adult development quiz #1
daily diaries
-participants enter data on a daily basis. -The data may consist of ratings on such variables as happiness, perceived stress, or interactions with friends, family, or coworkers. -Typically, these studies are carried out over a period of weeks or months.
continuity principle
-people remain the "same" even though they change -the changes that people experience in later adulthood build on the experiences they had in their earlier years -you don't look the same to others, but you feel the "same" on the inside -older adults prefer to be treated as they always were rather than as "old people"
observational methods
1) All procedures by which researchers observe and record the behavior of interest, rather than relying on subjects' self-reports 2) in behavioral observations, researchers count the number of behaviors shown at given intervals
the world's 25 oldest countries and areas in 2015 vs 2050
1) Japan 2) Germany 3) Italy 4) Greece 5) Finland 6) Sweden 7) Bulgaria 8) Austria 9) Belgium 10) Estonia 11) Portugal 12) Denmark 13) France 14) Slovenia 15) Croatia 16) Hungary 17) Czech Republic 18) Netherlands 19) Switzerland 20) Canada 21) Spain 22) United Kingdom 23) Serbia 24) Latvia 25) Puerto Rico
structural equation modeling
1) a comprehensive statistical procedure that involves testing all components of a theoretical mode 2) data from a fictional study using structural equation modeling to present the relationship between health and well-being. health represents a combination of blood pressure, weight and mobility limitations. well-being represents a combination of happiness ratings and life satisfactions. social class, exercise, and age, are all factors that can affect health.
validity
1) a measure is considered valid if it measures what it says it is going to measure 2) a) content: the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest b) criterion: the extent to which a measure is related to an outcome c) construct: the extent to which variables measure what they are supposed to measure
reliability
1) a measure is reliable when it produces the same or similar results each time it is used 2) a) consistency: Data quality needs to be consistent and reliable b) test-retest: a method for determining the reliability of a test by comparing a test taker's scores on the same test taken on separate occasions
ageism
1) a set of beliefs, attitudes, and acts that denigrate individuals based on their chronological age 2) founded on overgeneralizations 3) can happen to anyone regardless of age 4) one effect of ageism is to cause younger people to avoid close proximity to an older person
chronological age
1) age as measured in years from date of birth 2) age used to represent expectations and privileges within that culture
single-factor research designs
1) age, cohort and time of measurement 2) longitudinal designs 3) cross-sectional designs
Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory
1) an environmental systems theory that focuses on five environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. 2) the model proposes that development occurs over time (the chronosystem) within the individual, who is at the center of the systems reflecting environmental influences
individuality matters
1) as people age, they become more different from each other 2) living through more experiences affects everything from health to physical well-being causing people to change at different rates and to differing degrees 3) interindividual differences: differences between people 4) intraindividual differences: variations in performance within the same individual not all systems develop at the same rate within the same person 5) multidirectionality: intraindividual differences illustrate the fact that development can proceed in multiple directions within the same person
epidemiological studies
1) based on either prevalence or incidence data 2) prevalence: estimate of percentages who ever had symptoms in given period 3) incidence: estimate of percentage who first develop symptoms in given period
cross sequential design
1) different participants of various ages are compared at several points in time, to determine both age-related differences and age-related changes 2) different cohorts are compared at different times of testing.
constant
1) does not vary. it stays the same throughout the course of an experiment 2) lets say you are doing an experiment that measures whether music has an effect on plant growth. the constant variable would be things like temperature, water and soil. things that have to be same among all plants.
fostering plasticity in development
1) engaging in mental and physical activity 2) avoiding risky behaviors
social clock
1) feeling the pressure of being "on-time" 2) can create stress as people measure their progress in relation to age norms
sex and gender
1) gender inclusive restrooms are increasingly common in public facilities
normal aging is different from disease
1) growing older doesn't necessarily mean growing sicker 2) primary aging: normal age-related change (loss) 3) secondary aging: disease-related impairments (loss) 4) tertiary aging: rapid decline shortly before death (loss) 5) optimal aging: changes that improve the individual's functioning.
correlational research design
1) how 2+ naturally occurring variables relate; strength and direction of the relationship 2) positive correlation: one variable increases as the value of the other increases. 2) value of one variable increases as the value of the other variable decreases
four key areas of research ethics
1) informed consent: awareness of study procedures, risks and benefits 2) right to withdraw: participant can withdraw without penalty 3) confidentiality: participant will not be identifiable in published reports and data will be securely stored 4) debriefing: information at study's completion of its true purpose 5) suggest resources: provide information relevant to participants experiences
religion
1) investigated in several ways within the field of adult development and aging, but a distinction is typically made between participation in: a) organized religion b) a sense of spirituality
cross-sectional research
1) involves looking at data from a population at one specific point in time 2) multiple groups represent age span of interest 3) challenge: group must be as similar as possible
Gini Coefficient
1) makes it possible to classify an economy according to the distribution of its wealth 2) the green line of complete equality occurs when income is distributed equally across the population. the red curve shows an economy characterized by inequity in which a small percentage of the population earns the largest share of income as when the wealthiest 10% of the population earns 90% of the income generated in that economy
time-sequential design
1) method in which data are organized by age and time of measurement. 2) scores are compared at different times of testing for groups that differ in age.
archival research
1) method of research using past records or data sets to answer various research questions, or to search for interesting patterns or relationships 2) these include secondary data others have collected 3) with archival data, one has no control over the variables already collected or characteristics of the sample/population 4) however, archival data can be economical in that it saves time and money
the life course perspective
1) norms, roles, and attitude about age have an impact on the shape of each person's life 2) the course is theorized to be heavily shaped by society's views of what is appropriated and expected to occur in connection with particular ages
multiple jeopardy hypothesis
1) older individuals who fit more than one discriminated-against category are affected by biases against each of these categorizations 2) ageism, sexism, and racism interact with one another to influence the discriminatory ways in which people are treated 3) one study of retail sales employees revealed that 95% of female and 54% of male attendants gave preferential treatment to well-dressed, young female customers. 4) age as a leveler view —proposes that as people become older, age overrides all other isms 5) older adults, regardless of their prior status, become victims of the same stereotypes
longitudinal study
1) participants in one cohort are observed at different ages, which also represent different times of measurement 2) suffer from the problem of selective survival 3) participants who die before time 4 had a steeper decline between times 2 and 3 than those who will survive. the average seems to have increased between times 3 and 4 because those who died were no longer in the sample; however, those who will survive show no actual change in scores.
reciprocity in development
1) people influence and are influenced by the people around them, leading to developmental change 2) individuals also shape their own experiences, both through active interpretation of the events that happen to them and through the actions they take.
telomere theory of aging
1) proposes that with each cellular replication the telomeres shorten until they are no longer present to protect the ends of the chromosomes 2) telomere length shortens with age. progressive shortening of telomeres affect health and lifespan of an individual. shorter telomeres have been associated with increased incidence of disease and poor survival 3) the rate of telomere shortening can be either increased or decreased by specific lifestyle factors. 4) better choice of diet and activities have great potential to reduce the rate of telomere shortening or at least prevent excessive telomere attrition, leading to delated onset of age-associated diseases and increased life-span
model linking environmental factors to disease
1) psychosocial factors can cause disease either through the direct pathway of causing harmful biological changes or the indirect pathway of causing unhealthy behaviors that cause biological changes. the outcome in either case is increased risk of disease
Race and Ethnicity
1) race: classification within the species based on physical and structural characteristics 2) ethnicity: cultural background of an individual.
normative age-graded influences
1) reflect society's timeline about the events associated with a given age group: a) early adulthood (20-30): -start a career -commit to relationship -start family b) middle adulthood (30-65) -continue in career -raise family -plan for retirement c) later adulthood -plan for retirement -become grandparent -spend time on leisure
orgasmic models
1) regard development as reflecting inherited traits that change through maturation
age-sex structure of the US population
1) shows the millions of people in 5 year age bracket divided by sex. 2) the 2060 structure reflects projections that there will be more people alive than was the case in 1960 in the upper age brackets of the population
factors studied in Whitehall II
1) social support at work 2) opportunity for using one's skills 3) control over work content 4) psychological workload 5) control over work pacing
example of ecological model
1) study of life expectancy according to wealth within London, England, shows how men and women living in wealthy areas of Kensington and Chelsea outlive those living in poorer districts along the London Underground of Barking/Dagenham and Tower Hamlets
only the survivors grow old
1) the expected number of people to survive to each age based on calculations for all those born in 2020. 2) those who survive to the age of 85 and older represent an increasingly select group of population
niche-picking
1) the proposal that genetic and environmental factors work together to influence the direction of a child's life 2) being good at a sport (partly genetically determined) leads to further involvement in the sport, which, in turn, further improves these abilities.
interactionist model
1) the theory that development results from complex reciprocal interactions between multiple personal and environmental factors 2) view development as reflecting interactive processes between the two; seems to be the most accurate in describing development
chapter 1 summary
1) this book uses the biopsychosocial perspective, which regards development as a complex interaction of biological, psychological and social processes. the four principles of adult development include the assumptions that changes are continuous over the life span; only the survivors grow old; individual differences are important to recognize, and normal aging is different from disease. distinctions must be drawn between primary aging and secondary aging. 2) it is difficult to define the term adult given the range of possible criteria. the age of 18 to 22 serve as a rough guideline. the over-65 population is divided into young old, old-old and oldest-old. centenarians include individuals 100 and older. and supercentenarians are those 110 and older. 3) the idea of functional age bases age on performance rather than chronological age. additionally, biological, psychological, and social age all provide alternative perspectives to describe an individual. whereas personal aging refers to changes within the individual over time, social aging refers to the effects of exposure to a changing environment and includes normative age-graded influences, normative history graded influences, and non normative influences. 4) social factors important to the study of adult development and aging include gender, race, ethnicity, SES and religion. the Gini coefficient quantifies the extent to which a country experiences income inequity. 5) society will experience a great impact as the baby boom generation begins to enter later adulthood. 50.9 million Americans over the age of 65, constituting 15.6% of the total US population, these numbers are expected to rise dramatically in the coming years as a result of the baby boomers. gender and racial variations are also expected to change. countries around the world will show an increase in the over-65 population as well, especially in Asia and Africa. these changes will impact the way in which you view your own late adulthood, as well as prepare for what will happen in your later years.
functional age measures
1) uses scores on given indicators to represent age rather than chronological age. 2) biological age: cardiovascular functioning, respiratory functioning, muscle and bone strength, and cellular aging. 3) psychological age: reaction time, memory, learning ability and intelligence. 4) social age: work roles, family status, and position in the community
divisions of the over-65 population
1) young-old: 65-74 2) old-old: 75-84 3) oldest-old: 85+ 4) centenarians: 100+ and 110+ (super)
four principles of adult development and aging
1. Changes are continuous over the life span 2. Only the survivors grow old 3. Individuality matters 4. Normal aging is different from disease
Key social factors in adult development and aging
1. sex and gender 2. race 3. ethnicity 4. socioeconomic status 5. religion
age, cohort, and time of measurement
Age -definition: Chronological age, measured in years -index of: Change within individual Cohort -definition: Year or period of birth -index of: Influences relevant to history Time Of Measurement -definition: Time of testing -index of: Current influences
path analysis
An analysis technique for correlational data from longitudinal research designs; mediators and moderators are investigated simultaneously
telomeres
DNA-protein structures found at both ends of each chromosome, protect genome from degradation, and also play a vital role in preserving the information in our genome.
how does phone use before bedtime affect sleep?
IV: rate of phone use before bed DV: sleep quality
how well do different plant species tolerate salt water?
IV: the amount of salt added to the plants water DV: plant growth, plant wilting, plant survival rate
do tomatoes grow fastest under fluorescent, incandescent or natural light
IV: the type of lights used DV: the rate of growth of the tomato plant
what is the effect of diet and regular soda on blood sugar levels
IV: type of soda DV: blood sugars levels
selective optimization with compensation
The theory, developed by Paul and Margaret Baltes, that people try to maintain a balance in their lives by looking for the best way to compensate for physical and cognitive losses and to become more proficient in activities they can already do well.
continuity theory of aging
Theory of social gerontology initially proposed by Neugarten, Havighurst, and Tobin (1968) in response to critiques of the disengagement and activity theories. Individuals adapt to changes by using the same coping styles they have used throughout the life course, with new roles serving as substitutes for roles lost because of age.
attrition
a gradual reduction or weakening; a rubbing away
meta-analysis
a subset of systematic reviews; a method for systematically combining pertinent qualitative and quantitative study data from several selected studies to develop a single conclusion
psychological models of development
attempt to explain the development of the person in the person-environment equation from the standpoint of how adaptive abilities unfold over the course of life.
mediation analysis
begins by determining the direct effect of one variable on the second
the baby boomers grow up
changes in the middle-aged and older populations in the U.S. and the world
personal aging
changes that occur within the individual reflecting time's effects on the body
case study
comprehensive look at an individual or small group; rich source of new hypotheses
social aging
effects of person's exposure to a changing environment
Primary aging examples
eye lense thickens, loss of hearing, loss of smell, loss of muscle tissue, loss of calcium in bones, cardiac output declines during exercise, reduction in density of dendrites in brain, reduction in T cells, thymus shrinks, lowered fertility, shorter spine, increase in wrinkles, gray hair
terror management theory
fear of mortality leads to distancing from older adults
sociocultural models of development
give more emphasis to the environment as an influence on development
focus group
group interview involving a small number of demographically similar people or participants who have other smaller other common traits/experiences. their reactions to specific researcher/evaluator-posed questions are studied.
experiment vs quasi experiment
in an experimental study, the independent variable is randomly assigned. in quasi-experimental study, the independent (such as age) is not randomly assigned
normative history-graded influences
influences that are common to people of a particular generation because of historical circumstances 1) exposure to mass shootings, even if not personal experienced, is a history normative-graded influence, because everyone in a society is affected in some way
non-normative influence on development
is unique to the person -such as a house fire, it only happens to one person.
dependent variable
it is the effect. its value depends on changes in the independent variable. it is the variable being measured. it is the outcome.
survey
method of gathering information from a sample of people, with the intention of generalizing the results to a larger population
normal aging
normal aging is also referred to as primary aging, which is differing from secondary aging related to disease and tertiary aging, which including rapid loss of function before death. There are also gains associated with aging referred to as optimal aging, in which people become better with age in certain functions
inoculation hypothesis
older minorities and women have managed to become immune to the effects of ageism through years of exposure to discrimination and stereotyping.
biopsychosocial model
perspective that asserts that biology, psychology, and social factors interact to determine an individual's health. a model of health that integrates the effects of biological, behavioral, and social factors on health and illness. 1. biological: physical changes, genetics. 2. sociocultural: social context, history, and culture 3. psychological: cognition, personality and emotions
projections of the older adult population: 2020 to 2060
projections of the 65+ population showing that by 2060, nearly one in four Americans is projected to be an older adult
mechanistic models
propose that the environment and learning are the main forces in development
Erikson's theory
proposes that there are eight psychosocial issues that people confront over the life span. 1) 0-1 1/2: trust vs mistrust 2) 1 1/2-3: autonomy vs shame and doubt 3) 3-6: initiative vs guilt 4) 6-12: industry vs inferiority 5) 12-21: identity achievement vs identity diffusion 6) 21-30: intimacy vs isolation 7) 30-65: generativity vs stagnation 8) 65+: ego integrity vs despair
socioeconomic status
reflects a combination of education and occupation, with income often included as well a) education: measured in years b) occupation: prestige rankings c) income: flow of earnings
2015-2050
relative increase in the world's older adult population between 2015 and 2050 with Asian countries becoming an increasingly large share of the world's older population by 2050
what are the two main areas used in evaluating the psychometric qualities of a measurement instrument
reliability and validity
qualitative research
research that relies on what is seen in field or naturalistic settings more than on statistical data
what is the most efficient design?
sequential research designs.
variable
something that changes or varies, needs to have at least two levels or values (but it can have more)
Attrition in Longitudinal Studies
subjects may drop out of the study or become unreachable
Where does ageism come from?
terror management theory, modernization hypothesis, multiple jeopardy hypothesis
The modernization hypothesis
the belief that industrialization led older adults to become obsolete
plasticity
the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
independent variable
the cause. its value is independent on other variables in your study. (it is the variable being manipulated)
disengagement theory of aging
the theory that suggests that successful aging is characterized by a gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels
activity theory
theory of adjustment to aging that assumes older people are happier if they remain active in some way, such as volunteering or developing a hobby
most effective designs
time-sequential requires a combination of time and age cohort-sequential requires a combo of age and cohort cross-sequential requires a combo of time and cohort
cohort sequential design
two or more cohorts are followed across at least two different age periods.
elder talk
when you see an older person, you automatically feel the need to talk louder and slower because elder people are stereotyped as being hard of hearing and slow to understand
aging in racial/ethnic groups
within the US, between the years 2016 and 2060, there will be a relative decrease in percent of those 65+ who are non-hispanic white, and a relative increases in all other racial/ethic groups, reflecting overall shifts in the US to a majority-minority country