind because they are not avoiding social interactions, they are understanding other individuals Theory of mind Ability to attribute mental states (i.e., beliefs, intents, desires, emotions, knowledge, etc.) to oneself, and to others, and to understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that are different from one's own Also monitored child heart rate variability (i.e., self regulation) RSA is heart rate variabilityHigh is a good thing, shows flexibility and adaptability Low RSA Moderate RSA High RSA In low positive shyness and high positive shyness against their theory of mind score RSA moderated the relation between shyness and theory of mind High positive shyness with high RSA led to a high theory of mind score Positive shyness, relative to negative shyness = More sophisticated theory of mind --- in the presence of relatively higher heart rate variability
describe the following study and what it is an example of in relation to what we have learned in class: Tang, Schmidt and colleagues (2017). Trajectories of shyness predicting mental health outcomes
Individual differences in emotion regulatory processes over development and resulting consequences Relative to the low stable trajectory, increasing trajectory at 30-35 years of age was associated with:Increased odds of clinical levels of social anxiety, mood problems, and substance use there are long term consequences to individual differences in emotion regulatory processes across development on mental health outcomes
psychoanalytic theory
Infants become attached to their mother because they associated her with gratification of their instinctual drive to obtain pleasure through sucking and oral stimulation
STUDY Caspi et al. G x E Influence of life stress on depression: moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene (short vs long)
Influence of life stress on depression: moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene (short vs long) heterozygotic vs. Homozygotic for the short vs. The long allele with severe maltreatment. Increased odds of having major depressive episodes is high if you are homozygotic for the short allele and have severe maltreatment. If you have no maltreatment then the gene does not relate its both genes and environment that matters, not either or
what were the findings when looking at the attachment of children in childcare?
Initial findings - children in full-time care more likely to have insecure attachment compared with children not in full-time care -Not consistent -Many things can come into play NICHD study of early child care -When parents education, income, and attitudes were statistically controlled, infants in child care were no more likely to be insecurely attached to their mothers than infants not in care -However, poor quality child care did matter, especially when parents were also not sensitive and responsive at home Good quality child care can actually compensate for poor care and poor infant caregiver relationship at home
internal working model of attachment
Internal working model: a person's mental representation of himself or herself as a child, his or her parents, and the nature of his or her interaction with the parents as he or she reconstructs and interprets that interaction Mothers and father tend to re-create relationships with their own children that replicate their working models of their own relationships with their parents in childhood
Intrusive and rejecting parenting associated with attachment
Intrusive and rejecting parenting associated with insecure-avoidant attachment
what tendencies does left frontal EEG asymmetry show? what about right frontal EEG asymmetry?
Left frontal EEG asymmetry = approach Right frontal EEG asymmetry = withdrawal
what does the left hemisphere control? what about the right hemisphere?
Left hemisphere Right side of the body Language processing "Approach" emotions such as joy, interest, and anger Right hemisphereLeft side of the body Visual spatial information Nonspeech sounds Perception of faces Processing of emotional information (facial expressions) "avoidant" emotions such as distress, fear, and disgust
describe the following study and what it is an example of in relation to what we have learned in class: Van Lieshout et al. (in press). Intergenerational transmission of parenting and stress in ELBW survivors
Limitation → single informant reflecting on their own parenting and how they parent Model: Generation 1: grandparent style Generation 2: LBW survivors Generation 3: LBW's kids Interested in looking at whether stress is a moderator of those relationships (stress=LBW) Found that among ELBW survivors (not controls), parenting stress (for Gen 2) mediated the relation between overprotective parenting of Gen 1 and child shyness in Gen 3 Perinatal adversity and stress may be transmitted to the next generation in humans, as reflected in their perceptions of their children as shy and socially anxious, a personality phenotype that may subsequently place their kids at risk for later mental and physical health problems
describe the following study and what it is an example of in relation to what we have learned in class: Nachmias, Gunnar and colleagues (1996). Attachment X temperament
Looking at coping strategies in toddlers Cope session and strange situation -Looking at cortisol levels on Y axis -X axis has two groups -Level of behavioural inhibition -Level of attachment security To see how they predicted cortisol levels in coping situations and strange situations In the coping session... -Children highly behaviourally inhibited and insecurely attached have the highest level of cortisol -Their cortisol levels are not coming down In the strange situation.... -High inhibition(fear and wariness in response to stimuli) and insecure attachment leads to high post cortisol levels Take home point -Interaction of temperament (I.e., behavioural inhibition) and attachment status (i.e.; insecure attachment) predicted highest cortisol levels
describe the following study and what it is an example of in relation to what we have learned in class: MacGowan and Schmidt (in press). Maternal shyness, RSA, children's empathy
Maternal shyness by child heart rate variability = child empathy Maternal shyness as a proxy for emotional regulation Children who are able to regulate on a physiological level (high RSA) are more adaptive in response to sensory input Take home point Normal variation in individual differences in maternal personality (shyness) may interact with child-level factors (heart rate variability) to influence social cognitive processes and prosocial behaviours (Empathy) in children
how do you use coding systems to discern emotional expression in infancy?
Maximally discriminative facial movement (MAX) -Videotaping infants under different conditions -Trying to arrive at a measure of underlying state by looking at their faces -Think they are very genuine regarding their expression Looks at: Brows, Eyes, nose, cheeks, Mouth, lips, and chin Trying to arrive at the underlying feeling state
describe the following study and what it is an example of in relation to what we have learned in class: Day et al. (2018). Overprotective parenting of ELBW survivors and developmental outcomes
Measures: -Parenting was retrospectively reported at age 22-26 by participants using the 25 item self report Parental Bonding Instrument questionnaire which utilized a 4-point Likert-type scale for each item (1 = very like, 4 = very unlike) sample item includes: "Tried to control everything I did") -Current anxiety and alcohol or substance use disorders were assessed at age 29-36 years using the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI) results: Association between birth weight status and use of alcohol or substances Association between overprotective parenting from ELBW Association from ELBW, overprotective parenting, and anxiety and alcohol or substance use disorder Take home points -Over protective parenting accounted for a substantial proportion of the increased risk for anxiety and alcohol or substance use disorders in adulthood in ELBW survivors -Despite their perceived vulnerabilities, it is important that the parents of ELBW survivors be supported in their attempts to facilitate their children's pursuit of independence during childhood and beyond
describe the following study and what it is an example of in relation to what we have learned in class: Erath et al. Skin conductance responses and harsh parenting on behaviour
Method -Skin conductance level reactivity (SCLR) was examined as a moderator of the association between harsh parenting at age 8 years and growth in child externalizing behaviour from age 8-10 (N= 251) -Mothers and fathers provided reports of harsh parenting and their children's externalizing behaviour -Children also provided reports of harsh parenting; -SCLR was assessed in response to a socioemotional stress task and a problem solving challenge task Findings -Analyses revealed that boys with higher harsh parenting in conjunction with lower SCLR exhibited relatively high and stable effects of externalizing behaviour during late childhood -Boys with higher harsh parenting and higher SCLR exhibited relatively low to moderately levels of externalizing behaviour at age 8 -But some results suggested that their externalizing behaviour increased over time, approaching the same levels as boys with higher harsh parenting and lower SCLR by age 10 -Relatively lower SCLR is an added risk factor to understanding externalizing behaviour in children due to harsh parenting -Tends to increase from 8-10 -For the most part, girls and boys with lower harsh parenting were given relatively low and stable ratings of externalizing behaviour throughout late childhood
compare multifinity and equifinity - pathways of social development
Multifinality - the divergence of developmental pathways in which two individuals start out similarly but end up at very different points Equifinality - the convergence of developmental paths in which children follow very different paths to reach the same developmental end point
list and describe the 4 types of attachment (types A-D)
Nature and quality of attachment Different types of attachment relationships Ainsworth's classification of attachment types Secure attachment (Type B) Babies are unable to explore novel environments, are minimally disturbed by brief separations from their mother, and are quickly comforted by her when she returns Insecure-avoidant (Type A) Babies seem not to be bothered by their mother's brief absences but specifically avoid her when she returns, sometimes becoming visibly upset Insecure-ambivalent (Type C) Babies tend to become very upset at the departure of their mother and exhibit inconsistent behaviour on the mother's return, sometimes seeking contact, sometimes pushing their mother away. (This is sometimes referred to as insecure-resistant or anxious-ambivalent attachment) Beyond Ainsworths's A-B-C classification Insecure-disorganized (Type D) Babies seem disorganized and disoriented when reunited with their mother after a separation
differential susceptibility model dandelions and orchids example
Plasticity in this characteristic that plays out for better or worse depending on the environment Ex; dandelions and orchids -Dandelions seem to be relatively insensitive to their environment -Orchids bloom in a positive environment, they are highly susceptible to their environment
what are the special roles of fathers?
Playmate Spend four to five times more time playing with their infants than caring for them Engage in more physically arousing and unusual games-- especially with their sons
describe the following study and what it is an example of in relation to what we have learned in class: Poole and Schmidt (in press). Positive shyness in the brain
Positive shyness in the brain in children Poole and Schmidt Can they distinguish those three groups based on brain activity Negative scores are greater right frontal activity Positive scores are greater left frontal activity Findings Positive shy group shows more left frontal activity low-shy group also shows more left frontal activity More approach related kinds of behaviour negative shy children showed more right frontal activity
explain Erikson and the psychosocial theory
Psychosocial theory - Erikson extended his stages through adulthood. For every stage, he specified the personal and social tasks that an individual must accomplish as well as the risks he or she would confront by failing to accomplish the tasks of that particular stage -Development depends on accomplishing the psychological tasks at each stage
STUDY Brunet & Schmidt Person X Context is shyness context specific
Question: will those shy act shy when engaged in this task? Does context matter? Number of prompted self disclosures based on if they are shy or not, and if they have a webcam or not When shy people had a webcam, they disclosed only a bit When shy people did not have a webcam, they disclosed almost as much as those who are not shy and have a webcam take home point: Shy adults look no different than their sociable counterparts when the webcam was off
STUDY Hassan et al Temperament, SES, inhibitory control chapter 3
Relations among temperament, familial socioeconomic status, and inhibitory control in typically developing four-year old children Interaction of temperament and environment on children's self-regulation -Support for differential susceptibility model -Low attentional focusing is more susceptible to SES influence Low SES = lowest inhibitory control High SES = highest inhibitory control
STUDY Poole et al Trajectories of frontal EEG asymmetry in typical development
STUDY #1: Typical Development (Poole, K.L.,) Brain activity in early to middle childhood to look at if the patterns were stable across time, are these patterns associated with social-emotional development? Do the patterns have predictive meaning? Take home point: -a stable pattern of right frontal EEG asymmetry over two years in typically developing children was associated with: less sociability, more verbal and nonverbal social inhibition, less anger, and lower heart rate to fear compared to the stable pattern of left frontal asymmetry during this time. -Stable right frontal brain activity might be a biological vulnerability factor to stress-deregulation
STUDY Jetha et al Frontal asymmetry in schizophrenia atypical development chapter 3
STUDY #3: Atypical Development (Jetha, M. K.,) -Looking at stable adults with schizophrenia -Resting frontal EEG asymmetry and shyness and sociability in schizophrenia: a pilot study of community-based outpatients Take home point: -right frontal EEG asymmetry was correlated with shyness, and left frontal EEG asymmetry was correlated with sociability in adults with schizophrenia, only if they were also low in positive symptoms -Similar brain-behaviour relations observed in nonclinical samples may exist in psychiatric disorders when the symptoms of the disorder are controlled statistically
shared environment vs nonshared environment
Shared environment - a set of conditions or activities experienced by children raised in the same family Nonshared environment - a set of conditions or activities experienced by one child in a family but not shared with another child in the same family Identical twins may have more shared environments than fraternal twins Fraternal twins may have more nonshared environmental experiences than identical twins
STUDY MacGowan et al Maternal Shyness
Shyness, aggression, and empathy in children of shy mothers: moderating influence of children's psychophysiological self-regulation -Maternal Shyness by Child Heart Rate Variability (i.e. self-regulation) = Child Empathy -Can we demonstrate a link between those personality profiles in the mother, and how it has an impact on the child's personality -Mother comes into the lab and is asked a range of questions, also measure the heart rate variability in the child -Mother who are low in shyness and low heart rate variability leads to the most empathic behaviour Take home point: -Combination of low maternal shyness and children that are high in RSA change -RSA = heart rate variability due to respiration -normal variation in individual differences in maternal personality (i.e. shyness) may interact with child-level factors (heart rate variability) to influence social cognitive processes and prosocial behaviours (i.e. empathy) in children
explain the information processing perspectives (mind computer metaphor; social information processing theory)
Social information processing theory - an explanation of a person's social behaviour in terms of his or her assessment and evaluation of the social situation as a guide in deciding on a course of social action
explain Freud and the structure of personality
Structure of personality Id- instinctual drives that operate on the basis of the pleasure principle Ego- the rational component of the personality, which tries to satisfy needs through appropriate, socially acceptable behaviours Superego - the personality component that is the repository of the child's internalization of parental or societal values, morals, and roles
STUDY Moscovitch et al EEG CBT study
Study 4: is lateralization open to change? -Frontal EEG asymmetry and symptom response to cognitive behavioural therapy in patients with social anxiety disorder -Starts with right frontal activity and ends with left frontal activity after CBT treatment with eyes closed -Changes in frontal EEG alpha asymmetry in response to an anticipated public speech following CBT among socially anxious adults -Starts with right frontal EEG activity and switches to high left frontal EEG activity post treatment Take home point: -frontal EEG asymmetry changed from right frontal to left frontal activity over the course of CBT from pre CBT to post CBT in response to the speech task -Some aspects of the frontal asymmetry measure appear to be open to change -Provides evidence that there are things changing behaviourally as well as physiologically
STUDY Garrett-Peters et al. Cross-cultural differences (disappointment task)
Study on children's emotional expressions in different cultures An empirical study testing the universality of emotions across culture Cross cultural differences in children's emotional reactions to a disappointing situation -First generation children (western socialization taking place?) Participants and procedures -59 Chinese American children (CA) and 58 European American (EA) children -Children aged four or seven participated in a disappointing gift situation -Children were told they were going to be able to select a prize from a selection after playing a few games -One of them was a broken pair of sunglasses taped together -Measuring reaction to ending up receiving the broken pair of sunglasses Initial reactions were recorded -Are there emotional expressions that are differences between cultures? Results-Dimensions of expressive behaviour following disappointment were coded and included positive, negative, social monitoring, and tension behaviours -EA children demonstrated more total expressive behaviours than CA children ConclusionStudy provides possible limits on the universality of some emotions across cultures
what is the functional perspective on emotional expressions?
The purpose of emotions is to help people achieve their social and survival goals Emotions impel children toward their goal Emotional signals provide feedback that guides other people's behaviour Memories of past emotions shape how people respond to new situations
describe the following study and what it is an example of in relation to what we have learned in class: Poole and Schmidt (2019). Positive shyness in children: subjective and behavioural correlates
Three groups Negative shy Positive shy Non-shy Looked at different measures of shyness from different informants and the observed activity during speech Positive shy are no different than no shy in anxiety as reported by the teacher and parent reports Negative shy group is the least sociable compared to the positive shy and non-shy, who are indistinguishable In the observed activity during speech, the negative shy group is distinguishable from the other two groups based on the freezing response
STUDY Chow et al. Preoperative anxiety/context children's shyness in a surgical setting
To what extent is the child's temperament effected in a surgical setting What would they look like preoperatively and the day of surgery? Findings and take home point Paradoxically, temperamentally shy children displayed lower overall anxiety at preoperative visit and same day of surgery compared with outgoing children Shy children may have adapted better due to their dealing with stress in their everyday environments Social children that are not experiencing stress are put into this new environment and are now facing the stress that shy children are used to
describe the following study and what it is an example of in relation to what we have learned in class: Plass-Christl et al (2018). Trajectories of mental problems in children of parents with mental health problems
Trajectories of mental health problems in children of parents with mental health problems: results of BELLA study Findings Internalizing mental health problems against age and gender As females get older , they have more internalizing health problemsIncrease in mental health problems compared to men Gender difference in mental health problems This is in children with parents of mental health problems themselves Shows how parents socialization affects children
what is the learning perspective on emotional expressions?
Useful for explaining individual differences in emotional expression When adults respond to a baby's smile with positive simulation, the baby's rate of smiling increases Children may become classically conditioned to fear the doctor who gives a painful shot during their first office visit Children may also acquire fear through operant conditioning, for example, when an adverse consequence, such as a painful fall, follows climbing up a high ladder Children learn still other fears simply by observing other people's reactions
STUDY Miskovic et al EEG in children of parents with social phobia chapter 3
Wanted to see whether atypical experience in the mother reflect in the child Overview Biological offspring of anxious parents (ex; social phobia) are known to exhibit increased risk of psychopathology later in life, but do their brains oscillate differently? -Regional EEG collected in 6 biological offspring of socially phobic parents (M age = 10.67 years) and 10 children of healthy control parents (M age = 10.25) -Interested in alpha frequency -Linked to different stress related behaviours Do the brains of at-risk children oscillate differently? -The two groups did not differ on parental ratings of their children's shyness -More activity In the frontal regions of the children of socially phobic parents -Predictive of later problem behaviour -Children are already starting to show physiological symptoms of risk -Shared DNA could be underlying this brain activity Take home point:Parental psychopathology may influence brain activity of the child reflective of risk prior to onset of behavioural symptoms in the child
stranger distress or fear of strangers
a negative emotional reaction to unfamiliar people, which typically emerges in infants around the age of 9 months
Duchenne smile
a smile reflecting genuine pleasure, shown in crinkles around the eyes as well as an upturned mouth
heritability factor
a statistical estimate of the contribution heredity makes to a particular trait or ability
what are some methods of studying genetic contributions to development
adoption studies -Compare adopted children to biological parents (genetic connection) and adoptive parents (environmental connection) Twin studies -Compare similarities between identical twins (share 100% of the genes) and fraternal twins (share 50% of genes) -Monozygotic - identical twins zygote splits in half and each half becomes a distinct embryo with exactly the same genes -Dizygotic- fraternal twins two different eggs fertilized -If monozygotic twins show more resemblance than fraternal twins, it is assumed that trait is largely due to genes -If resemblance is equal across two types of twins, the assumed that trait is largely influenced by environment
temperament
an individuals typical mode of resilience including activity level, emotional intensity and attention span; used particularly to describe infants and children's behaviour
social smile
an upturned mouth in response to a human face or voice, which first occurs when the infant is about 2 months old
what is the modern view of nature/nurture?
environment x biology
what are primary emotions?
fear, joy, disgust, surprise, sadness, and interest, which emerge early in life and do not require introspection or self-reflection
Unaffectionate and inconsistent parenting associated with .......
insecure-ambivalent attachment
Neglectful or abusive parenting associated with
insecure-disorganized attachment
change in attachment classification is more likely to come from .... to ........ vs. ....... to ........
most likely to come from insecure to secure vs. secure to insecure
what is the transactional model of social development?
ongoing interchanges between social partners such as a parent or a child across time that result in modifications of the social behaviour of each emphasizes the process by which the child actively shapes his or her own development
Ainsworth's strange situation
parent and child are separated and reunited and the nature and quality of a parent-infant attachment relationship is assessed Real attachment is measured when the mother comes back in
what are age cohorts?
people who were born in the same time period and share historical experiences
what are secondary/self-conscious emotions?
pride, shame, guilt, jealousy, embarrassment, and empathy, which emerge in the second year of life and depend on a sense of self and the awareness of other people's reactions
during the strange situation, insecurely attached babies show more activity in the _______ side of the prefrontal cortex, which specializes in ___________, whereas securely attached infants show the opposite pattern
right side negative emotion
what is a universal fear in infants?
separation anxiety- fear of being apart from a familiar caregiver (usually the mother or father), which typically peaks at about 15 months of age
what are some factors that influence infants' fear of strangers?
setting parents' availability parent's behaviour characteristics of stranger behaviour of stranger predictability of event infant's control over event cultural norms about strangers infant's experience with strangers
corpus callosum
the band of nerve fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain
cerebral cortex
the covering layer of the cerebrum contains cells that control specific functions like seeing, hearing, moving, and thinking
the quality of early attachment is related to.....
the degree to which children view themselves positively and realistically
hemispheric lateralization
the process by which each half of the brain becomes specialized for certain functions
social referencing
the process of "reading" emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in an uncertain situation
cerebrum
the two connected hemispheres of the brain largest part of the brain allows for attributes that make us human
describe the following study and what it is an example of in relation to what we have learned in class: Fong and colleagues (2017). Links between baseline cortisol, attachment classification, and problem behaviours
this study is evidence for the diathesis-stress model in attachment Findings -Disorganized attachment and low cortisol has the highest problem behaviours -Evidence for diathesis-stress model because of vulnerability (children with low baseline cortisol) -When that meets the environmental stress (disorganized attachment) it makes the worst outcome Take home point -Consistent with a diathesis-stress theory, there were no differences in problem behaviours among children with high baseline control -In contrast, children with low baseline cortisol had the highest level of problem behaviours in the context of a disorganized attachment relationship -Differential-susceptibility model: low baseline cortisol in context of secure attachment would have very low behavioural problems
Ethological Theory- Bowlby what are the three important features of this theory?
views development from an evolutionary perspective Theory influenced by Lorenz's demonstration of imprinting -Birds and other nonhuman animals develop a preference for the person or object to which they are first exposed during a brief, critical period after birth Focused on signalling behaviours in human infant attachment -Crying, smiling, vocalizing, sucking, clinging Evolutionary biases make it likely child will use the parent as a secure base -A safety zone that the infant can retreat to for comfort and reassurance when stressed or frightened while exploring the environment Three important features of theory 1. Emphasis on the active role played by the infant's early social signalling systems 2. Stress on the development of mutual attachments 3. Attachment is a dyadic relationship, not simply a behaviour of either the infant or the parent
is it possible to be high in shyness and socialbility?
yes *insert shyness/sociability range*
