Animal Biology Exam #2

What is the electromagnetic spectrum?

all the forms of electromagnetic radiation; the complete range of electromagnetic waves placed in order of increasing frequency

What is a ribozyme?

an RNA molecule capable of acting as an enzyme

Mutualism

both species benefit

What are some symptoms of malaria?

chills, fatigue, fever, night sweats, shivering, sweating "Grace period"

Briefly describe or draw a diagram to show the basic structure of a phospholipid

consists of two hydrophobic fatty acid "tails" and a hydrophilic "head" consisting of a phosphate group

What is Brownian motion?

the erratic random movement of microscopic particles in a fluid, as a result of continuous bombardment from molecules of the surrounding medium

Phagocytosis

the ingestion of bacteria or other material by phagocytes and amoeboid protozoans.

Pinocytosis

the ingestion of liquid into a cell by the budding of small vesicles from the cell membrane

What is a theory about how Earth's oceans formed?

the ocean formed from the escape of water vapor and other gases from the molten rocks of the Earth to the atmosphere surrounding the cooling planet

What is the Oparin-Haldane hypothesis?

that life arose gradually from inorganic molecules, with "building blocks" like amino acids forming first and then combining to make complex polymers

What is endosymbiosis?

when the cells are engulfed, but not digested. Cells live together in a mutually benefitting relationship

What cellular structure varies in shape in the three major groups of ameba?

Ameba are classified by the structure of their pseudopodia. Rhizopodans have locomotion by lobopodia and filopodia. Granuloreticulosans have locomotion by reticulopodia. Actinopodans have locomotion by axopodia.

Omnivore

An animal that eats both plants and animals

Heterotroph

An organism that cannot make its own food.

Autotroph

An organism that makes its own food

What are a few different disadvantages to sexual reproduction? What are at least 2 different advantages to sexual reproduction?

Disadvantages: -It takes time and energy to find a mate and reproduce. -Reproduction through sexual means is uncertain. -Fewer offspring are typically produced. Advantages: -It creates genetic diversity within a species. -Genetic variation can lead to evolutionary advancements. -It helps natural selection remove harmful mutations from the population

Robert Brown

Discovered the importance of the cell nucleus. 1800's.

Describe and draw a diagram to show the basic structure of an animal cell membrane (FLUID MOSAIC MODEL)

Draw on whiteboard animal cell membrane. fluid mosaic model

In Paramecia, what changes occur in the micronucleus and the macronucleus during conjugation? Which nucleus undergoes meiosis? Draw a diagram to explain this process.

During the conjugation of two Paramecium, the micronucleus disintegrates and the micronucleus of each individual undergoes meiosis, giving rise to 4 hapless micronuclei, three of which degenerate. The remaining micronucleus divides into male and female pronuclei, and male pronuclei are exchanged between conjugants. Male and female pronuclei fuse to form a diploid nucleus. 3 sets of mitotic divisions produce 8 micronuclei, 4 of which become macronuclei (3 of which degenerate). The remaining micronucleus divides twice as does the cell, producing 4 daughter cells.

Which sex of mosquito bites people? What does the other mosquito sex (gender) eat?

Females bite people; males eat nectar and plant juice

Which species of Plasmodium is responsible for most cases of malaria? Can malaria be prevented? How? Is there an effective vaccine for malaria? Globally, where do most malaria infections tend to occur?

P. Vivax

At what embryonic stage in animals do endoderm, ectoderm and mesoderm differentiate

The endoderm eventually becomes the gut. The mesoderm develops into muscle, the skeletal system, some organs, and connective tissue. The ectoderm differentiates into the nervous system and skin

What is the Red Shift and how does it relate to the Big Bang theory?

When the wavelengths from distant galaxies shift towards the red end of the spectrum in order to be longer than they should be.An increase in wavelength; links temperature to the big bang theory

Can malaria be prevented? How? Is there an effective vaccine for malaria? Globally, where do most malaria infections tend to occur?

Yes it can be prevented by avoiding bites; yes there is a vaccine; mostly occurs in Africa and Asia

Basic parts of a microscope

eyepiece lens, tube, arm, base, illuminator, stage, nosepiece, objective lens, condenser lens, diaphragm,

Interstitial fluid

fluid between cells

Intracellular fluid

fluid inside cells

Extracellular fluid

fluid outside the cell

For what experiment or theory did Albert Einstein win the Nobel Prize?

for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect

What is a metazoan?

multicellular eukaryote

Parasitism

one species benefits at the expense of the other

How is total magnification determined for a light microscope

take the power of the objective (4X, 10X, 40x) and multiply by the power of the eyepiece, usually 10X.

When using a microscope, what are some important techniques to keep in mind in order to effectively utilize the microscope?

-ALWAYS use both hands when picking the microscope up and moving it from one place to another. -When focusing on a slide, ALWAYS start with either the 4X or 10X objective

When using a pair of binoculars, what are some important techniques to keep in mind in order to effectively utilize the binoculars?

-Adjust the pivot (central hinge) until it matches the distance between your eyes and you only see a single image. -Pick an object, cover the right lens, turn the focus dial until the image is sharp. -Cover the left lens, turn the diopter until the image is sharp

How does the cilium differ in structure from a flagellum?

-Cilia are short, hair-like structure, present in large numbers in a cell -Flagella are long, hair-like complex structure and are few per cell -few, longer flagellum and more, shorter cilium

What is the wavelength and frequency of a wave?

-One wavelength: equals the distance between two successive wave crests or troughs -Frequency (Hertz) equals the number of waves that passes a given point per second.

What is transmittance and what is absorption? How are they different?

-absorbance measures how much of an incident light is absorbed when it travels in a material -transmittance measures how much of the light is transmitted

List and explain four lines of evidence for Big Bang Theory

-almost all galaxies are moving away from us due to change in wavelengths -these galaxies are actually outside the Milky Way, the entire Universe was acting like the core of a star, fusing hydrogen into helium and other elements. -cosmic microwave background radiation the formation of galaxies and the large scale structure of the cosmos -the formation of galaxies and the large scale structure of the cosmos -doppler effect for light -red shift -background radiation (cosmic background -universe expanding

Briefly describe one theory regarding the evolution of metazoans from unicellular protists: colonial flagellate hypothesis

-claims that the first animals evolved from flagellated protists that lived in colonies -it implies that radial symmetry preceded bilateral symmetry as the evolutionary tree of animals predicts

Describe the basic cytoskeletal structure of a eukaryotic flagellum (draw a cross sectional diagram of a eukaryotic flagellum). What energy molecule is required to cause a flagellum to move back and forth? Name the molecular motor arms.

-consists of microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments -draw cross sectional diagram of a eukaryotic flagellum -Movement is powered by a release of ATP, according to the sliding microtubule hypothesis. -cell membrane, 9+2 microtubules dynein arms, doublet of microtubules

What are some of the basic characteristics of a member of the Kingdom Protoctista?

-eukaryotic organisms -usually aquatic -mostly unicellular, some multicellular

Give five different specific examples where color plays an important role in the life history of animals.

-helps the animal to hide, to deceive or to attract attention -bees and wasps: yellow and black to warn birds not to eat them -mantids camouflage into branches to hide

Provide at least three different lines (pieces) of evidence for the theory of endosymbiosis

-mitochondria and chloroplasts were once primitive bacterial cells -the discovery of DNA and ribosomes within organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts -transfer RNA, ribosomes, and other molecules involved into transcription and translation processes were examined and compared with prokaryotes -Organelles have their own DNA, and divide independently of the cell they live in

What is refraction? How does refraction differ from reflection

-refraction: the waves pass through the surface, that changes their speed and direction -reflection: the waves bounce off the surface

Given an example of a member of the Phylum Euglenozoa. What are some basic characteristics of members of this phylum?

-unicellular eukaryotes -chloroplasts (autotrophs +heterotrophs) -flagellum -red "eye" spot

Briefly describe the hypothesized mechanism for the movement of a pseudopodia which we described in the text and in lecture

1) Hyaline cap appears as an extension of the ectoplasm, 2) endoplasm begins to flow into the hyaline cap, 3) actin subunits in the endoplasm attach to regulatory actin-binding proteins that prevent actin from polymerizing, 4) endoplasm fountains out to the the periphery when it near the hyaline cap, 5) the cell membrane releases the actin subunits from the regulatory proteins so the actin can repolymerize into microfilaments, which bind to actin protein to form a gel-like tube through which the endoplasm flows as the pseudopodium extends, 6) near the trailing end of the gel, Ca ions activate a protein that severs releasing microfilaments, allowing myosin to bind to the microfilaments and pull on them, 7) this contractile force at the trailing end forces the fluid endoplasm and actin subunits back toward the hyaline cap.

List at least 5 different animals that reproduce asexually

1. annelid worms 2. planarians 3. sea stars 4. cloning wasps 5. sea anemone

How old is the universe based on the Big Bang theory?

13.8 billion years ago

When did Earth first form?

4.54 billion years ago

Symbiosis

A close relationship between two species that benefits at least one of the species.

Carnivore

A consumer that eats only animals.

Herbivore

A consumer that eats only plants.

Cytoplasm

A jellylike fluid inside the cell in which the organelles are suspended

How did our solar system form and when did it first form?

A solar nebula that contracted due to gravity; formed 4.6 billion years ago

What is an organelle?

A tiny cell structure that carries out a specific function within the cell

What is an hermaphroditic animal? Do monoecious animals usually produce both sperm and eggs at the same time? Why or why not?

Animal that can produce either male or female gametes No they do not in order to prevent cross fertilization

How is malaria typically treated?

Antiparasite, Antibiotics

Budding

Asexual fragmentation of the body wall. Buds appear as outgrowth on the sides that drop off into a new organism (sponges do this)

Fragmentation

Asexual reproduction where an organism is split into fragments which become clones of the adult (ex: sponges, some annelids, flatworms, and sea stars).

Explain the advantages and disadvantages to each of these methods of reproduction: asexual reproduction, broadcast spawning, internal fertilization.

Asexual: advantageous b/c don't need to find mate, disadvantageous b/c lack of genetic diversity Broadcast spawning: advantageous b/c spread your offspring, disadvantageous b/c low chance of offspring survival Internal fertilization: advantageous b/c genetic diversity, disadvantageous b/c need to find a mate

Gemmulation

Asexual; involves the formation of gemmules (groups of amoebocytes that deposit spicules around them), triggered by environmental conditions (ex: freshwater sponges).

Thomas Cech and Sidney Altman

Co-discovered the existence of ribozymes (RNA molecules that catalyze chemical reactions)

Relative to protozoa, what is encystment and why is it important to the life cycle of some protozoans?

Encystment is the formation of external coverings (cysts) to adapt to adverse environmental change such as food deficiency, desiccation, increased environmental osmotic pressure, decreased O2 concentration, or change in pH or temperature. Some protozoa can form dormant cysts to survive harsh environmental conditions.

Who first proposed the theory of the Big Bang? What contribution did Edwin Hubble make to this theory?

Georges Lemaître; Edwin Hubble helped prove that the universe is expanding, and he created a classification system for galaxies that has been used for several decades

What is the function of the contractile vacuoles in protists such as Paramecium? Draw a diagram to explain your answer.

In ciliates like Paramecium; it helps with osmoregulation to maintain homeostasis.

How does a protist differ from a protozoan?

Kingdom protista: -mostly unicellular organisms. -Even multicellular organisms that do not have specialized tissues -have cell walls Protozoan: -unicellular, heterotrophic organisms, which are closely related to animals -free living organisms in the fresh water or marine water -no cell wall

What female scientist is most often associated with the development of the theory of endosymbiosis?

Lynn Margulis

Relative to the metabolic energy cost to produce a sperm versus an egg (ovum), explain differences in the basic reproductive strategies of male versus female animals.

Males try to reproduce as many times as they can while females are going to be more selective with whom they meet in order to ensure the best genes being passed on to their offspring

How does a monoecious animal differ from a dioecious animal?

Monoecious organisms are those containing both male and female reproductive organs; Dioecious Animals are organisms that produce either male or female reproductive organs and gametes but never both at the same time

Briefly describe the life cycle of Plasmodium. What animal other than humans (and birds and reptiles) is a host for Plasmodium? How do merozoites differ from trophozoites and sporozoites (where is each found in which host)? In which host does the asexual portion of the Plasmodium lifecycle occur? In which host does the sexual portion of the Plasmodium lifecycle occur? What must be present in mosquito saliva for it to be an effective hemophagic parasite? Where in the host are microgametocytes and macrogametocytes produced? How is the "signet ring" useful in malaria diagnosis?

Mosquito inoculates sporozoites into human host. Sporozoite infect liver cells mature into schizonts, rupture, release merozoite. After initial replication in the liver, parasite undergo asexual multiplication. Merozoites infect red blood cells; ring stage trophozoites mature into schizonts, release merozoites gametocytes, male (microgametocytes) and female (macrogametocytes), ingested by mosquito. parasites' multiplication known as sporogonic cycle .the microgametes penetrate the macrogametes generating zygotes The zygotes become motile and elongated (ookinetes) invade the midgut wall of mosquito where they develop into oocysts. The oocysts grow, rupture, and release sporozoites, which make their way to the mosquito's salivary glands. Inoculation of the sporozoites into a new human host perpetuates the malaria life cycle

What is a theory about how Earth's moon formed?

The giant-impact hypothesis- the Moon formed out of the debris left over from a collision between Earth and an astronomical body the size of Mars

What is color (how are colors different from one another)?

Objects appear different colours because they absorb some colours (wavelengths) and reflected or transmit other colours

Why is the syncytial ciliate hypothesis unlikely?

One proposed mechanism for the evolution of multicellularity involves an ancestral multinucleate cell in which plasma membranes formed between nuclei, resulting in a multicellular organism -Unlikely - nuclei in syncytial organisms have different functions

Metazoans are a member of what eukaryotic clade of protists?

Opisthokonta

What is osmoregulation? Why is osmoregulation so important to all animal cells?

Osmoregulation helps maintain the salt and water balance. It helps to prevent lysis and rupturing of cells, and allows homeostasis through regulation of the organism's fluids.

Briefly describe the symbiotic relationship between a hypermastid (eg. hypermastigotes such as Trichonympha spp. or Trichomonas spp.) and its insect host

Out of its wounded abdomen spilled a range of protozoa, which even then were providing a key function for the termite - they helped it to digest wood -mutualism: insect host helps digest wood for termites- both benefiting

To what phylum do members of the genus Plasmodium belong? What are some basic characteristics of members of this phylum?

Phylum Apicomplexa: -many parasites -apical protein complex -attach to host

To what phylum do members of the genus Paramecium belong? What are some basic characteristics of members of this phylum?

Phylum Ciliata: -cilia, cytostome/ cytopharynx -micro+ macronuclues -heterotrophs -contractile vacuole

Georges Lemaitre

Proposed the Big Bang Theory

Which probably evolved first RNA or DNA? Why?

RNA evolved first; was the first membrane-bounded cells were formed by the spontaneous assembly of a set of amphipathic molecules, enclosing a self-replicating mixture of RNA; RNA was the primary living substance, largely due to RNA's ability to function as both genes and enzymes.

What were probably the first simple biomolecules to evolve on Earth?

RNA: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

Binary fission

The most common type of reproduction in protozoans. The micronucleus divides mitotically into two daughter micronuclei and move to opposite sides of the cell. The micronucleus elongates and splits, but not by mitosis.

Explain at least two different ways in which sexual reproduction provides greater genetic diversity than asexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction provides genetic diversity because the sperm and egg that are produced contain different combinations of genes than the parent organisms, provides more diversity. Asexual reproduction, on the other hand, does not need sperm and eggs since one organism splits into two organisms that have the same combination of genes

Briefly describe the theory of endosymbiosis. What basic steps/processes are involved? When in Earth's history might this first have occurred? Who first proposed the theory of endosymbiosis?

The first eukaryotic cells evolved from fusion of simpler prokaryotic cells about 1.7-1.5 bya. It suggests that bacteria that require oxygen (aerobic) were ingested by anaerobic bacteria. The aerobic bacteria handled the oxygen, and the anaerobic bacteria ingested food. This resulted in a cell with a double membrane found organelle. The inner lipid bilayer would have been the bacterial cell's plasma membrane, and the outer lipid bilayer came from the cell that engulfed it. -Konstantin Mereschkowski (first proposed)

Why is sexual reproduction important to the process of evolution?

The genetic diversity of sexually-produced offspring is thought to give species a better chance of surviving in an unpredictable or changing environment.

What is visible light?

The part of the electromagnetic spectrum that our eyes can detect

All protozoans are protoctistans (protists), but not all protists are protozoans. Explain this

The taxonomic kingdom Protista is a collection of single-celled organisms that do not fit into any other category. Protists are a group made up of protozoa, unicellular algae, and slime molds -A protozoan is a protist with animal cell characteristics (no cell wall, and has at least one motile stage in the life cycle)

How was the atmosphere of early different from the atmosphere we experience today?

The volcanic eruptions spewed gases such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and water vapor into the atmosphere—but no free oxygen. Without oxygen, there was still very little that could live on Earth

Draw a generalized animal life cycle for a sexually reproducing animal from fertilization through the larval stage to the adult. You must include all of the following terms in your diagram: sperm, ovum (gametes), fertilization, cleavages, morula, blastula, gastrula, larva, adult, metamorphosis, meiosis, mitosis, cell differentiation

draw animal life cycle

What is light? Is light a wave, particle or both?

electromagnetic radiation; both a wave and particle

In terms of basic physics, what is color?

is the way our brain, by use of our eyes, interprets electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength within the visible spectrum

What does the acronym LUCA stand for? Describe some of the characteristics that LUCA likely would have possessed?

last universal common ancestor; was a single-cell, bacterium-like organism; ring-shaped coil of DNA floating freely within the cell, like modern bacteria

List ALL of the basic molecule types that might be found in an animal cell membrane

lipids (phospholipids and cholesterol), proteins, and carbohydrate groups

Commenalism

one species benefits with no effect on the other (rare)

What experiment did Stanley Millerand Harold Urey do that helped provide evidence for the Oparin-Haldane Hypothesis?

performed an experiment that may explain what occurred on primitive Earth billions of years ago. He sent an electrical charge through a flask of a chemical solution of methane, ammonia, hydrogen and water. This created organic compounds including amino acids

What types of molecules comprise cell membranes in addition to phospholipids?

phospholipids, glycolipids, proteins, and cholesterol

Edwin Hubble

research proved universe still expanding; proved galaxies exist outside of the milky way; classification system for galaxies; hubble telescope named after him

Intercellular space

space between cells

Relative to metabolic energy cost, are sperm "cheaper" or are eggs "cheaper"?

sperm are cheaper than eggs