anatomy 11 lecture 3 exam

What comes into the lumen of the small intestine from secretions frm the liver?

*Bile comes from liver. *Liver cells = hepatocytes

What is an antibody?

- Antibodies are Y-shaped proteins secreted by plasma cells into body fluids (lymph, blood plasma, interstitial fluid) that circulate throughout the body and stick to specific antigens - Antibodies are also called immunoglobuling (1 g) - there are 5 types of antibodies (see diagram p.819) *1gG most abundant (2nd) *1gM not as affective (1st)

What is Primary Response?

- First exposure to an antigen - The primary immune response takes a relatively long period of time to develop because it takes time to activate the appropriate B-cell clones, create large numbers of plasma cells, and for the plasma cells to then start secreting significant amounts of antibodies. It usually takes 1-2 weeks after exposure to an antigen for high levels of antibodies to show up in body fluids. 1gM is produced first (pentamer) by early developing plasma cells followed by 1gG secreted by later developing plasma cells.

What does Systemic Fever do?

- Helps inhibit replication of some viruses and increases (above 98.6 F) metabolism/activity of immune system cells. - move faster and phagocytize faster

CHECK HOW THIS IS WORDED????????? What is the Esophagus? Where is it? What about it?

- Muscular tube connecting mouth with stomach - passes through diaphragm through esophageal hiatus - lines with numerous mucous glands to lubricate food bolus - epithelium = stratified squamous epithelium

What are the Interferons?What are Interferons and what do they do?

- Produced by lymphocytes, macrophages, and body cells infected by viruses - Interferons coordinate the defenses against viral infections

What is Secondary Response?

- Subsequent infection by the same antigen - Secondary immune responses occur much faster (in a matter of days) due to memory B and T-cells (which can live for over 20 years) circulating in the body at high levels. Antibody levels, especially 1gG, in body fluids also reach much higher levels during a secondary response.

What are Complement and what do they do?

- a group of plasma proteins which interact with one another in a chain reaction (called the complement cascade) to cause cells tagged by antibodies to lyse (break them open/destroy them)

What is the Upper Respiratory Tract?

- all structures above the epiglottis mouth, nose, nasal passage, pharynx

What us the Lower Respiratory Tract?

- all structures below the epiglottis larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli (lungs)

What is General Chemical Immunity?

- chemicals produced by the body which help destroy a variety of foreign antigens. - NOT ANTIBODIES - Interferons - Complement

What does the stomach consist of?

- epithelium = modified simple columnar (with huge numbers of goblet cells) - muscularis layers = 3 layers (longitudinal, circular, and oblique)

What are the nonspecific defenses (innate immunity) general mechanisms designed to do?

- prevent pathogens from entering the body -kill a variety of pathogens -doesn't matter where or what it is it fights anything - like mucus membranes and skin

What is the Inflammation Response?

- produced as a reaction to tissue trauma Vasodilation, edema, localized heat: Inflammation is designed to attract (specifically WBC & B&T lymphocyte) immune components to an injury site, speed tissue repair, clear harmful substances, and destroy and block the invasion of pathogens.

What is Involuntary (autonomic) Regulation of Breathing (most of the time)?

- regulation of autonomic breathing is controlled by a complex interaction between pneumotaxic and apneustic centers in the pons and the respiratory rhythmicity center (RRC) in the medulla. Chemoreceptors in carotid and aortic bodies (monitor blood) and the medulla of the brain (monitor CSF) constantly monitor changes in PCO2, PO2, and pH in the blood and CSF, but they are most sensitive to changes in PCO2 and pH changes. The chemoreceptors send their information to the respiratory rhythmicity center in the medulla where it is used to adjust the rate (respirations per minute) and depth (of each breath) of respirations by adjusting contractions of respiratory muscles (diaphragm, external intercostals and accessory muscles if necessary). - if PCO2 increases in arterial blood or CSF (which also decreases pH) then RRC will increase respiratory rate and depth to exhale more CO2 (raise pH) back to normal. - if PCO2 decreases in arterial blood of CSF (which also increases pH) then RRC will decrease respiratory rate and depth to exhale less CO2 (lower pH) back to normal.

What is Voluntary (conscious) Regulation of Breathing?

- talking, singing, swallowing, holding breath, etc - the higher brain (cerebrum/motor speech area) can override involuntary respiratory control at any time to control respiratory muscles during speech and even regulate timing breaths during activities such swimming (inhale when face is out of water/exhale when face is in water) or singing (synchronize in/exhalation with rhythm).

What is Glycogenolysis?

- the breaking down of glycogen If blood glucose levels decrease, hepatocytes can break down glycogen reserves and release glucose into the bloodstream. Glycogenolysis is stimulated mainly by glucagon and epinephrine during periods of extended physical activity or declining blood glucose levels.

What is Glycogenesis?

- the creation of glycogen If blood glucose levels rise, hepatocytes can remove glucose from the blood and store it as glycogen. (Note that hepatocytes can also remove glucose from the blood and use it to create lipids.). Glycogenesis is stimulated mainly by insulin during periods of rising blood glucose levels.

MEMORIZE 1. What is the Average PO2 in alveoli? 2. What is the Average PO2 in arterial blood? 3. What is the Average PO2 in systemic interstitial fluid? 4. What is the Average PO2 in venous blood? 5. What is the Average PCO2 in alveoli? 6. What is the Average PCO2 in arterial blood? 7. What is the Average PC02 in systemic interstitial fluid? 8. What is the Average PCO2 in venous blood?

1. 100 2. 95-100 3. 40 4. 40 5. 40 6. 40 7. 45 8. 45

What are the 4 ways people can acquire Specific Immunity?

1. Active Natural Immunity 2. Passive Natural Immunity 3. Active Artificial Immunity 4. Passive Artificial Immunity **Prior to modern medicine, the 1st 2 types of immunity listed above were the only ways humans could obtain acquired immunity.

CHECK ON HOW THIS ONE IS WRITTEN: What makes up the anatomy of the digestive system?

1. Mouth or Oral Cavity - epithelium = stratified squamous epithelium 2. Pharynx 3. Esophagus **Cardiac Sphincter (lower esophageal sphincter) 4. Stomach 5. Small Intestine 6. Large Intestine

What are the factors influencing hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen?

1. PO2 of the environment: - the higher the PO2, the higher the affinity (promotes loading) - the higher the PCO2, the lower the affinity (promotes unloading) 2. Temperature: - the higher the temp, the lower the affinity (promotes unloading) - the lower the temp, the higher the affinity (promotes loading) 3. pH: - the lower the pH (more acidic), the lower the affinity (promotes unloading) - the higher the pH (more basic), the higher the affinity (promotes loading) 4. Bisphosphoglycerate (BPG) - the higher the BPG, the lower the affinity (promotes unloading) - the lower the BPG, the higher the affinity (inhibits unloading) **BPG levels increase in pregnant women which promotes unloading of O2 at the placenta **Fetal HgB has a higher affinity than adult HgB so it promotes loading of O2 into fetal blood.

What are the 3 salivary glands? Where are they located & what is their function?

1. Parotid glands - located under the skin between the ear and massater muscle - they secrete a watery secretion (serous) with salivary amylase - carbohydrate breakdown amylase 2. Sublingual glands - located under the tongue - they secrete a saliva high in mucus content 3. Submandibular glands - located under the mandible - they secrete a mix of mucus and salivary amylase

What are the Gastro-intestinal Regulation characteristics?

1. THE THOUGHT, SITE, TASTE OR SMELL OF FOOD - The parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system prepares the stomach to receive food. This is accomplished by the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X) which stimulates nerve plexuses in the stomach wall which then trigger the following: a. goblet cells to secrete more mucus b. chief cells to secrete more pepsinogen --> pepsin (chops protein) c. parietal cells to secrete more HC1 d. G cells to secrete more gastrin *As a result, rates of gastric juice secretion increases (up to 500 ml/hour) preparing the stomach for a meal. 2. DISTENTION OF THE STOMACH - Gastric Phase (stretching of stomach) When food enters the stomach, distention of the stomach wall: a. triggers histamine release from the stomach wall which causes parietal cells to increase HC1 secretion b. triggers nerve plexuses in the stomach wall to create powerful peristaltic contractions called mixing waves. c. triggers increased secretion of gastrin by G cells (especially when the chyme contains proteins and short-chain peptides). Gastrin then stimulates parietal cells and chief cells to secrete HC1 and pepsinogen. HOW DOES THE CHEMICAL MAKE-UP OF FOOD IN THE STOMACH AND DUODENUM INFLUENCE GASTRIC ACTIVITY? - A meal high in protein in the stomach slows gastric emptying and increases gastric secretion. - A meal high in carbs entering the duodenum stimulate insulin secretion from the pancreas and increased glucose catabolism by skeletal muscle cells (via increased VIP). - A meal high in fats and protein entering the duodenum increased bile secretion from the liver, contraction of the gall bladder, and increased feelings of satiation (via increased CCK). 3. INHIBITION OF STOMACH ACTIVITY WHEN CHYME REACHES THE DUODENUM - When chyme enters the duodenum, multiple mechanisms work to decrease gastric secretion and slow the emptying of the stomach (decrease gastric motility) to give the duodenum time to process chyme in small amounts. Enterogastric Reflex (intestine stomach) Distention of the duodenum triggers the enterogastric reflex that inhibits gastric secretion and stimulates contraction of the of the pyloric sphincter to decrease stomach emptying. Secretion of gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) Inhibits stomach emptying and inhibits secretion of HC1 by parietal cells and pepsinogen by chief cells. - When distention of the duodenum occurs GIP increases Secretion of cholecystokinin (CCK) Inhibits gastric paristalsis and inhibits secretion of HC1 by parietal cells and pepsinogen by chief cells, note that CCK also promotes secretion of bile by the liver, causes satiation, and stimulates contraction of the gall bladder, and secretion of digestive enzymes from the pancreas. - When distention of the duodenum occurs CCK increases Secretion of secretin Reduces gastric motility and gastric secretory rates. - When distention of the duodenum occurs secretin increases

Why does the diffusion of gases across the respiratory membrane occur extremely rapidly?

1. The respiratory membrane (blood-air barrier) is extremely thin (only 0.5 micrometer thick). 2. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are lipid soluble (and can pass through cells easily if they are thin). 3. The concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide across the membrane are large (steep gradient). 4. The total surface area for gas exchange is huge (b/w 70-140 square meters).

Why is Phagocytosis important?

1. seek, identify, destroy, and digest foreign antigens 2. process foreign antigens to help in specific immunity

The Small Intestine is divided into 3 parts. What are they?

1st - duodenum 2nd - jejunum 3rd - ileum Note: By the time it gets to the end of the ileum the chyme and nutrients should be absorbed.

What is the partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere at sea level?

760 x .209 = 158.8 --> P02=158.8 How about @ 10000 feet when the atmospheric pressure = 523 mm/Hg? 523 x .209 = 109mm/Hg --> P02 = 109

ESSAY QUESTION Explain Activation of the sensitized B-cell clone by a T-helper cell.

A B-cell clone that has been previously sensitized by binding to the foreign antigen is activated (given the signal to proliferate) by a sensitized T-helper cell. The T-helper cell activates the B-cell clone by stimulating it with cytokines. The activated B-cell then rapidly proliferates (divides) into a large number of plasma cells and a smaller number of memory cells. -makes mostly plasma cells

What is saliva?

A mixture of mucous fluids and serous (watery) fluids.

What are the functions of Respiratory System?

A. gas exchange b/w air and blood - O2 diffuses into the blood / CO2 diffuses out of the blood B. ventilation - moving air to and from lungs (a.k.a. inhalation and exhalation) C. olfaction - sense of smell D. produce sound - glottis/vocal chords are housed inside the larynx E. warm and humidify inspired air - especially the nasal conchae when breathing through

What does the respiratory membrane consist of?

A. surfactant coating on the inside of the alveolus B. simple squamous lining of the alveolus C. fused basement membrane (shared by both simple squamous linings) D. dimple squamous lining of the capillary

Explain Forced Expiration. (hypernea)

Accessory muscles of exhalation contract to decrease the volume of the thoracic cavity/lungs even more, causing the air pressure inside the lungs to increase even higher, allowing even more air to move out of the lungs. These muscles all contract during forced expiration to pull the ribcage down and in even farther: internal intercostals transverse thoracis. These muscles all contract during forced expiration to push inward (abdominal compression) on the guts (abdominal viscera) which the "help" push the diaphragm up even further (more superiorly). Rectus abdominus external obliques internal obliques transverse abdominus

What is the function of the cardiac sphincter?

Allows food to enter the stomach but prevents regurgitation of stomach contents back up into the lower esophagus. "ACID REFLUX"

How does Agglutination/Aggregation work to eliminate/destroy (help) foreign antigens?

Antibodies can cause large groups of antigens to "clump" together.

How does Prevention of Bacterial and Viral Adhesion work to eliminate/destroy (help) foreign antigens?

Antibodies can stick to the attachment proteins of viruses and block the virus from adhering to host cells.

How does Neutralization work to eliminate/destroy (help) foreign antigens?

Antibodies stick to the active sites on toxins and block them from attaching to cells.

ESSAY QUESTION Explain T-helper cell sebnsitization.

Antigen presenting cells (neutrophils and macrophages) that have identified and phagocytized the antigen, present the foreign antigen to unsensitized T-helper cell is now sensitized.

How does Opsinization (a.k.a tagging or flagging) work to eliminate/destroy (help) foreign antigens?

Antigens covered with antibodies attract phagocytic cells such as macrophages, monocytes, neutrophils, and eosinophils.

How does Stimulation of Inflammation work to eliminate/destroy (help) foreign antigens?

Antigens covered with antibodies increase local inflammation by stimulating basophils and mast cells.

What is a foreign-antigen?

Any organic substance inside the body that is not your own cells or tissue (not a self-antigen). Most foreign antigens are microbes or parts of microbes such as viruses, bacteria, protozoans, fungi, mold, spores, pollen, grains, parasites, toxins, ect.

How does O2 move in our body?

At lungs we load O2 into our blood from our alveoli. The O2 gets loaded into the pulmonary capillaries and binds to hemoglobin. We take this now oxygenated blood to our whole body and to our systemic capillaries where we unload the oxygen and it diffuses out to the cells of our body so they can stay alive. Oxygen is used to break down ATP and to aerobic respiration.

What are plasma cells?

B-cells that are actively secreting antibodies (immunaglobuling) into body fluids like blood plasma, lymphatic fluid, and interstitial fluid. They live a short time and die when they are done secreting antibodies. -clonal proliferation

What are memory cells?

B-cells that do not secrete antibodies but instead circulate the body for many years in case the body is ever exposed to the same antigen again in the future. - makes some memory cells - clonal proliferation - booster increases amount of memory cells made

Why are partial pressures important?

Because individual gases diffuse from an area of high partial pressure to lower partial pressure.

What comes into the lumen of the small intestine from secretions from the pancreas?

Bicarbonate ions - to buffer the acidic chyme entering the small intestine from the stomach Pancreatic Enzymes - to breakdown food macromolecules -Peptidases - breaking proteins (polypeptides) into shorter carbohydrate molecules -Pancreatic amylases - break down polysaccharides into shorter carbohydrate molecules -Pancreatic lipases - break down triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids -Pancreatic nucleases - break down DNA and RNA

What is bile and what is its function?

Bile salts are created by hepatocytes (liver cells) and consists of water, cholesterol, electrolytes, conjugated bilirubin, and various other lipids. Bile salts emulsify large fat droplets into smaller droplets that can be more efficiently digested by lipases in the small intestine. Bile salts also surround digested lipids (forming little spherical complexes called micelles) and aid fat absorption into ells lining the small intestinal wall. Bile salts also help to buffer acidic chyme from the stomach that is entering the duodenum.

How does bile enter the small intestine?

Bile salts are drained from the liver lobes by hepatic duets into the common hepatic duct which then merges with the cystic duet (from the gall bladder) to form the common bile duct which drains bile into the small intestine (when the sphincter is open).

How does CO2 make in our bodies?

CO2 comes from food that's why we breathe out CO2 and O2. When our cells aerobic respiration and break down glucose/fatty acids they give off a lot of CO2. That CO2 diffuses from the cells into our blood at the systemic capillaries. Then we take that blood (deoxygenated) to the right side of the heart out the pulmonary artery and then into the lungs and thebn the CO2 diffuses from the pulmonary capillaries into the alveolus so we can exhale it out.

What food macromolecules are broken down in the small intestine and what do they become?

Carbohydrates --> into monosaccharides like glucose, fructose and galactose Fats --> (mainly triglycerides) into 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol (monoglygeride) Proteins (polypeptides) --> into amino acids Nucleic Acids (DNA and RNA) --> into nucleotides

ESSAY How is carbon dioxide transported and what is the equation?

Carbon dioxide diffuses from cells of the body (where it is produces as a byproduct of cellular respiration) into the systemic capillaries. it is then transported in the blood to the lungs where it diffuses into the alveoli for expiration. Carbon dioxide is transported 3 ways in the blood. CO2 + H2O <--> H2CO3 <--> H+ + HCO3

What is Phagocytosis?

Cell eating

What happens in the Large Intestine?

Chyme is converted to feces by bacterial action, absorption of water (6-7percent) and salts, and the secretion of mucus.

What is mucociliary clearance?

Cilia and mucous of the p.c.c.e. work to capture and clear inhaled particulates from the respiratory tract.

How does Activation of Complement System work to eliminate/destroy (help) foreign antigens?

Complement binds to antigens "tagged" with antibodies and then works to destroy the cell membranes of foreign cells.

What is artificial exposure?

Deliberate introduction of an antigen or antibody into the body.

What is Gastro-intestinal Regulation?

Digestive activity is regulated by neural and hormonal reflexes.

What is natural exposure?

Exposure to an antigen occurs as part of everyday life and is not deliberate.

Blood/Hematologic Regulation ON TEST FOR SURE: What is Vitamin Storage?

Fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and vitamin B12 are absorbed from the blood and stored by hepatocytes so they can be used in the future during times of inadequate vitamin consumption.

Where is the Ileocecal Valve/Sphincter located?

Found between the small intestine and the large intestine.

Where is the Pyloric Sphincter located and what does it do?

Found between the stomach and small intestine. It opens to let small amounts of chyme into the small intestine at a time.

Blood/Hematologic Regulation Explain the Removal of Circulating Antibodies.

Hepatocytes absorb circulating antibodies from the blood and release the amino acids so they can be reused by the body.

Blood/Hematologic Regulation Explain: Perform an Intermediate Step in Calcitriol Production

Hepatocytes absorb vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) from the blood and convert it to an intermediate product known as 25-hydroxy-D3, which is released back into the blood so it can be absorbed by the kidneys and converted into calcitriol (an important hormone for Ca**metabolism). CALCITRIOL --> absorb calcium in digestive tract

What is Transamination?

Hepatocytes and cells of some other organs (kidney, brain, skeletal muscle, heart, and lung) are able to perform transamination reactions to create specific new amino acids necessary for protein synthesis. In a transamination reaction, an amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid is transferred to a keto acid, creating a new amino acid that can be used by the cell for protein synthesis and a new keto acid that can be broken down in the citric acid cycle.

ON TEST FOR SURE What is Gluconeogenesis?

Hepatocytes can create glucose from other carbohydrates, glycerol, lactic acid, and/or some amino acids to help keep blood glucose levels from dropping too low. During gluconeogenesis, these molecules can be converted into pyruvate molecules which can be combined to form glucose in a pathway that is essentially the opposite of glycolysis. Gluconeogenesis is especially active during periods of intense exercise, starvation, fasting, or extended periods of a low carbohydrate diet.

Blood/Hematologic Regulation ON TEST FOR SURE: What is Iron Storage?

Hepatocytes convert blood iron reserves (in the form of transferrin - a blood carrier protein bound to iron) into two different protein-iron complexes known as ferritin and hemosiderin for storage in the liver.

ON TEST FOR SURE What is Urea cycle?

Hepatocytes neutralize the toxic effects of an ammonium ion by combining the ammonium ion with carbon dioxide to produce urea, a relatively harmless water soluble waste that is easily removed from the blood by the kidneys and excreted in the urine. (see Figure 25-9c on page 957)

Blood.Hematologic Regulation What is Toxin/Drug Removal?

Hepatocytes remove some circulating toxins and/or drugs from the blood for inactivation, storage, or excretion in the bile. Because of this, the duration of the desired effect of a drug is limited by liver removal/inactivation. Therefore, when physicians prescribe medications, they must take into account the rate at which the liver removes that particular drug from the bloodstream. **A short list of chemicals and drugs removed by the liver include: ethyl alcohol, acetaminophen (Tylenol), morphine, lidocaine, nitroglycerin, aspirin, codeine, DDT (a banned substance still found in the environment).

Blood/Hematologic Regulation What is Synthesis of Plasma Proteins?

Hepatocytes synthesize and release most of the plasma proteins including albumins, transport proteins, clotting factor proteins, and complement cascade proteins.

Blood Lipid Regulation - Production of HDLs WHAT ARE HDLs?

High Density Lipoproteins are a type of lipoprotein is also known as "good cholesterol" and it contains approximately equal amounts of lipid (mainly cholesterol and phospholipids) and protein which it serves to transport from peripheral tissues back to the liver via veins. In the liver, the HDLs are processed by hepatocytes so the lipids can be repackaged in new lipoproteins, stored in hepatocytes, or excreted in bile.

ESSAY QUESTION How does this process of activating what are known as B-cell clones and by activating I mean we caused them to divide into millions of copies of themselves (clonal proliferation). WHAT IS THIS PROCESS? WHAT IS THE ROLE OF VACCINATION?

If this antigen will fit with the little receptor site on the B-cell that means this B-cell, since it can stick to it is capable of secreting antibodies that would stick to this foreign antigen. This neighboring B-cell has different antigen binding sites meaning they are different clonal line/varieties of B-cells. This neighboring B-cell is totally incapable of having the same antigen bind to it (the round shape doesn't fit the double V-shape). We have trillions of B lymphocytes and millions of clonal linings of B lymphocytes. Keep in mind B-cells have a nucleus -meaning they can divide. Take the specific antigen above and it binds to that particular B-cell. If this B-cell later on creates an army or itself and clones itself many, many times, and when it starts secreting antibodies - remember antibodies are just little Y-shaped proteins, the little antigen binding sites at the tips will be the same structural shape as the ones on the cell membrane surface. The Y-shaped proteins antigen binding sites are the same as the B-cell antigen binding site, meaning the antigen that will fit can still stick into these floating antigen sites. By the time we are born we already have trillions of B lymphocytes circulating around our body. Now of those B-cells we have millions of different colonal lines - Above is II different B-cell clones. They have these different antigen binding sites by the time they mature and leave your bone marrow. Since we have millions of different colonal lines means we can only have a few thousand of a specific colonal line. Now these B cells have the ability to make antibodies against a specific foreign antigen. Now let's say you get some sort of foreign antigen into the body and it's capable to stick into one of the B-cells above- because the proteins on the antigen lock into the B-cell. Keep in mind that if this is the case then that specific antigen clone, when it eventually divides it will divide by the millions and make a clonal army (clonal proliferation) and some of them will become plasma cells and start secreting antibodies into our body fluids with the same antigen receptors on their tips. These tips will stick to that specific foreign antigen and will help us destroy that foreign antigen. Now if there is a specific B-cell that fits with a foreign antigen, we have a T-helper cell that is sensitized to, or recognize this foreign antigen. This T-helper cell will stimulate this B-cell that binds to the foreign antigen to divide by releasing cytokines that tell the B-cell and give it permission to divide, it wouldn't give permission to the other B-cells, it would be a waste of energy. We also make a few memory cells which is the same B-cell clone but don't make antibodies because once the plasma cells are done making antibodies they die off. But we keep these memory cells around and keep them circulating at higher levels in our blood. So after we are exposed and we complete colonal prolifercation and make plasma cells and antibodies and some memory cells. So if we ever get sick with the same bad antigen we will have way more of this B-cell colonal line. And we will also have more helper T-cells that recognize, so hopefully we can get healthier faster. THIS IS THE ROLE OF VACCINATION.

What are Mast Cells and the Inflammatory Response?

Immune cells similar to basophils located in tissues all over the body. When the tissue they are in is damaged, the mast cells break open and release inflammatory chemicals (chemicals that trigger inflammation) into the surrounding localized area that stimulate inflammation.

Explain Active Artificial Immunity.

In this type of immunity, an antigen is deliberately introduced into a person's body to stimulate their immune system (vaccination). The vaccine usually consists of a part of a microorganism, a dead microorganism, or an altered form of a live organism; so the immune system will be activated, but no symptoms of the disease will occur. (examples - diphtheria, tetanus, whooping cough, mumps, measles, rubella, polio)

ESSAY QUESTION Explain B-cell clones, B-cell clonal variation, and B-cell clonal selection:

In total there are trillions of B-cells circulating throughout the tissues of the human body at any time. However, not all B-cells have the same antigen binding ability. There are millions of different types or varieties of B-cells (known as clonal lines) that are capable of binding to a wide variety of different antigens that might happen to get into the human body. These different clonal lines look the same under a microscope, but they differ in the shape of their antigen binding proteins on the surface of their cell membrane. Since there are millions of different clonal lines inside the body there are probably only a few thousand of each variety at any time. When a foreign organic substance (foreign antigen) gets inside the human body, only a few of the clonal lines might possess antigen binding receptors that are capable of binding to (sticking to) antigens on the surface of the foreign substance. As these clonal lines (capable of binding) that must divide rapidly to create a massive army of B-cells capable of making antibodies and memory cells against the foreign antigen (see handout). Sensitized T-helper cells must stimulate the correct B-cell clones to divide by releasing cytokines which cause them to divide rapidly (clone themselves). This process is called clonal proliferation and it produces mostly plasma cells (which secrete antibodies) and some memory cells (long-lived cells that circulate in case of future exposure).

What are nonspecific (General) defenses (a.k.a. innate immunity)?

Innate - just born with, doesn't need to be introduced.

What is the pleural fluid?

It causes cohesion between the parietal pleura and visceral pleura.

What is all the unloaded oxygen used for?

It diffuses out to cells and into the mitochondria of the cells where it is used to help break down fuel molecules (especially glucose and fatty acids) by the process of aerobic respiration (aerobic - oxygen is required) to make ATP (energy the cell can use. AEROBIC RESPIRATION

Explain MAST CELLS

Let's say you got hit by a golf ball on your arm, and your arm swelled up. What happens is... when you have either an infection or a golf ball hitting your arm that hits a particular tissue. Mast cells in that area break open, and when they break open they release all these inflammatory chemicals and those chemicals then trigger inflammation. These inflammatory chemicals are called eicosanoids - these are what is released into the interstitial fluid around that area where the mast cells break open. Histamines and prostaglandins trigger inflammation in that localized area and help these eicosanoids which trigger an inflammatory response.

What are Hepatocytes?

Liver Cells

Blood Lipid Regulation - Production of LDLs WHAT ARE LDLs?

Low Density Lipoproteins (LDLs) are a type of lipoprotein also known as "bad cholesterol" because it contains mainly cholesterol and lesser amounts of phospholipids and triglycerides which it serves to transport from the liver via arteries to peripheral tissues. Sometimes these cholesterols can end up being deposited in arterial linings forming arterial plaques, which is why LDLs are sometimes called "bad cholesterol."

How are Carbohydrates digested and absorbed?

MOUTH - carb digestion begins in the mouth with salivary amylase STOMACH - very little digestion of carbs occurs in the stomach other than physical sloshing SMALL INTESTINE - polysaccharides are broken down into smaller carbohydrates by amylases from the pancreas and the wall of the small intestine. Then disaccharides are broken into monosaccharides by disaccharides (sucrase, lactase, and maltase) from the brush border (microvilli of the simple columnar cells). ABSORPTION: Monosaccharides are absorbed from the lumen of the small intestine into simple columnar cells by facilitated diffusion or cotransport, and then from the simple columnar cells into villiary capillaries by facilitated diffusion.

How are Fats (lipids) digested and absorbed?

MOUTH - fat digestion begins in the mouth with lingual lipase (enzyme in saliva). STOMACH - very little digestion of fats occurs in the stomach other than physical sloshing. SMALL INTESTINE - in the small intestine, bile salts help empulsify fats in the chyme so lipases from the pancreas can break triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol (monoglycerides). The fatty acids and monoglycerides are then surrounded by bile salts to form micelles. ABSORPTION: Micelles are then absorbed from the lumen of the small intestine into simple columnar cells by diffusion. Once inside the simple columnar cells, the fatty acids and monoglycerides are reassembled back into tryglycerides. The tryglycerides are then surrounded by proteins (to help make them soluble in water) which are called chylomicrons. The chylomicrons are then transported from the simple columnar cells by exocytosis into interstitial fluid. Chylomicrons are too large to diffuse into capillaries so most enter lacteals (lymphatic capillaries) which have more permeable endothelium. The chylomicrons then travel along the lymphatic vessels and enter the general circulation of the right subclavian vein via the thoracic duct.

How are Proteins digested and absorbed?

MOUTH - no chemical digestion of proteins occurs in the mouth STOMACH - protein digestion begins in the stomach when the enzyme pepsin starts to break large proteins into smaller proteins and HCI denatures proteins in the chyme. SMALL INTESTINE - a protein digesting pro-enzyme from the pancreas (enteropeptidase) and the wall of the small intestine (trypsin, chymotrypsin) break proteins into dipeptides and short chained proteins. The short chained protein and dipeptides are broken down into individual amino acids by carboxypeptidase and dipeptides from the brush border (microvilli and simple columnar cells). ABSORPTION: Amino acids are absorbed into the simple columnar cells by facilitated diffusion and cotransport, and then from the simple columnar cells into villiary capillaries by facilitated diffusion.

What are some of the lymphocyte types involved in specific immunity?

Memory B cells - long-lived lymphocytes which can react with antigens at a later time Plasma cells - produce antibodies and release them into body fluids (plasma and interstitial fluid) - type of b cells actively releasing y shaped antibodies T-helper cells - assist B-cells with recognition of antigens, assist other T-cells with recognition of/reaction to foreign antigens - basically give permission for the correct B-cell to make a clonal army of itself Memory T cells - long-lived T-cells that are "sensitized" (exposed to and is recognized) to antigens that the immune system has been previously exposed to

What is a self-antigen?

Molecules (proteins or glycoproteins) on the outside of all cells of the body. Self-antigens identify your own cells as part of you (your body) so that immune system cells know to leave your cells alone and not destroy them (since they are part of your body and therefore, not a threat).

What comes into the lumen of the small intestine from secretions from the wall of the small intestine?

Mucous - serves to lubricate chyme Water - serves to liquify the chyme (for more efficient action) Digestive Enzymes - to breakdown food macromolecules -Peptidases - break proteins (polypeptides) into shorter amino acid chains (such as trypsin chymotrypsin carboxypeptidase) -Amylases - break down polysaccharides into shorter carbohydrate molecules -Dipeptidases - break dipeptides into individual amino acids (which can be absorbed) - final step for breaking down proteins -Disaccharidases - break disaccharides into monosaccharides (which can be absorbed), such as sucrase, lactase, and maltase - final step for breaking down carbs

What is the relationship between the visceral pleura, parietal pleura, and pleural fluid?

Normally, the two pleural membranes/linings are "struck" together by a small amount of amount of pleural fluid that causes cohesion between the two membranes. The linings can "slide" past each other as we inhale and exhale but they don't pull apart. Therefore, when the thoracic wall expands and contracts during breathing, the lungs follow likewise.

What happens in the pulmonary capillaries?

O2 diffuses from the alveolar space into the blood (100--->40) CO2 diffuses from the blood into the alveolar space (45-->40)

What happens in the systemic capillaries?

O2 diffuses from the blood into the interstitial fluid/cells (95-->40) CO2 diffuses from the interstitial fluid/ells into the blood (45-->40)

What is an antigen?

Organic molecules that an be "recognized" by receptors on white blood cells when they bind to special receptors on the outer surface of the cell. -antigens can be self-antigens or foreign-antigens

PART 1: For CO2 to go from blood to the inside of the alveoli so we can exhale it out, WHAT DOES THE C02 HAVE TO PASS THROUGH? PART 2: WHAT ABOUT 02 FROM THE ALVEOLI TO THE BLOOD?

PART 1: 1. The simple squamous lining of the capillary. 2. The fuse basement membrane. 3. The simple squamous lining of the alveoli. 4. The serfactant layer. 5. Then it's in alveoli. 6. Then exhaled out. PART 2: 1. The serfactant layer. 2. Simple squamous lining of the alveolis. 3. The shared basement membrane. 4. The simple squamous lining of capillary. 5. Through blood plasma. 6. And into the red blood cell where it attaches to the hemoglobin.

PART 1: What is going to happen to the amount of CO2 in your blood if you start exercising? PART 2: Now let's say you are sitting down and rapidly get up and start sprinting. How long would it take for your chemoreceptor reflexes to kick in and boost your breathing rate?

PART 1: Increased CO2 in our blood. Increased CO2 in our CSF Lower pH Lower O2 **We will detect this in our CSF or our carotid bodies. We will breathe faster and deeper to get more Ow in ad more CO2 out. PART 2: By 10 seconds in you will already be breathing faster, and the longer you go and the faster you go the more your muscles need O2 and the more they give off CO2, the faster and deeper you have to breathe. THIS IS ALL AUTONOMIC... It's a complex interplay between these centers in your pons influencing the respiratory rhythmicity center with feedback about the chemicals in our blood, and the chemicals in your CSF.

What changes the size of the thoracic cavity?

Respiratory muscles such as the diaphragm, external intercostals, internal intercostals, serratus anteriors, and pectoralis minors. Most of the increase in thoracic cavity volume during relaxed (quiet) inhalation and caused by the diaphragm (contracts and moves down) and external intercostals (pulls ribs up and down).

What are the Chemical Barriers and what do they do or where are they found?

Sebaceous secretions - oil glands help deter growth of harmful microbes and promote growth of neutral flora on our skin (their presence helps deter a growth of harmful microbes) Digestive acids and enzymes - especially in the digestive system Acidic pH - especially in the stomach and vagina

What are Physical Barriers and what do they do?

Skin - unbroken/undamaged skin provides an extremely good barrier to invasion by microbes Hairs, cilia, and mucous membranes - especially lining of the the respiratory and digestive tract. - block stuff from entering our sterile tissue from our lumens - the mucus catches it while it passes Fluid flushing - such as urination, diarrhea, vomiting

What is Specific Immunity (a.k.a. acquired immunity, or adaptive immunity?

Specific immunity acts against specific foreign antigens. In other words, lymphocytes are able to recognize specific foreign antigens and mount an individualized attack against each specific antigen. This is accomplished mainly by the production of antibodies which "stick" to specific foreign antigens, leading to their agglutination and destruction. these responses are quite efficient and give rise to immunologic memory (both B&T memory cells - soreaction happens faster), which provides protection in case of re-exposure to the same pathogen.

Blood/Hematologic Regulation ON TEST FOR SURE: What is Phagocytosis and Antigen Presentation?

Stellate macrophages (Kupffer cells) lining liver sinusoids phagocytize old or damaged red blood cells, cellular debris, and foreign antigens from the blood as it passes through the liver sinusoids. when stellate macrophages phagocytize foreign antigens, they can then present the antigens to lymphocytes and trigger a specific immune response (see notes on antigen presentation and activation of B- lymphocyte clones).

Where is the Cardia Sphincter located?

The cardiac sphincter (lower esophageal sphincter) is located at the inferior end of the esophagus.

Explain Quiet (relaxed) Inspiration. (eupnea)

The diaphragm contracts and moves downward (inferiorly) and the external intercostals contract and pull the ribs up and out, this causes the thoracic cavity (and lungs) to increase in size, which then decreases the air pressure inside the lungs, so air moves into the lungs/alveoli.

Explain Quiet (relaxed) Expiration. (eupnea)

The diaphragm relaxes ad moves back upward (superiorly) and the external intercostals relax and allow the ribs to move back down and in to their neutral position, this causes the the thoracic cavity (and lungs) to decrease in size, which then increases the air pressure inside the lungs, so air moves out of the lungs/aveoli. **note that relaxed expiration is a passive process (the repiratory muscles relax).

What does the gall bladder do?

The gall bladder stores excess bile which can be squirted into the small intestine when a meal high in fats enters the small intestine.

What is Blood Amino Acid Regulation and Amino Acid Metabolism in the liver?

The liver can remove excess amino acids from the bloodstream. Hepatocytes can then use the amino acids to create proteins or they can be converted to lipids or glucose (via gluconeogenesis) for energy storage. DEAMINATION When amino acids are metabolized for energy, hepatocytes must first remove the amino group (-NH2) and hydrogen atom from an amino acids so it can enter the citric acid cycle. This process is known as deamination. However, the process of deamination produces a highly toxic byproduct known as ammonium ion (NH4+). The ammonium ion must then be converted by hepatocytes to a less-toxic metabolic waste known as urea. (see Figure 25-9b on page 957) UREA CYCLE Hepatocytes neutralize the toxic effects of an ammonium ion by combining the ammonium ion with carbon dioxide to produce urea, a relatively harmless water soluble waste that is easily removed from the blood by the kidneys and excreted in the urine. (see Figure 25-9c on page 957) TRANSAMINATION Hepatocytes and cells of some other organs (kidney, brain, skeletal muscle, heart, and lung) are able to perform transamination reactions to create specific new amino acids necessary for protein synthesis. In a transamination reaction, an amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid is transferred to a keto acid, creating a new amino acid that can be used by the cell for protein synthesis and a new keto acid that can be broken down in the citric acid cycle.

What is Blood/Hematologic Regulation in the liver?

The liver is the largest blood reservoir in the body and receives about 25% of the cardiac output during a state of relative inactivity. As blood passes through the liver, hepatocytes perform the following hematologic functions: 1. Toxin/Drug Removal Hepatocytes remove some circulating toxins and/or drugs from the blood for inactivation, storage, or excretion in the bile. Because of this, the duration of the desired effect of a drug is limited by liver removal/inactivation. Therefore, when physicians prescribe medications, they must take into account the rate at which the liver removes that particular drug from the bloodstream. **A short list of chemicals and drugs removed by the liver include: ethyl alcohol, acetaminophen (Tylenol), morphine, lidocaine, nitroglycerin, aspirin, codeine, DDT (a banned substance still found in the environment). 2. Vitamin Storage Fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and vitamin B12 are absorbed from the blood and stored by hepatocytes so they can be used in the future during times of inadequate vitamin consumption. 3. Iron Storage Hepatocytes convert blood iron reserves (in the form of transferrin - a blood carrier protein bound to iron) into two different protein-iron complexes known as ferritin and hemosiderin for storage in the liver. 4. Synthesis of Plasma ProteinsHepatocytes synthesize and release most of the plasma proteins including albumins, transport proteins, clotting factor proteins, and complement cascade proteins. 5. Phagocytosis and Antigen Presentation Stellate macrophages (Kupffer cells) lining liver sinusoids phagocytize old or damaged red blood cells, cellular debris, and foreign antigens from the blood as it passes through the liver sinusoids. when stellate macrophages phagocytize foreign antigens, they can then present the antigens to lymphocytes and trigger a specific immune response (see notes on antigen presentation and activation of B- lymphocyte clones). 6. Removal of Circulating Hormones Hepatocytes absorb circulating antibodies from the blood and release the amino acids so they can be reused by the body. 7. Removal of Circulating Hormones The liver is the main site for absorption and recycling of the following hormones: epinephrine, norepinephrine, insulin, thyroid hormones, estrogens, testosterone, aldosterone, and cortisol. 8. Perform an Intermediate Step in Calcitriol Production Hepatocytes absorb vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) from the blood and convert it to an intermediate product known as 25-hydroxy-D3, which is released back into the blood so it can be absorbed by the kidneys and converted into calcitriol (an important hormone for Ca**metabolism). CALCITRIOL --> absorb calcium in digestive tract

Blood/Hematologic Regulation Explain the Removal of Circulating Hormones?

The liver is the main site for absorption and recycling of the following hormones: epinephrine, norepinephrine, insulin, thyroid hormones, estrogens, testosterone, aldosterone, and cortisol.

What is Blood Lipid Regulation in the liver?

The liver regulates circulating levels of triglycerides, fatty acids, and cholesterol. Recall that when digested fats are absorbed out of the small intestine into lacteals, they are in the form of large spherical droplets surrounded by a protein coat known as chylomicrons. Chylomicrons can be absorbed by hepatocytes and their contents can be used to synthesize a variety of lipid-protein molecules known as lipoproteins. PRODUCTION OF VLDLs Very low Density Lipoproteins (VLDLs) are a type of lipoprotein containing triglycerides manufactured by the liver plus small amounts of phospholipids and cholesterol which they serve to transport to skeletal muscle and adipose tissue. PRODUCTION OF LDLs Low Density Lipoproteins (LDLs) are a type of lipoprotein also known as "bad cholesterol" because it contains mainly cholesterol and lesser amounts of phospholipids and triglycerides which it serves to transport from the liver via arteries to peripheral tissues. Sometimes these cholesterols can end up being deposited in arterial linings forming arterial plaques, which is why LDLs are sometimes called "bad cholesterol." PRODUCTION OF HDLs High Density Lipoproteins are a type of lipoprotein is also known as "good cholesterol" and it contains approximately equal amounts of lipid (mainly cholesterol and phospholipids) and protein which it serves to transport from peripheral tissues back to the liver via veins. In the liver, the HDLs are processed by hepatocytes so the lipids can be repackaged in new lipoproteins, stored in hepatocytes, or excreted in bile.

ON TEST FOR SURE What is Blood Glucose Regulation in the liver?

The liver stabilizes blood glucose levels at about 90 mg/dL. 70-110 mg/dL Glycogenesis - the creation of glycogen If blood glucose levels rise, hepatocytes can remove glucose from the blood and store it as glycogen. (Note that hepatocytes can also remove glucose from the blood and use it to create lipids.). Glycogenesis is stimulated mainly by insulin during periods of rising blood glucose levels. Glycogenolysis - the breaking down of glycogen If blood glucose levels decrease, hepatocytes can break down glycogen reserves and release glucose into the bloodstream. Glycogenolysis is stimulated mainly by glucagon and epinephrine during periods of extended physical activity or declining blood glucose levels. Gluconeogenesis Hepatocytes can create glucose from other carbohydrates, glycerol, lactic acid, and/or some amino acids to help keep blood glucose levels from dropping too low. During gluconeogenesis, these molecules can be converted into pyruvate molecules which can be combined to form glucose in a pathway that is essentially the opposite of glycolysis. Gluconeogenesis is especially active during periods of intense exercise, starvation, fasting, or extended periods of a low carbohydrate diet.

Gas Exchange What is Partial Pressure?

The pressure contributed by a single gas (such as oxygen or carbon dioxide) within a mixture of gases such as atmospheric air. functional pressure EXAMPLE PO2 in atmospheric gas: - atmospheric pressure at sea level is 760 mm/Hg - oxygen makes up 20.9 percent of the air in the atmosphere

Explain INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE

The purpose of this is because we are trying to attract the immune components, specifically the white blood cells, like the neutrophils, macrophages and the B&T lymphocytes. We are trying to attract these to the damaged area. Remember: white blood cells have the ability to do chemotaxis. When these inflammatory eicosanoids are released from the mast cells it attracts white blood cells and they go towards that damaged or inflamed area - that's called chemotaxis. And then when we attract them there they can help fight off the foreign infection or they can help clean up the area if the cells are damaged. Our capillaries become more permeable during this response so the opening that the wbc squeeze through (diapedisis) will open up more (meaning the capillary gets more leaky/more porous) and allows the wbc to do chemotaxis and diapedesis and move from the blood and enter into the tissue where all the damage is. Then they will help tissue repair, block the invasion of pathogens, and even destroy the pathogens by phagocytizing them.

ESSAY QUESTION Explain Proliferation of the sensitized T-helper cell.

The sensitization process activates the T-helper cell and causes it to release cytokines which ???ulate rapid mitosis. This produces a large number of sensitized T-helper cells (all offspring of the original sensitized T-helper cell are also sensitized).

What is the parietal pleura?

The thin (simple squamous) membrane covering the inside of the thoracic cavity.

What is the visceral pleura?

The thin (simple squamous) membrane covering the outside of the lungs.

What do the saliva glands do?

There are 3 pair. They secrete saliva into the mouth

Explain Passive Artificial Immunity.

This type of immunity begins with vaccinating an animal such as a horse or monkey. After the animal's immune system responds to the antigen, antibodies are removed from the animal and injected into the individual requiring immunity. Sometimes, other humans who have developed immunity through natural or artificial exposure are used as a source of antibodies. This usually provides only temporary immunity because the injected antibodies are used or eliminated by the body. Because of this, active artificial vaccinations are preferred (person develops their own immune system). Passive artificial injections are usually called antiserum. Antiserums are available for things such as rabies, hepatitis, measles, tetanus, and venoms from poisonous animals. These can be used when the infected individual does not have enough time to develop their own immune system.

Explain Active Natural Immunity.

This type of immunity results from natural exposure to an antigen that causes an individual's immune system to respond against the antigen. The person usually develops symptoms of the disease during their first exposure and will have increased immunity in subsequent exposures. (example - chicken pox)

Explain Passive Natural Immunity.

This type of immunity results from the transfer of antibodies from a mother to her child across the placenta before birth. Some of the antibodies that the mother has developed during her lifetime can cross the placenta and help protect the baby during the first few months of life. Some antibodies can also be transferred to the baby in breast milk. (note - This type of immunity occurs as a natural process, but it is not the baby's antibodies [rather the mother's] which are protecting the infant. Thus, the term "passive natural immunity" is used.)

Explain Forced Inspiration. (hypernea)

Thoracic cavity / lungs get even larger. Accessory muscles of inhalation contract to increase the volume of the thoracic cavity/lungs even more, causing the air pressure inside the lungs to drop even lower, allowing even more air to move into the lungs. These muscles all contract during forced inspiration to pull the ribcage up and out even farther: sternocleidomastoids, scalenes, pectoralis minors, serratus anteriors.

Blood Lipid Regulation - Production of VLDLs WHAT ARE VLDLs?

Very low Density Lipoproteins (VLDLs) are a type of lipoprotein containing triglycerides manufactured by the liver plus small amounts of phospholipids and cholesterol which they serve to transport to skeletal muscle and adipose tissue.

ON TEST FOR SURE What is Deamination?

When amino acids are metabolized for energy, hepatocytes must first remove the amino group (-NH2) and hydrogen atom from an amino acids so it can enter the citric acid cycle. This process is known as deamination. However, the process of deamination produces a highly toxic byproduct known as ammonium ion (NH4+). The ammonium ion must then be converted by hepatocytes to a less-toxic metabolic waste known as urea. (see Figure 25-9b on page 957)

What is active immunity?

When an individual is exposed to an antigen (either naturally or artificially) and the response of the person's own immune system is the cause of the immunity.

What is passive immunity?

When another person or animal develops immunity and the immunity is transferred to a nonimmune person.

What regulates Liver, Pancreatic, and Small Intestinal Secretions?

With the arrival of chyme in the duodenum, secretion of bile, pancreatic juice, and small intestinal glands is stimulated by neural and hormonal reflexes.

ESSAY QUESTION Explain antigen recognition by specific B-cell clones and antigen presenting cells.

Within an area of infected tissue, foreign antigens will be abundant in the interstitial fluid. Neutrophils and macrophages actively phagocytize the foreign antigens and place a portion of the foreign microbes on antigen binding receptors on the surface of their cells membrane. This is known as antigen presentation. Neutrophils and macrophages are called antigen presenting cells because they present the foreign antigens to other immune cells such as B-cells and T-helper cells. At this time, foreign antigens will also stick to antibodies embedded on the surface of some B-cell clones. These B-cell clones have the ability to produce antibodies against the foreign antigen, but can't divide and produce plasma cells until a sensitized T-helper cell activates them.

ESSAY Draw & label & explain all the characteristics that increase surface area.

X

ESSAY Explain the chemical or enzymatic process of digestion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins and how they are broken down in the digestive system and then absorbed in the intestinal lining.

X

What are the functions of the Mouth or Oral Cavity?

a. Mechanical breakdown of food = mastication (chewing) - accomplished mainly by teeth b. lubricates bolus of food before swallowing

What are the special cells of the stomach mucosa and their functions?

a. goblet cells - secrete mucous which coats and protects the stomach lining (mainly line the lumen and upper gastric pits) b. parietal cells - produce HCI and intrinsic factor - helps with (acids absorption of vitamin B12 in the intestine c. chief cells - produce pepsinogen which is converted by HCI in stomach to pepsin - pepsin begins chemical breakdown of proteins d. endocrine cells (g cells) produce the regulatory hormone gastrin - stimulates the parietal cells to secrete more HCI and the chief cells to secrete more pepsinogen

What are the functions of the Digestive System?

a. ingestion - eating and drinking b. mechanical (physical) processing and propulsion - chewing, peristaltic contractions c. chemical digestion - using digestive enzymes to. break down food molecules d. secretion - of digestive enzymes, mucous, water, acids, or bases into lumen of tract e. absorption - of digestive food (monomers), water vitamins, minerals and electrolytes f. defecation - excretion of digestive tract waste from the anus

What are the functions of the stomach?

a. mechanical (physical) breakdown of food - a sloshing effect helps break up food b. antimicrobial defense - stomach acid kills most foreign microbes c. begins chemical breakdown of proteins - enzyme pepsin starts digesting proteins d. temporary mixing/storage of food - holds food and allows small amounts into the small intestine at a time e. some minor absorption - mainly alcohol and some medications that can pass through the thick mucus lining

What characteristics give the small intestine a high surface area?

a. plicae - transverse folds of the mucosa b. Each villi is covered with simple columnar epithelium - with microvilli c. The inside of each villus contains a capillary network. d. The inside of each villus contains a lacteal (tiny lymph duct)

What are the functions of the Small Intestine?

a. primary site for chemical (enzymatic) digestion b. primary site for absorption: absorption of water (>90percent) simple sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, electrolytes, iron and bile salts

What is Aveoli and the Respiratory Membrane also known as?

blood-air barrier

ON TEST ESSAY Carbon Dioxide Transport - Be able to write out this equation. - Know how what way it goes at the systemic tissues. - Know what way it goes at the pulmonary capillaries. - Know all the abbreviations full word

carbon dioxide + water <--> carbonic acid <--> hydrogen ions + bicarbonate ion CO2 + H2O <--> H2CO3 <--> H+ + HCO3

What happens to air pressure inside the lungs when the volume of the thoracic cavity increases? _______________ Therefore air will move ____________ the lungs.

decreases into

97 percent of oxygen carried in the blood is contained within erythrocytes bound to ___________.

hemoglobin (Hgb)

Loading Reaction In the lungs where hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen is _____________, deoxyhemoglobin combines with hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin.

high

Air always moves from ____________ to ______________ pressure.

high to low

What happens to air pressure inside the lungs when the volume of the thoracic cavity decreases? ______________ Therefore air will move _______________ the lungs.

increases out

Unloading Reaction At the tissues where hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen is _______________, oxygen dissociates from oxyhemoglobin and enters the tissues.

low

What type of white blood cells carry out phagocytosis?

macrophages (both free and fixed), monocytes, neutrophils, and eosinophils

List the Respiratory Passageways IN ORDER.

nose/mouth - pharynx - larynx - trachea - primary bronchi - secondary bronchi - tertiary bronchi - bronchioles - terminal bronchioles - respiratory bronchioles - alveoli

What is the function of the Pharynx?

oropharynx is where we initiate voluntary swallowing

What epithelium lines most of the respiratory tract?

pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

Deoxyhemoglobin + oxygen <---------> oxyhemoglobin

x