Abnormal Psychology

Evidence-based assessment includes:

(1) relying on research findings and scientifically viable theories; (2) using psychometrically strong measures; and (3) empirically evaluating the assessment process

Deep brain stimulation (DBS)

(also called neuromodulation) A somatic treatment in which a neurosurgeon implants a microelectrode that delivers a constant low electrical stimulation to a small region of the brain, powered by an implanted battery.

Survey

(or poll) is used to to gather information from a sample of people representative of a particular population. In a survey, investigators design sets of questions to tap into these variables. Researchers also use surveys to gather statistics about the frequency of psychological symptoms.

single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)

(pronounced "snip") is a small genetic variation that can occur in a person's DNA sequence. Four nucleotide letters—adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine (A, G, T, C)—specify the genetic code. A SNP variation occurs when a single nucleotide, such as an A, replaces one of the other three.

5 Criteria for Psychological Disorders

1) "clinical significance," meaning that the behavior involves a measurable degree of impairment and "diagnostic validity" meaning that the diagnoses predict future behavior or responses to treatment 2) the behavior reflects a dysfunction in psychological, biological, or developmental processes 3) the behavior usually is associated with significant distress or disability in important realms of life 4) the individual's behavior cannot be socially "deviant" as defined in terms of religion, politics, or sexuality 5) conflicts between the individual and society are not counted as psychological disorders unless they reflect a dysfunction within the individual

The four categories of specific phobias

1) animals 2) the natural environment (storms, heights, fires), 3) blood-injection-injury (seeing blood, having an invasive medical procedure) 4) engaging in activities in particular situations (driving, flying, being in an enclosed space). A fifth category of specific phobias includes a variety of miscellaneous stimuli or situations such as a child's fear of clowns or an adult's fear of contracting a particular illness.

four major dimensions to the symptoms of OCD

1) obsessions associated with checking compulsions, 2) the need to have symmetry and to put things in order, 3) obsessions about cleanliness associated with compulsions to wash, 4) and hoarding-related behaviors

Maslow's heirarchy of needs

1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep. 2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear. 3. Love and belongingness needs - friendship, intimacy, affection and love, - from work group, family, friends, romantic relationships. 4. Esteem needs - achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, self-respect, respect from others. 5. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences.

Bleuler's "Four A's"

1. Thought disorder, as might be evident through rambling and incoherent speech ("Association") 2. Disorder of the experience and expression of emotion ("Affect") 3. Inability to make or follow through on decisions ("Ambivalence") 4. Withdrawal from reality ("Autism")

The Mental Retardation Facilities and Community Mental Health Center Construction Act

A 1963 governmental act initiated a series of changes that would affect mental health services for decades to come. Legislators began to promote policies designed to move people out of institutions and into less restrictive programs in the community, such as vocational rehabilitation facilities, day hospitals, and psychiatric clinics. After their discharge from the hospital, people entered halfway houses, which provided a supportive environment in which they could learn the necessary social skills to re-enter the community. proposed patient treatment in clinics and treatment centers outside of mental hospitals. This legislation paved the way for the deinstitutionalization movement and subsequent efforts to continue to improve community treatment.

target behavior

A behavior of interest or concern in an assessment.

flooding

A behavioral technique in which the client is immersed in the sensation of anxiety by being exposed to the feared situation in its entirety.

imaginal flooding

A behavioral technique in which the client is immersed through imagination into the feared situation.

in vivo flooding

A behavioral technique in which the client is immersed to the actual feared situation.

relaxation training

A behavioral technique used in the treatment of anxiety disorders that involves progressive and systematic patterns of muscle tensing and relaxing.

psychological assessment

A broad range of measurement techniques, all of which involve having people provide scorable information about their psychological functioning.

amyloid plaques

A characteristic of Alzheimer's disease in which clusters of dead or dying neurons become mixed together with fragments of protein molecules.

neurofibrillary tangles

A characteristic of Alzheimer's disease in which the material within the cell bodies of neurons becomes filled with densely packed, twisted protein microfibrils, or tiny strands.

substance

A chemical that alters a person's mood or behavior when it is smoked, injected, drunk, inhaled, or swallowed in pill form.

separation anxiety disorder

A childhood disorder characterized by intense and inappropriate anxiety, lasting at least 4 weeks, concerning separation from home or caregivers.

axis

A class of information in DSM-IV regarding an aspect of the individual's functioning.

case formulation

A clinician's analysis of the factors that might have influenced the client's current psychological status.

substance use disorder

A cluster of cognitive, behavioral, and physiological symptoms indicating that the individual uses a substance despite significant substance-related problems.

psychopathy

A cluster of traits that form the core of the antisocial personality. The specific traits in psychopathy include lack of remorse or shame for harmful acts committed to others; poor judgment and failure to learn from experience; extreme egocentricity and incapacity for love; lack of emotional responsiveness to others; impulsivity; absence of "nervousness"; and unreliability, untruthfulness, and insincerity.

thought stopping

A cognitive-behavioral method in which the client learns to stop having anxiety-provoking thoughts.

childhood-onset fluency disorder (stuttering)

A communication disorder also known as stuttering that involves a disturbance in the normal fluency and patterning of speech that is characterized by such verbalizations as sound repetitions or prolongations, broken words, the blocking out of sounds, word substitutions to avoid problematic words, or words expressed with an excess of tension.

language disorder

A communication disorder characterized by having a limited and faulty vocabulary, speaking in short sentences with simplified grammatical structures, omitting critical words or phrases, or putting words together in peculiar order.

speech sound disorder

A communication disorder in which the individual misarticulates, substitutes, or omits speech sounds.

halfway house

A community treatment facility designed for deinstitutionalized clients leaving a hospital who are not yet ready for independent living.

hoarding

A compulsion in which people have persistent difficulties discarding things, even if they have little value.

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

A condition associated with intellectual disability in a child whose mother consumed large amounts of alcohol on a regular basis while pregnant.

pica

A condition in which a person eats inedible substances, such as dirt or feces; commonly associated with mental retardation.

factitious disorder imposed on another

A condition in which a person induces physical symptoms in another person who is under that person's care.

Rett syndrome

A condition in which the child develops normally early in life (up to age 4) and then begins to show neurological and cognitive impairments including deceleration of head growth and some of the symptoms of autism spectrum disorder.

catatonia

A condition in which the individual shows marked psychomotor disturbances.

mental retardation

A condition, present from childhood, characterized by signifi-cantly below-average general intellectual functioning (an IQ of 70 or below).

splitting

A defense, common in people with borderline personality disorder, in which individuals perceive others, or themselves, as being all good or all bad, usually resulting in disturbed interpersonal relationships.

specific learning disorder

A delay or deficit in an academic skill that is evident when an individual's achievement and skills are substantially below what would be expected for others of comparable age, education, and level of intelligence.

disruptive mood dysregulation disorder

A depressive disorder in children who exhibit chronic and severe irritability and have frequent temper outbursts.

motivational interviewing

A directive, client-centered style for eliciting behavior change by helping clients explore and resolve ambivalence. In motivational interviewing, the clinician collaborates with the client to strengthen the client's motivation to make changes by asking questions that elicit the individual's own arguments for change. MI, like the client-centered approach in general, emphasizes the client's autonomy.

oppositional defiant disorder

A disorder characterized by angry or irritable mood, argumentative or defiant behavior, and vindictiveness that results in significant family or school problems.

schizophreniform disorder

A disorder characterized by psychotic symptoms that are essentially the same as those found in schizophrenia, except for the duration of the symptoms; specifically, symptoms usually last from 1 to 6 months.

brief psychotic disorder

A disorder characterized by the sudden onset of psychotic symptoms that are limited to a period of less than a month.

childhood disintegrative disorder

A disorder in DSM-IV-TR in which the child develops normally for the first 2 years and then starts to lose language, social, and motor skills, as well as other adaptive functions, including bowel and bladder control.

post-concussion syndrome (PCS)

A disorder in which a constellation of physical, emotional, and cognitive symptoms persists from weeks to years.

body dysmorphic disorder

A disorder in which individuals are preoccupied with the idea that a part of their body is ugly or defective. Their preoccupation goes far beyond the ordinary dissatisfaction that many people feel about the size and shape of their body or appearance of a bodily part. People with BDD may check themselves constantly, groom themselves to an excessive degree, or constantly seek reassurance from others about how they look

avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder

A disorder in which individuals avoid eating out of concern about aversive consequences or restrict intake of food with specific sensory characteristics.

factitious disorder imposed on self

A disorder in which people fake symptoms or disorders not for the purpose of any particular gain, but because of an inner need to maintain a sick role.

major depressive disorder

A disorder in which the individual experiences acute, but time-limited, episodes of depressive symptoms. Major depressive disorder can be and often is diagnosed with a range of other disorders, including personality disorders, substance use disorders, and anxiety disorders, for example.

stereotypic movement disorder

A disorder in which the individual voluntarily repeats nonfunctional behaviors, such as rocking or head-banging, that can be damaging to his or her physical well-being.

neurocognitive disorder due to traumatic brain injury

A disorder in which there is evidence of impact to the head along with cognitive and neurological symptoms that persist past the acute post-injury period.

Tourette's disorder

A disorder involving a combination of chronic movement and vocal tics.

reactive attachment

A disorder involving a severe disturbance in the ability to relate to others in which the individual is unresponsive to people, is apathetic, and prefers to be alone rather than to interact with friends or family.

somatic symptom disorder

A disorder involving physical symptoms that may or may not be accountable by a medical condition accompanied by maladaptive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

schizoaffective disorder

A disorder involving the experience of a major depressive episode, a manic episode, or a mixed episode while also meeting the diagnostic criteria for schizophrenia.

selective mutism

A disorder originating in childhood in which the individual consciously refuses to talk.

schizophrenia

A disorder with a range of symptoms involving disturbances in content of thought, form of thought, perception, affect, sense of self, motivation, behavior, and interpersonal functioning.

depersonalization/derealization disorder

A dissociative disorder in which the individual experiences recurrent and persistent episodes of depersonalization.

dissociative identity disorder (DID)

A dissociative disorder, formerly called multiple personality disorder, in which an individual develops more than one self or personality.

inhalants

A diverse group of substances that cause psychoactive effects by producing chemical vapors. There are four categories of inhalants: volatile solvents (paint thinners or removers, dry-cleaning fluids, gasoline, glue, and lighter fluid), aerosols (sprays that contain propellants and solvents), gases (butane lighters and propane tanks, ether, and nitrous oxide), and nitrites (a special category of products that individuals use as sexual enhancers).

hallucination

A false perception not corresponding to the objective stimuli present in the environment.

euphoric mood

A feeling state that is more cheerful and elated than average, possibly even ecstatic.

psilocybin

A form of a hallucinogenic drug found in certain mushrooms.

phencyclidine (PCP)

A form of a hallucinogenic drug originally developed as an intravenous anesthetic.

lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)

A form of a hallucinogenic drug that users ingest in tablets, capsules, and liquid form.

peyote

A form of a hallucinogenic drug whose primary ingredient is mescaline.

Wernicke's disease

A form of aphasia in which the individual is able to produce language but has lost the ability to comprehend, so that these verbal productions have no meaning. An acute and potentially reversible condition involving delirium, eye movement disturbances, difficulties in movement and balance, and deterioration of the peripheral nerves to the hands and feet. It is not the alcohol but a deficiency of thiamine (Vitamin B1) that causes Wernicke's disease.

contingency management

A form of behavioral therapy that involves the principle of rewarding a client for desired behaviors and not providing rewards for undesired behaviors.

bipolar disorder, rapid cycling

A form of bipolar disorder involving four or more episodes within the previous year that meet the criteria for manic, hypomanic, or major depressive disorder. In some individuals, the cycling may occur within 1 week or even 1 day. The factors that predict rapid cycling include earlier onset, higher depression scores, higher mania scores, and lower global assessment of functioning.

Psychosurgery

A form of brain surgery, the purpose of which is to reduce psychological disturbance.

neurocognitive disorder

A form of cognitive impairment involving generalized progressive deficits in a person's memory and learning of new information, ability to communicate, judgment, and motor coordination.

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)

A form of cognitive therapy that helps clients accept the full range of their subjective experiences, such as distressing thoughts and feelings, as they commit themselves to tasks aimed at achieving behavior change that will lead to an improved quality of life. Central to ACT's approach is the notion that, rather than fighting off disturbing symptoms, clients should acknowledge that they will feel certain unpleasant emotions in certain situations. By accepting, rather than avoiding such situations, individuals can gain perspective and, in the process, feel that they are more in control of their symptoms.

Toek economy

A form of contingency management in which a client who performs desired activities earns chips or tokens that can later be exchanged for tangible benefits.

Vicarious reinforcement

A form of learning in which a new behavior is acquired through the process of watching someone else receive reinforcement for the same behavior.

behavioral assessment

A form of measurement based on objective recording of the individual's behavior.

Down syndrome

A form of mental retardation caused by abnormal chromosomal formation during conception.

multi-infarct dementia (MID)

A form of neurocognitive disorder caused by transient attacks in which blood flow to the brain is interrupted by a clogged or burst artery.

vascular neurocognitive disorder

A form of neurocognitive disorder resulting from a vascular disease that causes deprivation of the blood supply to the brain.

neurocognitive disorder due to Lewy Bodies

A form of neurocognitive disorder with progressive loss of memory, language, calculation, and reasoning, as well as other higher mental functions resulting from the accumulation of abnormalities called Lewy bodies throughout the brain.

Participant modeling

A form of therapy in which the therapist first shows the client a desired behavior and then guides the client through the behavioral change.

anxiety

A future-oriented and global response, involving both cognitive and emotional components, in which an individual is inordinately apprehensive, tense, and uneasy about the prospect of something terrible happening.

fragile X syndrome

A genetic disorder caused by a change in a gene called FMRI.

mainstreaming

A governmental policy to integrate fully into society people with cognitive and physical disabilities.

ecstasy (MDMA)

A hallucinogenic drug made from a synthetic substance chemically similar to methamphetamine and mescaline.

neurocognitive disorder due to Huntington's disease

A hereditary condition causing neurocognitive disorder that involves a widespread deterioration of the subcortical brain structures and parts of the frontal cortex that control motor movements.

avolition

A lack of initiative, either not wanting to take any action or lacking the energy and will to take action.

specific learning disorder with impairment in mathematics

A learning disorder in which the individual has difficulty with mathematical tasks and concepts.

specific learning disorder with impairment in reading (dyslexia)

A learning disorder in which the individual omits, distorts, or substitutes words when reading and reads in a slow, halting fashion.

specific learning disorder with impairment in written expression

A learning disorder in which the individual's writing is characterized by poor spelling, grammatical or punctuation errors, and disorganization of paragraphs.

Operant condictioning

A learning process in which an individual acquires behaviors through reinforcement.

insanity

A legal term that refers to the individual's lack of moral responsibility for committing criminal acts

positron emission tomography (PET) scan

A measure of brain activity in which a small amount of radioactive sugar is injected into an individual's bloodstream, following which a computer measures the varying levels of radiation in different parts of the brain and yields a multicolored image.

electroencephalogram (EEG)

A measure of changes in the electrical activity of the brain. The EEG pattern also shows particular patterns of brain waves when an individual engages in particular mental tasks. Clinicians use EEGs to evaluate clients for conditions such as epilepsy, sleep disorders, and brain tumors.

Naltrexone

A medication used in the treatment of heroin addiction.

buprenorphine

A medication used in the treatment of heroin addiction.

clinical psychologist

A mental health professional with training in the behavioral sciences who provides direct service to clients.

Unconditional positive regard

A method in client-centered therapy in which the clinician gives total acceptance of what the client says, does, and feels. As clients feel better about themselves, they become better able to tolerate the anxiety that occurs with acknowledging their own weaknesses because they no longer feel driven to see themselves as perfect. The clinician tries to be as empathic as possible and attempts to see the client's situation as it appears to the client

Qualitative Research

A method of analyzing data that provides research with methods analyzing complex relationships that do not easily lend themselves to conventional statistical methods.

behavioral self-report

A method of behavioral assessment in which the individual provides information about the frequency of particular behaviors.

mental status examination

A method of objectively assessing a client's behavior and functioning in a number of spheres, with particular attention to the symptoms associated with psychological disturbance.

diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

A method to investigate abnormalities in the white matter of the brain.

Free Association

A method used in psychoanalysis in which the client speaks freely, saying whatever comes to mind. Freud used free association to bring repressed, unconscious material into conscious awareness.

polygenic

A model of inheritance in which more than one gene perticipates in the process of determining a given perspective.

bipolar disorder

A mood disorder involving manic episodes—intense and very disruptive experiences of heightened mood, possibly alternating with major depressive episodes.

Cyclothymic disorder

A mood disorder with symptoms that are more chronic and less severe than those of bipolar disorder. People with this disorder have met the criteria for a hypomanic episode many times over a span of at least 2 years (1 year in children and adolescents) and also have numerous periods of depressive symptoms, but never meet the criteria for a major depressive episode.

developmental coordination disorder

A motor disorder characterized by marked impairment in the development of motor coordination.

akinesia

A motor disturbance in which a person's muscles become rigid and movement is difficult to initiate.

bradykinesia

A motor disturbance involving a general slowing of motor activity.

multiaxial system

A multidimensional classification and diagnostic system in the DSM-IV-TR summarizing relevant information about an individual's physical and psychological functioning.

neurocognitive disorder due to Alzheimer's disease

A neurocognitive disorder associated with progressive, gradual declines in memory, learning, and at least one other cognitive domain.

neurocognitive disorder due to Parkinson's disease

A neurocognitive disorder that involves degeneration of neurons in the subcortical structures that control motor movements.

delirium

A neurocognitive disorder that is temporary in nature involving disturbances in attention and awareness

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

A neurodevelopmental disorder involving a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity.

autism spectrum disorder

A neurodevelopmental disorder involving impairments in the domains of social communication and performance of restricted, repetitive behaviors.

neurocognitive disorder due to prion disease (also known as Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease)

A neurological disease transmitted from animals to humans that leads to neurocognitive disorder and death resulting from abnormal protein accumulations in the brain

gambling disorder

A non-substance-related disorder involving the persistent urge to gamble.

exhibitionistic disorder

A paraphilic disorder in which a person has intense sexual urges and arousing fantasies involving the exposure of genitals to a stranger.

pedophilic disorder

A paraphilic disorder in which an adult is sexually aroused by children or adolescents.

sexual sadism disorder

A paraphilic disorder in which sexual gratification is derived from activities that harm, or from urges to harm, another person.

voyeuristic disorder

A paraphilic disorder in which the individual has a compulsion to derive sexual gratification from observing the nudity or sexual activity of others.

frotteuristic disorder

A paraphilic disorder in which the individual has intense sexual urges and sexually arousing fantasies of rubbing against or fondling an unsuspecting stranger.

fetishistic disorder

A paraphilic disorder in which the individual is preoccupied with an object and depends on this object rather than sexual intimacy with a partner for achieving sexual gratification.

partialism

A paraphilic disorder in which the person is interested solely in sexual gratification from a specific body part, such as feet.

sexual masochism disorder

A paraphilic disorder marked by an attraction to achieving sexual gratification by having painful stimulation applied to one's own body.

dyscalculia

A pattern of difficulties in number sense, ability to learn arithmetic facts, and performing accurate calculations.

active phase

A period in the course of schizophrenia in which psychotic symptoms are present.

major depressive episode

A period in which the individual experiences intense psychological and physical symptoms accompanying feelings of overwhelming sadness (dysphoria). enduring form.

hypomanic

A period of elated mood not as extreme as a manic episode.

panic attack

A period of intense fear and physical discomfort accompanied by the feeling that one is being overwhelmed and is about to lose control. During a panic attack, the individual feels overwhelmed by a range of highly unpleasant physical sensations. These can include respiratory distress (shortness of breath, hyperventilation, feeling of choking), autonomic disturbances (sweating, stomach distress, shaking or trembling, heart palpitations), and sensory abnormalities (dizziness, numbness, or tingling).

Korsakoff's syndrome

A permanent form of neurocognitive disorder associated with long-term alcohol use in which the individual develops retrograde and anterograde amnesia, leading to an inability to remember recent events or learn new information.

guardian ad litem

A person appointed by the court to represent or make decisions for a person (e.g., a minor or an incapacitated adult) who is legally incapable of doing so in a civil legal proceeding.

gender identity

A person's inner sense of maleness or femaleness.

antisocial personality disorder

A personality disorder characterized by a lack of regard for society's moral or legal standards and an impulsive and risky lifestyle. A personality disorder characterized by a lack of regard for society's moral or legal standards and an impulsive and risky lifestyle.

borderline personality disorder (BPD)

A personality disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of poor impulse control and instability in mood, interpersonal relationships, and sense of self.

histrionic personality disorder

A personality disorder characterized by exaggerated emotional reactions, approaching theatricality, in everyday behavior.

avoidant personality disorder

A personality disorder in which people have low estimation of their social skills and are fearful of disapproval, rejection, and criticism or being ashamed or embarrassed.

obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD)

A personality disorder involving intense perfectionism and inflexibility manifested in worrying, indecisiveness, and behavioral rigidity.

schizoid personality disorder

A personality disorder primarily characterized by an indifference to social relationships, as well as a very limited range of emotional experience and expression.

narcissistic personality disorder (NPD)

A personality disorder primarily characterized by an unrealistic, inflated sense of self-importance and a lack of sensitivity to the needs of other people.

schizotypal personality disorder

A personality disorder that primarily involves odd beliefs, behavior, appearance, and interpersonal style. People with this disorder may have bizarre ideas or preoccupations, such as magical thinking and beliefs in psychic phenomena.

dependent personality disorder

A personality disorder whose main characteristic is that the individual is extremely passive and tends to cling to other people, to the point of being unable to make any decisions or to take independent action.

paranoid personality disorder

A personality disorder whose outstanding feature is that the individual is unduly suspicious of others and is always on guard against potential danger or harm.

competency to stand trial

A prediction by a mental health expert of the defendant's cognitive and emotional stability during the period of the trial.

graduated exposure

A procedure in which clients gradually expose themselves to increasingly challenging anxiety-provoking situations.

neuropsychological assessment

A process of gathering information about a client's brain functioning on the basis of performance on psychological tests. Clinicians use neuropsychological assessment measures to attempt to determine the functional correlates of brain damage by comparing a client's performance on a particular test with normative data from individuals who are known to have certain types of injuries or disorders.

tau

A protein that normally helps maintain the internal support structure of the axons.

marijuana

A psychoactive substance derived from the hemp plant whose primary active ingredient is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).

depressant

A psychoactive substance that causes the depression of central nervous system activity.

sedative

A psychoactive substance that has a calming effect on the central nervous system.

stimulant

A psychoactive substance that has an activating effect on the central nervous system.

heroin

A psychoactive substance that is a form of opioid, synthesized from morphine.

opioid

A psychoactive substance that relieves pain.

Erik Erikson (1902-1994)

A psychodynamic theorist who gave attention to the whole of life, not just childhood. He examined the ego, or what he called "ego identity", most.

self-report clinical inventory

A psychological test with standardized questions having fixed response categories that the test-taker completes independently, self-reporting the extent to which the responses are accurate characterizations.

standardization

A psychometric criterion that clearly specifies a test's instructions for administration and scoring.

tic

A rapid, recurring, involuntary movement or vocalization.

hassle

A relatively minor event that can cause stress.

Pick's disease

A relatively rare degenerative disease that affects the frontal and temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex and that can cause neurocognitive disorders.

compulsion

A repetitive and seemingly purposeful behavior performed in response to uncontrollable urges or according to a ritualistic or stereotyped set of rules.

proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS)

A scanning method that measures metabolic activity of neurons, and therefore may indicate areas of brain damage.

self-monitoring

A self-report technique in which the client keeps a record of the frequency of specified behaviors.

computed axial tomography (CAT or CT scan)

A series of X-rays taken from various angles around the body that are integrated by a computer to produce a composite picture.

unstructured interview

A series of open-ended questions aimed at determining the client's reasons for being in treatment, symptoms, health status, family background, and life history.

clinical interview

A series of questions that clinicians administer in face-to-face interaction with the client

genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder

A sexual dysfunction affecting both males and females that involves recurrent or persistent genital pain before, during, or after sexual intercourse.

female sexual interest/arousal disorder

A sexual dysfunction characterized by a persistent or recurrent inability to attain or maintain normal physiological and psychological arousal responses during sexual activity.

delayed ejaculation

A sexual dysfunction in which a man experiences problems having an orgasm during sexual activity; also known as inhibited male orgasm.

premature (early) ejaculation

A sexual dysfunction in which a man reaches orgasm well before he wishes to, perhaps even prior to penetration.

female orgasmic disorder

A sexual dysfunction in which a woman experiences problems having an orgasm during sexual activity.

male hypoactive sexual desire disorder

A sexual dysfunction in which the individual has an abnormally low level of interest in sexual activity.

polysomnography

A sleep study that records brain waves, blood oxygen levels, heart rate, breathing, eye movements, and leg movements.

illness anxiety disorder

A somatic symptom disorder characterized by the misinterpretation of normal bodily functions as signs of serious illness.

conversion disorder (functional neurological symptom disorder)

A somatic symptom disorder involving the translation of unacceptable drives or troubling conflicts into physical symptoms.

structured interview

A standardized series of assessment questions, with a predetermined wording and order.

Stigma

A stigma is a label that causes us to regard certain people as different, defective, and set apart from mainstream members of society

caffeine

A stimulant found in coffee, tea, chocolate, energy drinks, diet pills, and headache remedies.

amphetamine

A stimulant that affects both the central nervous and the autonomic nervous systems.

day treatment program

A structured program in a community treatment facility that provides activities similar to those provided in a psychiatric hospital.

substituted judgment

A subjective analysis of what the client would decide if he or she were cognitively capable of making the decision.

hypnotic

A substance that induces sedation or sleep.

methadone

A synthetic opioid that produces a safer and more controlled reaction than heroin and that is used in treating heroin addiction.

Projective test

A technique in which the test-taker is presented with an ambiguous item or task and is asked to respond by providing his or her own meaning or perception. The underlying idea behind projective tests is that people cannot or will not provide accurate statements on self-report inventories. Projective tests are most useful when combined with self-report inventories rather than used as the sole basis for diagnosing or evaluating a client.

Asperger's disorder

A term once used to describe individuals with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder.

transsexualism

A term sometimes used to refer to gender dysphoria, specifically pertaining to individuals choosing to undergo sex reassignment surgery.

family perspective

A theoretical perspective in which it is assumed that abnormality is caused by disturbances in the pattern of interactions and relationships within the family. These disturbed patterns of relationships may create the "identified patient"; namely the individual in treatment whose difficulties reflect strains within the family.

Behavioral Perspective

A theoretical perspective in which it is assumed that abnormality is caused by faulty learning experiences.

cognitive perspective

A theoretical perspective in which it is assumed that abnormality is caused by maladaptive thought processes that result in dysfunctional behavior.

Biological Perspectives

A theoretical perspective in which it is assumed that disturbances in emotions, behavior, and cognitive processes are caused by abnormalities in the body's functioning.

dual-process theory

A theory regarding alcohol use proposing there are automatic processes that generate an impulse to drink alcohol and controlled, effortful processing that regulates these automatic impulses.

interpersonal therapy (IPT)

A time-limited form of psychotherapy for treating people with major depressive disorder, based on the assumption that interpersonal stress induces an episode of depression in a person who is genetically vulnerable to this disorder.

milieu therapy

A treatment approach, used in an inpatient psychiatric facility, in which all facets of the milieu, or environment, are components of the treatment.

relapse prevention

A treatment method based on the expectancy model, in which individuals are encouraged not to view lapses from abstinence as signs of certain failure.

least restrictive alternative

A treatment setting that provides the fewest constraints on the client's freedom.

emotion-focused coping

A type of coping in which a person does not change anything about the situation itself, but instead tries to improve feelings about the situation.

Systematic desensitization

A variant of counterconditioning that involves presenting the client with progressively more anxiety-provoking images while in a relaxed state.

single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)

A variant of the PET scan that permits a longer and more detailed imaging analysis.

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A variant of the traditional MRI, which makes it possible to construct a picture of activity in the brain.

sleep terrors

Abrupt terror arousals from sleep usually beginning with a panicky scream.

Psychosexual Stages

According to psychoanalytic theory, the normal sequence of development through which each individual passes between infancy and adulthood. Freud claimed that children go through these stages in accordance with the development of their libido. At each stage, the libido becomes fixated on a particular "erogenous" or sexually excitable zone of the body. According to Freud, an individual may regress to behavior appropriate to an earlier stage or may become stuck, or fixated, at that stage.

conditioned fear reactions

Acquired associations between an internal or external cue and feelings of intense anxiety.

retrograde amnesia

Amnesia involving loss of memory for past events.

anterograde amnesia

Amnesia involving the inability to remember new information.

Irvin Yalom (1931 - )

An American existential psychiatrist who founded group therapy. According to Irvin Yalom (1995), a founder of group therapy, group therapy has a positive impact by allowing clients to find relief and hope in the realization that their problems are not unique. In the group, they can acquire valuable information and advice from people who share their concerns.

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)

An American, humanist psychologist and memebr of the "third force" in psychology, who developed "Maslow's heirarchy of needs", a theory of psychological health predicated on fulfilling innate human needs in priority, culminating in self-actualization.

Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

An American, humanist psychologist and memebr of the "third force" in psychology, who developed the person-centered theory. In applying the person-centered theory to the therapy context, Rogers (1951) used the term client-centered to reflect his belief that people are innately good and that the potential for self-improvement lies within the individual rather than in the therapist or therapeutic techniques.

prion disease

An abnormal protein particle that infects brain tissue

sexual dysfunction

An abnormality in an individual's sexual responsiveness and reactions.

methamphetamine

An addictive stimulant drug that is related to amphetamine but provokes more intense central nervous system effects.

exorcism

An ancient practice performed by a shaman, priest, or medicine man wherein the "patient" wpuld undergo a physically and mentally painful form of torture to drive evil spirits away.

anxiolytic

An antianxiety medication.

generalized anxiety disorder

An anxiety disorder characterized by anxiety and worry that is not associated with a particular object, situation, or event but seems to be a constant feature of a person's day-to-day existence.

social anxiety disorder

An anxiety disorder characterized by marked, or intense, fear of anxiety of social situations in which the individual may be scrutinized by others.

obsessive compulsive disorder

An anxiety disorder characterized by recurrent obsessions or compulsions that are inordinately time-consuming or that cause significant distress or impairment.

panic disorder

An anxiety disorder in which an individual has panic attacks on a recurrent basis or has constant apprehension and worry about the possibility of recurring attacks.

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

An anxiety disorder in which the individual experiences several distressing symptoms for more than a month following a traumatic event, such as a reexperiencing of the traumatic event, an avoidance of reminders of the trauma, a numbing of general responsiveness, and increased arousal.

acute stress disorder

An anxiety disorder that develops after a traumatic event, and lasts for up to 1 month with symptoms such as depersonalization, numbing, dissociative amnesia, intense anxiety, hypervigilance, and impairment of everyday functioning.

Client-centered

An approach based on the belief held by Rogers that people are innately good and that the potential for self-improvement lies within the individual.

Humanistic perspective

An approach to personality and psychological disorder that regards people as motivated by the need to understand themselves and the world and to derive greater enrichment from their experiences by fulfilling their unique individual potential.

anorexia nervosa

An eating disorder characterized by an inability to maintain normal weight, an intense fear of gaining weight, and distorted body perception.

rumination disorder

An eating disorder in which the infant or child regurgitates food after it has been swallowed and then either spits it out or reswallows it.

bulimia nervosa

An eating disorder involving alternation between the extremes of eating large amounts of food in a short time, and then compensating for the added calories either by vomiting or other extreme actions to avoid gaining weight.

encopresis

An elimination disorder in which the child is incontinent of feces and has bowel movements either in clothes or in another inappropriate place.

enuresis

An elimination disorder in which the child is incontinent of urine and urinates in clothes or in bed after the age when the child is expected to be continent.

commitment

An emergency procedure for involuntary psychiatric hospitalization.

Personality traits

An enduring pattern of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and others.

stressful life event

An event that disrupts the individual's life.

grandiose type of delusional disorder

An exaggerated view of oneself as possessing special and extremely favorable personal qualities and abilities.

Durham Rule

An expansion of the insanity defense based on determining that the individual was not criminally responsible if the unlawful act was due to the presence of a psychological disorder.

Double-Blind Method

An experimental procedure in which neither the person giving nor recieving the treatment knows whether the participant is in the control or treatment group. This is the best way to eliminate demand characteristics as it shields both investigator and participant from knowing either the study's purpose or the nature of the patient's treatment.

intermittent explosive disorder

An impulse-control disorder involving an inability to hold back urges to express strong angry feelings and associated violent behaviors.

trichotillomania (hair-pulling disorder)

An impulse-control disorder involving the compulsive, persistent urge to pull out one's own hair.

pyromania

An impulse-control disorder involving the persistent and compelling urge to start fires.

conduct disorder

An impulse-control disorder that involves repeated violations of the rights of others and society's norms and laws.

kleptomania

An impulse-control disorder that involves the persistent urge to steal.

dissociative amnesia

An inability to remember important personal details and experiences; is usually associated with traumatic or very stressful events.

deviation intelligence (IQ)

An index of intelligence derived from comparing the individual's score on an intelligence test with the mean score for that individual's reference group. The average deviation IQ score is set at 100 with a standard deviation of 15. If a child receives an SB5 IQ score of 115, this means that the child stands at above the IQ of 68 percent of the population.

Libido

An instinctual pressure for gratification of sexual and aggressive desires. The id's primal instincts.

behavioral medicine

An interdisciplinary approach to medical conditions affected by psychological factors that is rooted in learning theory.

specific phobia

An irrational and unabating fear of a particular object, activity, or situation. People with specific phobia go to great lengths to avoid the object or situation that is the target of their fear.

phobia

An irrational fear associated with a particular object or situation.

dysphoria

An unusually elevated sad mood.

obsession

An unwanted thought, word, phrase, or image that persistently and repeatedly comes into a person's mind and causes distress.

pathways model

Approach to gambling disorder which predicts that there are three main paths leading to three subtypes.

neuroimaging

Assessment method that provides a picture of the brain's structures or level of activity and therefore is a useful tool for "looking" at the brain

behavioral interviewing

Assessment process in which clinicians ask questions about the target behavior's frequency, antecedents, and consequences.

multicultural assessment

Assessment process in which clinicians take into account the person's cultural, ethnic, and racial background.

analog observations

Assessments that take place in a setting or context such as a clinician's office or a laboratory specifically designed for observing the target behavior. A clinician assessing the disruptive child would need to arrange a situation as comparable as possible to the natural setting of the classroom for the analog observation to be useful.

Projection

Attributing undesirable personal traits or feelings to someone else to protect one's ego from acknowledging distasteful personal attributes

endophenotypes

Behavioral abnormalities that are linked to genetic and neurobiological causes of mental illness. An endophenotype is an internal phenotype, that is, a characteristic that is not outwardly observable.

behavioral activation

Behavioral therapy for depression in which the clinician helps the client identify activities associated with positive mood.

paraphilias

Behaviors in which an individual has recurrent, intense sexually arousing fantasies, sexual urges, or behaviors involving (1) nonhuman objects, (2) children or other nonconsenting persons, or (3) the suffering or humiliation of self or partner.

Mary Salter Ainsworth (1913-1999)

Canadian psychologist Mary Salter Ainsworth (1913-1999) and her associates (1978) studied differences among infants in attachment style, or the way of relating to a caregiver figure. She developed the "strange situation," an experimental setting in which researchers separated infants from and then reunited them with their mothers.

premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD)

Changes in mood, irritability, dysphoria, and anxiety that occur during the premenstrual phase of the monthly menstrual cycle and subside after the menstrual period begins for most of the cycles of the preceding year.

persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia)

Chronic but less severe mood disturbance in which the individual does not experience a major depressive episode. People with persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia) have, for at least 2 years (1 year for children and adolescents), a more limited set of the symptoms of those that occur with major depressive disorder, including sleep and appetite disturbances, low energy or fatigue, low self-esteem, difficulty with concentration and decision making, and feelings of hopelessness.

semantic dementia

Cleckley used the term "semantic dementia" to capture the psychopath's inability to react appropriately to expressions of emotionality. Other people may find it difficult to see the psychopath's true colors because they are able to disguise their egocentric and impulsive behaviors beneath a veneer of superficial charm and seeming intelligence.

evidence-based practice in psychology

Clinical decision making that integrates the best available research evidence and clinical expertise in the context of the cultural background, preferences, and characteristics of clients.

monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)

Clinicians believe that the antidepressant effects of MAOIs, such as phenelzine (Nardil) and tranylcypromine (Parnate), occur because the medications inhibit the enzyme monoamine oxidase, which converts the biogenic amines, such as norepinephrine and serotonin, into inert substances, so that they cannot excite the postsynaptic neurons. MAOIs prolong the life of neurotransmitters, thus increasing neuronal flow. These medications are particularly effective in treating depression in people with chronic depression that dates back many years, and who have not responded to the tricyclics. However, clinicians do not prescribe MAOIs as commonly as the other two medication types, because their interactions with other substances can cause serious complications. Specifically, people taking MAOIs are not able to take certain allergy medications or to ingest foods or beverages containing a substance called tyramine (for example, beer, cheese, and chocolate), because the combination can bring on a hypertensive crisis in which the person's blood pressure rises dramatically and dangerously.

major neurocognitive disorder due to another medical condition

Cognitive disorders involving the inability to recall previously learned information or to register new memories.

serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs)

Compared to SSRIs, the SNRIs seem to be statistically but not clinically more efficacious, and they have a greater chance of adverse reactions (Machado & Einarson, 2010) including suicidal thoughts or attempts as well as allergic symptoms, gastrointestinal disturbances, weakness, nausea, vomiting, confusion, memory loss, irritability, and panic attacks, among other unpleasant reactions.

phenylketonuria (PKU)

Condition in which children are born missing an enzyme called phenylalanine hydroxase.

derealization

Condition in which people feel a sense of unreality or detachment from their surroundings.

depersonalization

Condition in which people feel detached from their own body. They may have experiences of unreality, being an outside observer, or emotional or physical numbing.

communication disorders

Conditions involving impairment in language, speech, and communication.

neurodevelopmental disorder

Conditions that begin in childhood and have a major impact on social and cognitive functioning, involving serious deficits in social interaction and communication skills, as well as odd behavior, interests, and activities.

problem-focused coping

Coping in which the individual takes action to reduce stress by changing whatever it is about the situation that makes it stressful.

Denial

Dealing with emotional conflict or stress by refusing to acknowledge a painful aspect of reality or experience that would be apparent to others

Regression

Dealing with emotional conflict or stress by reverting to childish behaviors

delusion

Deeply entrenched false belief not consistent with the client's intelligence or cultural background.

erotomanic type of delusional disorder

Delusional disorder in which individuals falsely believe that another person is in love with them.

persecutory type of delusional disorder

Delusional disorder in which individuals falsely believe that someone or someone close to them is treating them in a malevolent manner.

jealous type of delusional disorder

Delusional disorder in which individuals falsely believe that their romantic partner is unfaithful to them.

somatic type of delusional disorder

Delusional disorder in which individuals falsely believe that they have a medical condition.

shared psychotic disorder

Delusional disorder in which one or more people develop a delusional system as a result of a close relationship with a psychotic person who is delusional.

single case experimental design (SCED)

Design in which the same person serves as the subject in both the experimental and control conditions. Particularly useful for studies of treatment effectiveness, a single-subject design typically involves alternating off-on phases of the baseline condition ("A") and the intervention ("B").

transvestic disorder

Diagnosis applied to individuals who engage in transvestic behavior and have the symptoms of a paraphilic disorder.

eating disorders

Diagnosis for people who experience persistent disturbances of eating or eating-related behavior that result in person's altering the consumption or absorption of food.

disinhibited social engagement disorder

Diagnosis given to children who engage in culturally inappropriate, overly familiar behavior with people who are relative strangers.

paraphilic disorder

Diagnosis in which a paraphilia causes distress and impairment.

intellectual disability (intellectual developmental disorder)

Diagnosis used to characterize individuals who have intellectual and adaptive deficits that first became evident when they were children.

psychological factors affecting other medical conditions

Disorder in which clients have a medical disease or symptom that appears to be exacerbated by psychological or behavioral factors.

social (pragmatic) communication disorder

Disorder involving deficits in the social use of verbal and nonverbal communication.

elimination disorders

Disorders characterized by age-inappropriate incontinence, beginning in childhood

anxiety disorders

Disorders characterized by excessive fear and anxiety, and related disturbances in behavior.

mild neurocognitive disorders

Disorders involving modest cognitive decline from a previous level of performance.

major neurocognitive disorders

Disorders involving significant cognitive decline from a previous level of performance.

gender dysphoria

Distress that may accompany the incongruence between a person's experienced or expressed gender and that person's assigned gender.

purging

Eliminating food through unnatural methods, such as vomiting or the excessive use of laxatives.

uplifts

Events that boost your feelings of well-being.

demand characteristics

Expectations of the the investigator and the participant about the experiment's outcome which can compromise the conclusions about the intervention's true effectiveness.

loosening of associations

Flow of thoughts that is vague, unfocused, and illogical.

Modality

Form in which the clinician offers psychotherapy.

Benedict Morel (1809-1873)

French physician Benedict Morel (1809-1873) first identified schizophrenia as a disease which he coined démence precocé (brain dementia of the young).

Oedipus Complex

Freud's belief that the child's feelings toward the opposite-sex parent set the stage for later psychological adjustment. The outcome determines whether the individual has a healthy ego or would spend a life marred by anxiety and repressed conflictual feelings.

Gene-environment correlations

Gene-environment correlations exist when people with a certain genetic predisposition are distributed unequally in particular environments. These correlations can come about in three ways. The first way is through passive exposure. Children with certain genetic predispositions can be exposed to environments that their parents create based on their genetic predispositions. This elicits the second gene-environment interaction and can occur when the parents treat the children with certain genetic predispositions in particular ways because their abilities bring out particular responses. We call the third gene-environment correlation "niche picking." The athletically gifted child may not wait for recruitment, but instead seeks out opportunities to play sports, and in this process becomes even more talented. In terms of the development of psychological disorders, any three of these situations can occur, heightening the risk that children of parents with genetic predispositions are more likely to develop the disorder because of the environment's enhancing effect.

Genome-wide Association study (GWAS)

Genetic method in which researchers scan the entire genome of individuals who are not related to find the associated genetic variations with a particular disease. They are looking for an SNP.

Genome-wide Linkage study

Genetic method in which researchers study the families of people with specific psychological traits or disorders. The principle behind a linkage study is that characteristics near to each other on a particular gene are more likely inherited together.

Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926)

German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926) renamed the condition dementia praecox. He included in the definition a group of nine different clinical forms that shared a similar course in which the afflicted individuals ultimately experienced severe behavioral and cognitive decline. Underlying the different symptoms, Kraepelin believed, was one underlying disease process causing the "weakening" of mental processes.

Emil Kraepelin

German psychiatrist who promoted a classification system much like that applied to medical diagnoses. He proposed that disorders could be identified by their patterns of symptoms. Ultimately, this work provided the scientific basis for current diagnostic systems.

Wilhelm Greisinger

German psychiatrist who published The Pathology and Therapy of Mental Disorders in 1845, which proposed that "neuropathologies" were the cause of psychological disorders.

American Law Institute's (ALI) guidelines

Guidelines proposing that people are not responsible for criminal behavior if their mental disorder prevents them from appreciating the wrongfulness of their behavior.

Freud's 3 Structures of the Mind

Id, Ego, and Superego

automatic thoughts

Ideas so deeply entrenched that the individual is not even aware that they lead to feelings of unhappiness and discouragement.

Paul Charpentier

In 1950, a French chemist, Paul Charpentier, synthesized chlorpromazine (Thorazine). This medication gained widespread acceptance in the 1960s, and led the way toward the development of a wider range of psychotherapeutic agents.

multiple baseline method

In a multiple baseline design, the researcher applies the treatment in an AB fashion so that it is never removed. The observation occurs across different subjects, for different behaviors, or in different settings. The researcher takes repeated measures of behavior in relation to introduction of the treatment.

family inheritance studies

In family inheritance studies, researchers compare the disorder rates across relatives who have varying degrees of genetic relatedness. These studies examine disorder rates in different pairs of genetically related individuals. The highest degree of genetic relatedness is between identical or monozygotic (MZ) twins, who share 100 percent of their genotype. Dizygotic (DZ) or fraternal twins share, on the average, 50 percent of their genomes, but both types of twins share the same familial environment

self-actualization

In humanistic theory, the maximum realization of the individual's potential for psychological growth.

Reality Principle

In psychoanalyic theory, the motivational force that leads the individual to confront the constraints of the external world.

Pleasure Principle

In psychoanalytic theory, a motivating force oriented toward the immediate and total gratification of sensual needs and desires.

secondary process thinking

In psychoanalytic theory, the kind of thinking involved in logical and rational problem solving.

Id

In psychoanalytic theory, the structure of personality hidden in the unconscious that contains instincts oriented toward fulfilling basic biological drives, including gratification of sexual and aggressive needs. The way the id attempts to achieve pleasure is not necessarily through the actual gratification of a need with tangible rewards. Instead, the id uses wish fulfillment to achieve its goals. Through wish fulfillment, the id conjures an image of whatever will satisfy the needs of the moment.

Ego

In psychoanalytic theory, the structure of personality that gives the individual the mental powers of judgment, memory, perception, and decision making, enabling the individual to adapt to the realities of the external world. The center of conscious awareness in personality. The ego is governed by the reality principle and uses secondary process thinking.

Superego

In psychoanalytic theory, the structure of personality that includes the conscience and the ego ideal; it incorporates societal prohibitions and exerts control over the seeking of instinctual gratification.

doctor of philosophy (PhD)

In psychology: The doctor of philosophy (PhD) is typically awarded for completing graduate training in research. In order to be able to practice, people who get their PhD's in clinical psychology also complete an internship.

doctor of psychology (PsyD)

In psychology: The doctor of psychology (PsyD) is the degree that professional schools of psychology award and typically involves less training in research. These individuals also must complete an internship in order to practice.

Kurt Schneider (1887-1967)

In the decades following Bleuler's work, clinicians in Europe and the United States proposed further distinctions within the schizophrenia grouping. One notable contributor to the debate was the German psychiatrist, Kurt Schneider (1887-1967), who believed that clinicians should only diagnose schizophrenia when an individual has certain "first-rank symptoms."

amnesia

Inability to recall information that was previously learned or to register new memories.

cultural formulation

Includes the clinician's assessment of the client's degree of identification with the culture of origin, the culture's beliefs about psychological disorders, the ways in which the culture interprets particular events, and the cultural supports available to the client.

personality disorder

Ingrained patterns of relating to other people, situations, and events with a rigid and maladaptive pattern of inner experience and behavior, dating back to adolescence or early adulthood.

agoraphobia

Intense anxiety triggered by the real or anticipated exposure to situations in which they may be unable to get help should they become incapacitated.

neologisms

Invented ("new") words.

depressive disorder

Involves periods of symptoms in which an individual experiences an unusually intense sad mood.

disulfiram

Known popularly as Antabuse, a medication used in the treatment of alcoholism that inhibits aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) and causes severe physical reactions when combined with alcohol.

emotional dysregulation

Lack of awareness, understanding, or acceptance of emotions; inability to control the intensity or duration of emotions; unwillingness to experience emotional distress as an aspect of pursuing goals; and inability to engage in goal-directed behaviors when experiencing distress.

right to treatment

Legal right of person entering psychiatric hospital to receive appropriate care.

NEO Personality Inventory (Revised) (NEO-PI-R)

Less oriented toward clinical use is the NEO Personality Inventory (Revised) (NEO-PI-R)(Costa & McCrae, 1992), a 240-item questionnaire that measures five personality dimensions, or sets of traits. The scales are designed so the test-taker can complete them as well as individuals who know the test-taker, such as spouses, partners, or relatives (Form R). People use the NEO-PI-R less in clinical settings than in personality research or in personnel selection, although it can be of value in describing a client's "personality" as distinct from the client's symptoms.

pseudodementia

Literally, false dementia, or a set of symptoms caused by depression that mimic those apparent in the early stages of Alzheimer's disease.

sensate focus

Method of treating sexual dysfunction in which the interaction is not intended to lead to orgasm, but to experience pleasurable sensations during the phases prior to orgasm.

tardive dyskinesia

Motor disorder that consists of involuntary movements of the mouth, arms, and trunk of the body.

extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS)

Motor disorders involving rigid muscles, tremors, shuffling movement, restlessness, and muscle spasms affecting their posture.

"Barnum Effect"

Named after legendary circus owner P. T. Barnum, this is the tendency for clinicians unintentionally to make generic and vague statements about their clients that do not specifically characterize the client.

restricted affect

Narrowing of the range of outward expressions of emotions.

Alfred Adler (1870-1937) and Karen Horney (1885-1952)

Neo-Freudians who believed the ego was the most important aspect of personality. Although their theories represented distinct contributions, and each associated with it a particular type of therapy, they both gave great emphasis to the role of a healthy self-concept in normal psychological functioning. Adler talked about the negative consequences of an "inferiority complex," and Horney proposed that unhappiness comes from trying to live up to a false self. Both Adler and Horney also emphasized social concerns and interpersonal relations in the development of personality. They saw close relationships with family and friends and an interest in the life of the community as gratifying in their own right, not because a sexual or an aggressive desire is indirectly satisfied in the process

frontotemporal neurocognitive disorder

Neurocognitive disorder that involves the frontotemporal area of the brain.

John Bowlby (1907-1990), Melanie Klein (1882-1960), D. W. Winnicott (1896-1971), Heinz Kohut (1913-1981), and Margaret Mahler (1897-1995)

Object relations theorists who believed that the individual's relationship with the caregiver (usually the mother) becomes a model for all close adult relationships. As with the ego psychologists, the object relations theorists each have a particular model of therapy that we associate with their theories. However, they all agree that early childhood relationships are at the root of abnormality.

Cognitive restructuring

One of the fundamental techniques of cognitive-behavioral therapy in which clients learn to reframe negative ideas into more positive ones. The clinician attempts to change the client's thoughts by questioning and challenging the client's dysfunctional attitudes and irrational beliefs

allele

One of two different variations of a gene

Object relations

One's unconscious representations of important people in one's life.

community mental health center (CMHC)

Outpatient clinic that provides psychological services on a sliding fee scale to serve individuals who live within a certain geographic area.

Type A behavior pattern

Pattern of behaviors that include being hard-driving, competitive, impatient, cynical, suspicious of and hostile toward others, and easily irritated.

Type D personality

People who experience emotions that include anxiety, irritation, and depressed mood.

psychiatrist

People with degrees in medicine (MDs) who receive specialized advanced training in diagnosing and treating people with psychological disorders.

dysfunctional attitudes

Personal rules or values people hold that interfere with adequate adjustment - negative beliefs about the self that are also deeply engrained and difficult to articulate.

Social Learning Theory

Perspective that focuses on understanding how people develop psychological disorders through their relationships with others and through observation of other people.

rapid eye movements (REM)

Phase during sleep involving frequent movements of eyes behind closed eyelids; EEG's similar to those while awake.

withdrawal

Physiological and psychological changes that occur when an individual stops taking a substance.

synapses

Points of communication between neurons. Electrical signals containing information transmit chemically across the synapse from one neuron to the next. Through this transmission, neurons form complex pathways along which information travels from one part of the nervous system to another.

Social discrimination

Prejudicial treatment of a class of individuals, seen in the sociocultural perspective as a cause of psychological problems.

in vivo observation

Process involving the recording of behavior in its natural context, such as the classroom or the home.

Epigenesis

Process through which the environment causes genes to turn "off" or "on." If the remaining working gene is deleted or severely mutated, then a person can develop an illness.

alcohol myopia theory

Proposes that as individuals consume greater amounts of alcohol, they are more likely to make risky choices because the immediate temptation of the moment overcomes the long-term consequences of the behavior.

hallucinogens

Psychoactive substances that cause abnormal perceptual experiences in the form of illusions or hallucinations, usually visual in nature.

Psychological Causes

Psychological causes of abnormal behavior involve disturbances in thoughts and feelings. Past learning experiences Maladaptive thought patterns Difficulties coping with stress

impulse-control disorders

Psychological disorders in which people repeatedly engage in behaviors that are potentially harmful, feeling unable to stop themselves and experiencing a sense of desperation if their attempts to carry out the behaviors are thwarted.

culture-bound syndromes

Recurrent patterns of abnormal behavior or experience that are limited to specific societies or cultural areas.

excoriation (skin-picking) disorder

Recurrent picking at one's own skin

echolalia

Repeating the same sounds over and over.

Intellectualization

Resorting to excessive abstract thinking rather than focus on the upsetting aspects of response to issues that cause conflict or stress

sleepwalking

Rising from bed during sleep and walking about while seemingly asleep.

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Russian physiologist known for his discovery of classical conditioning, became the basis for the behaviorist movement begun in the United States by John B. Watson (1878-1958). B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) formulated a systematic approach to operant conditioning, specifying the types and nature of reinforcement as a way to modify behavior.

elective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

SSRIs block the uptake of serotonin, enabling more availabilty of this neurotransmitter for action at the receptor sites. These medications include fluoxetine (Prozac), citalopram (Celexa), escitalopram (Lexapro), paroxetine (Paxil), and sertraline (Zoloft). Compared to other antidepressants, SSRIs have fewer unpleasant side effects such as sedation, weight gain, constipation, blood pressure changes, and dry mouth. However, SSRIs are not without side effects. The most commonly reported complaints are nausea, agitation, and sexual dysfunction. SNRIs increase both norepinephrine and serotonin levels by blocking their reuptake. They include duloxetine (Cymbalta), venlafaxine (Effexor), and desvenlafaxine (Pristiq).

erectile disorder

Sexual dysfunction in which a man cannot attain or maintain an erection during sexual activity that is sufficient to allow him to initiate or maintain sexual activity.

Displacement

Shifting unacceptable feelings or impulses from the target of those feelings to someone less threatening or to an object

Psychotherapeutic medications

Somatic treatments that are intended to reduce the individual's symptoms by altering the levels of neurotransmitters that researchers believe are involved in the disorder.

Research Methods

Survey Laboratory study Case study Single case experimental design Behavioral genetics

Carl Jung (1875-1961)

Swiss psychiatrist who revamped the definition of the unconscious. According to Jung (1961), the unconscious is formed at its very root around a set of images common to all human experience, which he called archetypes. Jung believed that people respond to events in their daily lives on the basis of these archetypes, because they are part of our genetic makeup. In addition, Jung (1916) believed that abnormality resulted from an imbalance within the mind, especially when people fail to pay proper attention to their unconscious needs.

Eugen Bleuler (1857-1939)

Swiss psychologist Eugen Bleuler (1857-1939) proposed a dramatic change in both the name and the understanding of the disorder. According to Bleuler (1911), the disorder was not one, but instead, a set of diseases which he labeled the schizophrenias. The term schizophrenia is not a splitting of personalities (as in dissociative identity disorder), but a splitting of (schiz) the functions of the mind. Unlike Kraepelin, Bleuler thought it was possible for people with schizophrenia to recover from the disorder.

somatic symptoms

Symptoms involving physical problems and/or concerns about medical symptoms

Defense mechanism

Tactics that keep unacceptable thoughts, instincts, and feelings out of conscious awareness and thus protect the ego against anxiety. Freud believed that people need protection from knowing about their own unconscious desires.

remission

Term used to refer to the situation when the individual's symptoms no longer interfere with his or her behavior and are below those required for a DSM diagnosis.

adaptive testing

Testing in which the client's responses to earlier questions determine the subsequent questions presented to them.

M'Naghten Rule

The "right-wrong test" used in cases of the insanity defense to determine whether a defendant should be held responsible for a crime.

DSM-5

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) is the 2013 update to the American Psychiatric Association's (APA) classification and diagnostic tool. In the United States the DSM serves as a universal authority for psychiatric diagnosis.

The Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI)

The Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) (Morey, 1992) consists of 344 items organized into 11 clinical scales, 5 treatment scales, 2 interpersonal scales, and 4 validity scales. One advantage of the PAI is that clinicians can use it with clients who may not have the language or reading skills to complete the MMPI-2. A second advantage is that, unlike the MMPI, one calculates the validity scale independently of any of the content scales.

The SCL-90-R

The SCL-90-R (Derogatis, 1994) measures the test-taker's current experiencing of 90 physical and psychological symptoms. One advantage of the SCL-90-R is that it focuses on the client's current status rather than asking about symptoms over a previous period of time. Consequently, clinicians can track the progress of their clients over multiple occasions.

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) presents test-takers with a very different task than does the Rorschach. Test-takers look at black-and-white drawings that portray people in a variety of ambiguous situations. Their task is to tell a story about what is happening in each scene, focusing on such details as what the characters in the picture are thinking and feeling. The TAT's original purpose was to evaluate motivation such as the need for achievement or need for power. Like the Rorschach, its use has evolved over time and clinicians can administer it as part of a larger test battery.

Electroconvulsie Therapy (ECT)

The application of electrical shock to the head for the purpose of inducing therapeutically beneficial seizures. ECT became increasingly popular in the 1940s and 1950s, but, as the movie One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest depicts, staff in psychiatric hospitals also misused it as a way to restrain violent patients. Even though ECT had largely fallen into disuse by the mid-1970s, psychiatrists continued to use it to treat a narrow range of disorders. A comprehensive review of controlled studies using ECT for treatment of major depressive disorder showed that, in the short-term, ECT was more effective than medications in producing rapid improvement of symptoms. However, there are long-term ECT consequences including memory impairment

insanity defense

The argument, presented by a lawyer acting on behalf of the client, that, because of the existence of a mental disorder, the client should not be held legally responsible for criminal actions.

Gene mapping

The attempt of biological researchers to identify the structure of a gene and the characteristics it controls. In gene mapping researchers examine and connect variations in chromosomes to performance on psychological tests or diagnosis of specific disorders.

anxiety sensitivity theory

The belief that panic disorder is caused in part by the tendency to interpret cognitive and somatic manifestations of stress and anxiety in a catastrophic manner.

Biological Causes

The biological domain includes genetic and environmental influences on physical functioning. Of particular interest are inherited factors that alter the functioning of the nervous system. There are also physiological changes that affect behavior, which other conditions in the body cause, such as brain damage or exposure to harmful environmental stimuli. Genetic inheritance Physiological changes Exposure to toxic substances

The Biopsychosocial Perspective

The biopsychosocial perspective incorporates a developmental viewpoint. This means that individuals must be seen as changing over time. Biopsychosocial factors interact to alter the individual's expression of behavioral patterns over time.

duty to warn (or otherwise protect)

The clinician's responsibility to notify a potential victim of a client's harmful intent toward that individual.

potentiation

The combination of the effects of two or more psychoactive substances such that the total effect is greater than the effect of either substance alone

prinicpal diagnosis

The disorder that is considered to be the primary reason the individual seeks professional help.

fear

The emotional response to real or perceived imminent threat.

inappropriate affect

The extent to which a person's emotional expressiveness fails to correspond to the content of what is being discussed.

validity

The extent to which a test, diagnosis, or rating accurately and distinctly characterizes a person's psychological status.

tolerance

The extent to which the individual requires larger and larger amounts of a substance in order to achieve its desired effects, or the extent to which the individual feels less of its effects after using the same amount of the substance.

malingering

The fabrication of physical or psychological symptoms for some ulterior motive.

Egas Moniz

The first modern use of psychosurgery was a prefrontal lobotomy, which the Portuguese neurosurgeon Egas Moniz developed in 1935. By severing the prefrontal lobes from the rest of the brain, Moniz found that he was able to reduce the patient's symptoms. Unfortunately, the procedure also caused severe changes in the patient's personality, including loss of motivation. The medical field considered the technique a major breakthrough at the time, leading Moniz to be honored with a Nobel Prize in 1949.

Person-centered theory

The humanistic theory that focuses on the uniqueness of each individual, the importance of allowing each individual to achieve maximum fulfillment of potential, and the need for the individual to confront honestly the reality of his or her experiences in the world. A theory rich with implications for treatment, person-centered theory now forms the foundation of much of contemporary therapy and counseling.

Self efficacy

The individual's perception of competence in various life situations.

binge eating

The ingestion of large amounts of food during a short period of time, even after reaching a point of feeling full, and a lack of control over what or how much is eaten.

paranoia

The irrational belief or perception that others wish to cause you harm.

Classical conditioning

The learning of a connection between an originally neutral stimulus and a naturally evoking stimulus that produces an automatic reflexive reaction - accounts for the learning of emotional, automatic responses

Rorschach Inkblot Test

The most famous projective technique is the Rorschach Inkblot Test, named after Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach, who developed the method in 1911. To administer the test, the examiner shows the test-taker a set of 10 cards (5 black and white, 5 with color), one by one. The test-taker's job is to describe what the inkblot looks like. Although the method sounds simple enough, over the last century researchers and clinicians continue to refine the scoring methods.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

The most popular self-report inventory by far is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), originally published in 1943. The current version of the test is the 1989 revision known as the MMPI-2. There are 567 true-false items on the MMPI-2, which are all in the form of statements that describe the individual's thoughts, behaviors, feelings, and attitudes. The original intent of the MMPI was to provide scores on 10 so-called "clinical scales" corresponding to major diagnostic categories such as schizophrenia, depression, and anxiety. The text developers built an additional 3 "validity" scales into the test in order to guard against people trying to feign either exceptional psychological health or illness.

DNA methylation

The process of DNA methylation can turn off a gene as a chemical group, methyl, attaches itself to the gene

Counterconditioning

The process of replacing an undesired response to a stimulus with an acceptable response. Ex. Clients learn to associate the response of relaxation to the stimulus that formerly caused them to feel anxious

differential diagnosis

The process of systematically ruling out alternative diagnoses.

coping

The process through which people reduce stress.

Diathesis-stress model

The proposal that people are born with a diathesis (genetic predisposition) or acquire vulnerability early in life due to formative events such as traumas, diseases, birth complications, or harsh family environments. This vulnerability then places these individuals at risk for the development of a psychological disorder as they grow older.

maturation hypothesis

The proposition that people with antisocial personality and the other Cluster B disorders become better able to manage their behaviors as they age.

nicotine

The psychoactive substance found in cigarettes.

primary gain

The relief from anxiety or responsibility due to the development of physical or psychological symptoms.

lovemap

The representations of an individual's sexual fantasies and preferred practices.

biological sex

The sex determined by a person's chromosomes.

comorbid

The situation that occurs when multiple diagnostic conditions occur simultaneously within the same individual.

parens patriae

The state's authority to protect those who are unable to protect themselves.

epigenetics

The study of epigenetics attempts to identify the ways that the environment influences genes to produce phenotypes.

secondary gain

The sympathy and attention that a sick person receives from other people.

negative symptoms

The symptoms of schizophrenia, including affective flattening, alogia, avolition, and anhedonia, that involve functioning below the level of normal behavior.

positive symptoms

The symptoms of schizophrenia, including delusions, hallucinations, disturbed speech, and disturbed behavior, that are exaggerations or distortions of normal thoughts, emotions, and behavior.

substance intoxication

The temporary maladaptive experience of behavioral or psychological changes that are due to the accumulation of a substance in the body.

Sociocultural Causes

The term sociocultural refers to the various circles of influence on the individual ranging from close friends and family to the institutions and policies of a country or the world as a whole. Discrimination, whether based on social class, income, race and ethnicity, or gender, can influence the development of abnormal behavior. Social policies Discrimination Stigma

psychodynamic perspective

The theoretical orientation in psychology that emphasizes unconscious determinants of behavior. Of all the psychological approaches, the psychodynamic gives greatest emphasis to the role of processes beneath the surface of awareness as influences on abnormality.

sociocultural perspective

The theoretical perspective that emphasizes the ways that individuals are influenced by people, social institutions, and social forces in the world around them.

stress

The unpleasant emotional reaction that a person has when an event is perceived as threatening.

pharmacogenetics

The use of genetic testing to determine who will and will not improve with a particular medication.

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

The use of radiowaves rather than X-rays to construct a picture of the living brain based on the water content of various tissues.

Attachment style

The way a person relates to a caregiver figure. Although designed as a theory of child development, later researchers have adapted the concept of attachment style to apply to adult romantic relationships.

Ego Psychology

Theoretical perspective based on psychodynamic theory emphasizing the ego as the main force in personality. We associate Erikson with the term "identity crisis," a task that he believed was central to development in adolescence. Erikson believed that the ego goes through a series of transformations throughout life in which a new strength or ability can mature. He also believed that each stage builds on the one that precedes it, and in turn, influences all following stages. However, Erikson proposed that any stage could become a major focus at any age—identity issues can resurface at any point in adulthood, even after a person's identity is relatively set.

neurodevelopmental hypothesis

Theory proposing that schizophrenia is a disorder of development that arises during the years of adolescence or early adulthood due to alterations in the genetic control of brain maturation.

multicultural approach

To therapy: therapy that relies on awareness, knowledge, and skills of the client's sociocultural context. For example, therapists need to be sensitive to the ways in which the client's cultural background interacts with his or her specific life experiences and family influences. A commitment to learning about the client's cultural, ethnic, and racial group and how these factors play a role in assessment, diagnosis, and treatment, characterize knowledge.

apnea

Total absence of airflow

Five Factor Model

Trait theory proposing that there are five basic dispositions in personality. According to this theory, each of the basic five dispositions has six facets, which leads to a total of 30 personality components. The Five Factor Model includes the personality traits of neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness.

Sublimation

Transferring an unacceptable impulse or desire into a socially appropriate activity or interest

Reaction formation

Transforming an unacceptable feeling or desire into its opposite in order to make it more acceptable

dialectical behavior therapy (DBT)

Treatment approach for people with borderline personality disorder that integrates supportive and cognitive-behavioral treatments to reduce the frequency of self-destructive acts and to improve the client's ability to handle disturbing emotions, such as anger and dependency.

cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)

Treatment method in which clinicians focus on changing both maladaptive thoughts and maladaptive behaviors. Clinicians incorporate behavioral techniques such as homework and reinforcement with cognitive methods that increase awareness by clients of their dysfunctional thoughts. Clients learn to recognize when their appraisals of situations are unrealistically contributing to their dysfunctional emotions. They can then try to identify situations, behavior, or people that help them counteract these emotions. The goal of CBT is to give clients greater control over their dysfunctional behaviors, thoughts, and emotions.

panic-control therapy (PCT)

Treatment that consists of cognitive restructuring, exposure to bodily cues associated with panic attacks, and breathing retraining.

Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs)

Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) derive their name from the fact that they have a three-ring chemical structure. These medications, such as amitriptyline (Elavil, Endep), desipramine (Norpramin), imipramine (Tofranil), and nortriptyline (Aventyl, Pamelor), are particularly effective in alleviating depression in people who have some of the more common biological symptoms, such as disturbed appetite and sleep. Although the exact process by which tricyclic antidepressants work still remains unclear, we do know that they block the premature reuptake of biogenic amines back into the presynaptic neurons, thus increasing their excitatory effects on the postsynaptic neurons.

Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA)

U.S. legislation intended to ensure adequate coverage and protect consumers from loss of insurance coverage when they change or lose their jobs.

Repression

Unconsciously excluding disturbing wishes, thoughts, or experiences from awareness

multiple relationships

Unethical relationships occurring when a psychologist is in a professional role with a person and has another role with that person that could impair the psychologist's "objectivity, competence, or effectiveness in performing his or her functions as a psychologist" or otherwise risks exploiting or harming the other person.

Gene-environment interactions

When two different genotypes respond to environmental variation in different ways. A norm of reaction is a graph that shows the relationship between genes and environmental factors when phenotypic differences are continuous. Gene-environment interactions occur when one factor influences the expression of the other. A person may have a latent genetic predisposition or vulnerability that only manifests itself when that individual comes under environmental stress. The genetic risk presence did not predict whether or not the person developed major depressive disorder unless that individual was exposed to a high-stress environment

reliability

When used with regard to diagnosis, the degree to which clinicians provide diagnoses consistently across individuals who have a particular set of symptoms.

Assertive Community Treatment (ACT)

Where a team of professionals from psychiatry, psychology, nursing, and social work reach out to clients in their homes and workplaces.

health anxiety

Worry about physical symptoms and illness.

Dorothea Dix

a Boston schoolteacher and reformer who sought to improve the treatment of people with psychological disorders in the mid-1800s. Dix appealed to the Massachusetts Legislature for more state-funded public hospitals to provide humane treatment for mental patients. From Massachusetts, Dix spread her message throughout North America and Europe.

Claudius Galen (a.d. 130-200)

a Roman physician who developed a system of medical knowledge based on anatomical studies.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

a Viennese neurologist who in the early 1900s developed psychoanalysis, a theory and system of practice that relied heavily on the concepts of the unconscious mind, inhibited sexual impulses, and early development. By the time of his death in 1939, Freud had articulated a vision for psychological disorder cause and treatment with the basic tenet that most symptoms had roots buried deep within an individual's past.

Interpersonal and social rhythm therapy (IPSRT)

a biopsychosocial approach to treating people with bipolar disorder that proposes that relapses can result from the experience of stressful life events, disturbances in circadian rhythms (e.g., sleep-wake cycles, appetite, energy), and problems in personal relationships. According to the IPSRT model, mood episodes are likely to emerge from medication nonadherence, stressful life events, and disruptions in social rhythms

discounting of probabilistic rewards

a cognitive phenomenon wherein one discounts or devalues rewards they could obtain in the future compared to rewards they could obtain right away

synesthesia

a neurologically based condition in which sensory or cognitive pathway stimulation leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second sensory or cognitive pathway. Can cause a blurring of his senses and emotions when someone presents him with numbers or words: "The word ladder, for example, is blue and shiny, while hoop is a soft, white word."

trephining

a process wherein a "patient" would have a hole cut into their skull to release the assumed evil spirit trapped inside.

brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)

a protein involved in keeping neurons alive and able to adapt and change in response to experience.

Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE)

a structured tool that clinicians use as a brief screening device to assess dementia. The clinician administers a set of short memory tasks and compares the client's scores to established norms. If the client scores below a certain cutoff, the clinician then can (and should) continue to more in-depth testing of potential cognitive impairments.

Conditons of worth

a term coined by Carl Rogers that refers to the demands that parents place upon children. In order to be loved they feel they have to meet these criteria. As adults, they are constantly trying to meet the expectations of others instead of feeling that others will value them for their true selves.

Existential psychology

a theoretical position that emphasizes the importance of fully appreciating each moment as it occurs. According to existential psychology, people who are tuned in to the world around them and experience life as fully as possible in each moment are the psychologically healthiest. Psychological disorders arise when people are unable to experience living in the moment. People develop disorders not due to fundamental flaws in their biology or thoughts, but modern society imposes restrictions on our ability to express our inner selves

psychiatric neurosurgery

a treatment in which a neurosurgeon operates on brain regions, most likely responsible for the individual's symptoms.

Core Conflictual Relationship Theme (CCRT)

a type of study, case building, and psychodynamic therapy which stresses core relationship trends in patients' tellings and recountings. Three part are examined: the intentions, needs, and desires of the patient with respect to the other individual- the other individual's anticipated or real response to these and the patient's feelings, actions, or indicators as they associate themselves with the other individual's responses.

Concordance rate

agreement ratios between people diagnosed as having the disorder and their relatives

traumatic brain injury (TBI)

amage to the brain caused by exposure to trauma.

Ugo Cerletti

an Italian neurologist seeking a treatment for epilepsy, developed ECT in 1937.

naltrexone

an aid in preventing relapse among people with alcohol use disorder. As an opioid receptor antagonist, it blocks the effects of the body's production of alcohol-induced opioids, perhaps through involving dopamine.

acamprosate

an amino acid derivative. Acamprosate reduces the risk of relapse by reducing the individual's urge to drink and thereby reducing the drive to use alcohol as a way of reducing anxiety and other negative psychological states. Acamprosate appears to work by modulating glutamate receptors and other reactions within the cell. Individuals who seem to benefit the most from acamprosate are those who are older when they become dependent on alcohol, have physiological signs of higher dependence, and have higher levels of anxiety, although in general, the evidence in favor of acamprosate is positive

tryptophan

an amino acid that aids the body in manufacturing serotonin

Malleus Maleficarum

an indictment of witches written by two Dominican monks in Germany in 1486, became the Church's justification for denouncing witches as heretics and devils whom it had to destroy in the interest of preserving Christianity. The Church recommended "treatments" such as deportation, torture, and burning at the stake. Women were the main targets of persecution.

Case Study

an intensive investigation of an individual or small group of individuals

the major categories of psychotherapeutic agents

antipsychotics, antidepressants, mood stabilizers, anticonvulsants, antianxiety medications, and stimulants

Hippocrates (ca. 460-377 b.c.)

considered the founder of modern medicine, believed that there were four important bodily fluids that influenced physical and mental health, leading to four personality dispositions. To treat a psychological disorder would require ridding the body of the excess fluid.

genotype

genetic makeup of an organism

four categories of substance use symptoms

impaired control, social impairment, risky use, and pharmacological changes

Scientific Explanations

look for causes that we can objectively measure, such as biological alterations, faulty learning processes, or emotional stressors.

"A-B-C" chain of events

model developed by Albert Ellis, there is an "A-B-C" chain of events leading from faulty cognitions to dysfunctional emotions. A refers to the "activating experience," B to beliefs, and C to consequences. In people with psychological disorders, these beliefs take an irrational form of views about the self and the world that are unrealistic, extreme, and illogical.

Positive Psychology

movement which emphasizes the potential for growth and change throughout life. The movement views psychological disorders as difficulties that inhibit the individual's ability to achieve highly subjective well-being and feelings of fulfillment. In addition, the positive psychology movement emphasizes prevention rather than intervention. Instead of fixing problems after they occur, it would benefit people more if they could avoid developing symptoms in the first place.

Theoretical Perspectives

orientations to understanding the causes of human behavior and the treatment of abnormality

Spiritual Explanations

regard abnormal behavior as the product of possession by evil or demonic spirits

Reinforcement

the "strengthening" of a behavior.

mitochondrial DNA

the DNA that controls protein formation in the cell's mitrochondria (energy-producing structures)

Neurotransmitters

the chemical messengers that travel across the synapse, allowing neurons to communicate with their neighbors

Circadian rhythms

the daily variations that regulate biological patterns such as sleep-wake cycles. Based on the hypothesis that at least some mood disorders reflect a disruption in circadian rhythms, researchers are proposing the use of treatments that "reset" the individual's bodily clock

Phenotype

the expression of the genetic program in the individuals's physical and psychological attributes.

file drawer problem" phenomenon

the fact that we are likely to file away and not even submit for publication consideration studies that fail to establish significant benefits of an intervention such as a medication

Benjamin Rush (1745-1813)

the founder of American psychiatry, rekindled interest in the scientific approach to psychological disorders. In 1783, Rush joined the medical staff of Pennsylvania Hospital. Appalled by the poor hospital conditions, he advocated for improvements such as placing psychologically disturbed patients in their own wards, giving them occupational therapy, and prohibiting visits from curiosity seekers who would visit the hospital for entertainment. Rush also supported the use of bloodletting and purging in the treatment of psychological disorders as well as the "tranquilizer" chair, intended to reduce blood flow to the brain by binding the patient's head and limbs. Rush also recommended submerging patients in cold shower baths and frightening them with death threats. He thought that fright inducement would counteract the overexcitement that he believed was responsible for the patients' violent behavior

Incidence

the frequency of new cases of a disorder within a given time period.

Biopsychosocial

the interaction in which biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors play a role in the development of an individual's symptoms.

Prevalence

the number of people who have ever had the disorder over a specified period of time.

Molecular genetics

the study of how genes translate hereditary information.

Independent Variable

the variable whose level is adjusted or controlled by the experimenter. The investigator sets up at least two conditions that reflect different levels of the independent variable.

Dependent Variable

the variable whose value is the outcome of the experimenter's manipulation of the independent variable; the variable they observe.

Humanitarian Explanations

view psychological disorders as the result of cruelty, stress, or poor living conditions.