ANTH 3380-01 EXAM #2

Tattoos

-Both genders engage in tattooing here in America -A form of aesthetic expression -Tattoos used to have more of a negative connotation with gang members and prisoners -Styles of tattoos come from all over the globe. -Still a stigma for tattooing here around where on the body it is (face, hands, neck might still be an issue with an office job or in finance or government) or what it is (perceived to be gang related, whether it is or not, or graphic or profane)

Body Modification

-Both genders engage in this but some procedures are more popular for certain genders. -This category includes ear gauging, implant piercing (above and under the skin), all piercing, branding, tongue splitting, ear shaping (elf ears), etc. -No, that zipper is not functional... -Yes, if you split your tongue you can move the two sides independently (it is two muscles). -No, amateur Wolverine can't actually use those claws. It's pierced through the tender, thin skin on top of this hands that will tear very easily.

Plastic Surgery

-Both genders engage in this, but there are gendered patterns of who gets what kinds of procedures. -Everyone: liposuction, rhinoplasty (noses), veneers for teeth, botox, fillers, laser hair removal -Women: breast implants, tummy tucks-Men: Chin implants, calf implants, facelift

Chinese foot binding

-Chinese Foot binding-Made illegal in 1911 -Only women's feet-Made them beautifully small by curling toes underneath the balls of the foot -Also worked to prevent women from running away or going anywhere quickly -Only affected women of status and class. Poor women could not afford to be unable to walk or work in the fields or in stores or take care of their children and families.

Neck Rings

-Entirely female aesthetic that begins at childhood - Only performed by the 500 or so Kayans (also known as Padaung or Long Necked Karens) who live in Thailand -They have fled the brutal military regime in neighboring Burma (also known as Myanmar) two decades ago, and they have been confined in three guarded villages on the northern Thai border ever since. -They are frequently featured in National Geographic for their beauty and this "exotic" aesthetic.

Two Spirits: Work

-FGV: ofthen rejected female work, playing & hunting with boys. Were superior hunters and opted out of motherhood. -MGV: skilled & industrious at crafts and domestic work. Were often hired by whites. Sometimes warriors, others rejected that role but remained in the roles around warfare (supplier, wounder healer). -GV: often part of social ceremonies like marriages. Have spirituality powers and can connect to spirt world.

Cranial Deformation

-Takes place in Mesoamerica (among Maya, Aztec and Olmec societies) in what is now Mexico and Central America -A male aesthetic, and a wealthy male one at that-Created by placing bands on an infant's skull to shape it upwards and behind (like the modern helmets used to shape infants heads now) -Done to make the skull look more like maize or corn (and thus give fertility to the people he will rule one day)

Globalization

Actions or processes that involve the entire world and result in making something worldwide in scope. Cultural contact can create change/ influence. Global media, academic and scientific discourses, and political movements influence other societies.

Bricolage

Combinations of new cultural influences to create new cultural inventions (Claude Levi Strauss) •In culture, we take pieces of things we like from other cultures and make them new and different for us.

Liminality

In rituals, the idea that you can be between stages. •People are liminal when they are not yet a child, not yet an adult. We have ceremonies to announce that we have passed through the liminal period and into the new phase. (bat mitzvah, quinceñeara, etc) .•This is why puberty is SO awkward and why you yelled at your parents, "I'm NOT a CHILD" as a teenager and they probably rolled their eyes at you. Because you are still a child, but not really, and you are almost an adult, but not really. It's liminal.

Khanith (also spelled Xanith)

It is a Third Gender, MGV in Oman (and spread across the Arabian peninsula in the Middle East)• Neither male nor female•Most often discussed as a type of male because you can leave it and go back to male (Does this sound familiar, like another role we have discussed?) •Typically they wear clothing that is male in style, female in color, and are not allowed to cross-dress in public•Can be married to males, can have sex with women, females bare their faces to them (remove coverings) •Legally men, but speak of themselves as women •The name Khanith can be used to call someone it in a derogatory manner (like said as an insult) but often it is a badge of pride, especially as our Western LGBTQ rights and social movement has spread. •The Khanith title now encompasses a bigger group than it has ever before. It can be effeminate males, nonbinary people, men who have sex with men (but don't identify as gay), and trans women. It is becoming an umbrella term, as well as the original cultural third gender role that it started as.

Lesbi (Indonesia Diversity)

Lesbi: women who love women•They take a very femme look, women's activities

Culturally

Masculine superiority is important and associated with power domination and the use of violence or threats •This becomes naturalized as biological system of gender

Double standards of morality

Men are supposed to demonstrate their virility and masculinity through sex and power. Women are supposed to be chaste and virginal (or the other end of the spectrum as whores, it is the Virgin Mary, Mary Magdalene biblical contrast)

Gender Variant

No one who is a Third or Fourth gender would call themselves a Gender Variant. It is an academic term used in research and analysis. By studying it through the lens of Gender Variant, it helps us better understand the role by knowing the biological sex of the individual and how it then works with the cultural role of the gender presentation.

Norms

Rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members. (standards or rules about what is acceptable behavior in a culture)•Who teaches us what the rules are:•Parents, Friends, Religion, School, Media, Social Media, Lots of people and organizations.•We learn the rules as we grow up and encounter new situations.•We watch how other people do things

Power

Separation. (Through gender/race)

Asian Double Eyelid

Surgically adds an eye crease. More common for Korean, Japanese, Taiwanese, and Chinese women, but popular across Asia

Agency

The ability to think, act, and make choices independently. (the power to act and make decisions.)

Sexual Division of Labor

The patterned ways in which productive activities and tasks are assigned to women versus men in culture.•Women's work: Jobs available to only women•Men's work: Jobs that are available only to men•This can be a division of labor at home (with cleaning and cooking) OR it can be what jobs people do for money.•So it can be men do the cooking and women do the work in the fields OR it can be that women are the elementary school teachers typically and men are the professional chefs (as we see often still today in America).

Matter out of Place

This is when you know what something is but it is not where it belongs. And when it is in its proper place, it is fine, but when it is dislocated from that, it is now bad and dirty and gross.Ex: Dirt on the ground is fine. Dirt on your body, like mud, makes you dirty. The hair on your head, fine. Hairball on the floor, dirty. The gum in your mouth is fine. Gum on the bottom of your desk is gross.

Cultural Duality:

Those who penetrate (active or masculine, atividade) and those who are penetrated (passive or feminine or passivate) •Penetration is a powerful act of masculinity •This becomes the important part of the sexuality and gender roles (male, female, and travesti)

Tomboi (Indonesia Diversity)

Tomboi: masculine partners in lesbian relationships•They take on male role in financial responsibilities, male clothing, haircut, body language

Female Gender Variant Roles (FGV)

Variant gender roles assumed by biological females.

Male Gender Variant Roles (MGV)

Variant gender roles assumed by biological males.

Abnormal

not usual, not typical, strange

Aesthetics

the study of beauty

2 Ways colonists attempt to make changes

•1. Colonial Moral Argument: They called them deviant roles, they were abnormal and sinful, they deemed sodomy as sinful, made them marginalized. Make them bad and dirty and guilt them to change. •2. Colonial Legal Argument: If you can't guilt someone into changing, then as the powerful overlord, make it illegal to be the alternative gender.

Travesti

•All become female through their sexual acts (as passive) and they transform their bodies •Ingesting/injecting female hormones•Silicone enhancement for fleshy thighs, hips, and buttocks •Do not get rid of penises, but hide them (if removed, trapped semen will make them go mad) •They are "like women" in behavior, appearance, and relationships with men •Maridos (men who they have sex with) are not homosexual •Attractive, tattooed, muscular men with little income or education

Bissu (Indonesia Diversity)

•Bissu are: Androgynous shaman, Mainly MGV •Must go through rituals to become one •Sexuality is not tied to GV •The Ideal Bissu is an Ascetic who represses sexual desire•The Reality: Bissu often they have sex with men, sometimes marry and take husbands •They have importance in weddings, and are guardians of nobility •Ability to contact the divine through trance •Power to heal and bless

Biza'ah

•Biza'ah mainly found in Teotitlan del Valle in Oaxaca •Important cultural information that inform the role: •In Oaxaca there is a strong connection to US through immigration. So a back and forth of cultural sharing with migration •Strong division of labor for men and women. And the lives and work and expectations. •Women often live with men after engagement, have children, without official marriages in common law marriages or serial monogamy •Biza'ah, are rarer than most other GV we have discussed. (Only 7 Biza'ah known to exist today)

Biza'ah

•Characteristics are women's speech, way of walking, and their work •They are special artisans, experts in making ceremonial candles.• Not referred to as homosexual, not made fun of or disparaged. Although some jokes about sex or rumors circulate, but not mean spirited •An influx of hatred or denigration comes from immigration connections to US. Movement of people, ideas, and terms go with people. Those who come back from the US brough with them gay slurs and homophobic ideas, hate, and moral shaming

Brazil

•Common roots in Portuguese and Spanish culture (Portuguese as main colonizer)

Colonialism

•European countries traveled to the rest of the world and began dividing it up •They were in search of raw materials and people whom they could use for labor •Some colonial powers never left, and those countries remain as territories or provinces.

Sadhin

•FGV: Female Ascetic: Often considered a spinster role •Ascetic: Does not and /or cannot have sex •Must be a Virgin, Renounce marriage and sexuality, Have lifelong celibacy •Some adoption of men's clothing, haircut, work •Mixture of men's social obligations: Sadhin do sit with men in gendered situations, smoke, and drink, but do not attend funerals •Characterized "as if" male. Often act "like a man" •Role accommodates difference in social female role requiring family and marriage.

Mati (Suriname) (Colonizer is the Dutch)

•FGV: Talked about as "Woman-loving woman" •Sexually attracted to women •Did not identify as gay or lesbian until recently, now some Mati may identify as a lesbian •May marry, or have relationships with men, never marry, become third partner to marriage, raise children with another mati •Mati have a primary, emotional, and sexual relationships with women and a secondary, exclusively sexual relationship with men to make babies. The men may provide financially for the children but they aren't typically involved more than that.

Mahu (Polynesia)

•Found in Tahiti and Hawaii •Mahu are males who appropriate certain feminine characteristics sometimes and partially •There is NO consistent articulated ideology associated with gender variants. -Whether a man wants to dress as and be a Mahu can vary over his lifetime (flexibility) and situationally (weekends, ceremonies, whenever he feels like it).

Machi

•From the Mapuche Culture of Chile •MGV and FGV shamans •In folklore, connected to the Foye Tree, a hermaphroditic flowering tree that symbolizes the incorporation of BOTH male and female-ness of Machi •Flower becomes to symbol of Machi •Religiously affiliated. Requires a vision, dreams, along with shaman abilities to heal

Travesti (gender)

•Gender is based on their sexual role as passive, being penetrated•They are NOT a third gender, but often a form of female •Think about liminality here. •Sometimes as failed men or as failed women•Some of the colonial shame led to them being marginalized and feared, they are often victims of police brutality and crimes•But Travestis also appear on soap operas, and are popular archetypes The moral shaming from colonists led to a stigma as criminals, HIV carriers, prostitutes (similar to Hijra)

Bakla in Philippines

•Gender roles (pre-Euro-American contact) were complementary and egalitarian •Think Sexual Division of Labor here •History of domination and colonialism (3 colonial forces) •Lots of influences: •Muslim Arabs- emphasized male potency and female purity •Spanish-Catholic ideas of sodomy •US-hierarchical sex/gender binaries •New Western gay sensibility, identity, activism

Beauty and performance are the most important for Bakla

•Gives power through cosmopolitan status•They need to know about other cultures, especially the West• They will know what is going on in pop culture, music, celebrities, TV all that •Glamorous and stylish women •Designer clothes•Lots of plastic surgery•School and education emphasized in pageants •They have to be the best at both beauty and smarts. They are worldly and gorgeous. •Often ridiculed if wardrobe malfunction •The Bakla pageants have a swimsuit portion and they all still have their penises. If something were to go wrong, it would be very embarrassing.

Middle East Sexuality

•Homosexuality punishable by death in Afghanistan, Brunei, Iran, Mauritania, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, Sudan and Yemen. (Kuwait: female homosexuality legal, male is illegal) •In Iran, where being gay is a death sentence, the government will pay for sexual reassignment surgery. •It is viewed as fixing the ambiguity in the binary. •If you are male but believe yourself to be a woman who wants to have sex with men, they would rather reassign your sex to make you female, than have you be a man who wants to have sex with men. •In their eyes, it takes you from a gay man to a straight woman and that's preferable.

Liminality in Polynesia

•Important gender norms: •Idealization of virginity in girls •Relationship between brothers and sisters is very important. •Emphasis on decorum, emotional restraint, respect of behavior •No public outbursts •Everyone is agreeable •The person is a multifaceted identity •Gender is only one small part of who you are.

•Lesbi and Tombois

•Lesbi and Tombois make a matching pair, modeling the butch/femme relationship of heterosexuals, which matches the Indonesian family. In this way, it doesn't get much negative attention

Waria (Indonesia Diversity)

•MGV who are female in dress, hair, style, mannerisms, often exaggerations of femaleness •Waria comes from: wanita (woman) and pria (man) •Sometimes thought of as a man with the soul of a woman, or that it is fate based (who you are destined to be)•Many do body modification: silicone implants, hormones, beauty is very important •Many identify as Muslim and it tells them they are morally wrong be waria .•They work doing good deeds to mitigate any sin for their femininity •Fun fact: President Obama's mom was an anthropologist in Indonesia and he lived there as a child. A waria took care of him as a nanny.

Bakla

•MGV: males with a feminine heart or spirit and cross dress, take receptor role• Pseudo-women, women with a penis •Negative connotations from colonial moral shaming: weak, cowardly, vulgar- becomes abnormal •Sometime refers to state of anatomical confusion: hermaphrodite or deficient male •Same-sex relations are only one part of social identity •High degree of sexual interaction between men and bakla •Only the receptor is homosexual •Men are men who penetrate, and not gay (where have we seen this before?)

Hijras (MGV)

•MGV: women's clothing, hairstyles, accessories, imitate walk, gestures, voice, facial expressions, language•Only male sex partners •Often are exaggerations of women •Important at ceremonies for marriage and son's naming •Now with continued moral shaming from the outside, they work as prostitutes, sometimes have husbands depending on their caste and social rank •They have power to curse as well as bless, sometimes feared as powerful, implicit threat to social order, •Called "people without shame" because they will barge into a home having a party and threaten to curse if not paid to bless it.

Mahu (Polynesia) : Defining it is problematic (for us, not them). General characteristics:

•May engage in women's work (excellent secretaries and domestics) •May wear feminine dress and may not •May use feminine speech and non-verbal gestures •May dance with women and other mahu in traditional cultural ceremonies (not religious) •May have facial hair and may not do anything to alter their bodies at all, remaining very masculine .•May have some plastic surgery to feminize their bodies, but most likely this is only done by men who Mahu more than they are men.

Muxe

•Muxe are found mainly in Juchitan, Oaxaca •MGV, seen as predominantly male with female characteristics. Full Third Gender •Not referred to as homosexual (gender more important than sexuality), not discriminated against •Engage in women's work like embroidery, jewelry •Some marry and have children or have long term partnerships with men •May use male and female pronouns interchangeably about themselves or other Muxe

Mahu.

•No stigma or shame to being mahu, but the colonists left behind a moral shaming legacy for the potential partner of the Mahu. •Raerae (French imported word) is a person who dresses and acts like a man and is exclusively in sexual relationships with men who Mahu. •Raerae face shame. Mahu do not. •Mahu boys are not supercised •Supercision is the coming of age ceremony and incision made on shaft of penis of young boys because it is too "small" and this will help if grow bigger •Think like how scoring a loaf of bread before putting it in the oven makes it grow larger

Bissu (Indonesia Diversity)

•Now, repackaged as tourist attraction, present at civic ceremonies, life cycle ceremonies, feats of strength (swallowing knives, walking on hot coals) •They perform at hotels for tourists •Ends up with two types of Bissu: •Shaman in a village who heal and guide you •Performers for tourists

Nudity

•Nudity for nudity's sake •Nude art •Indigenous nudity

Two-Spirits (American Indians) (Europeans were colonists.)

•Once called Berdaches (an Arabic word for male prostitute) by European explorers and colonists. (*Insult ) •In the 1990s, the term Two-Spirits was adopted by urban American Indian gays and lesbians in an attempt to replace Berdache. •In the 1990s, the term Two-Spirits was adopted by urban American Indian gays and lesbians in an attempt to replace Berdache. •North American Indians have a diversity of gender systems depending on the tribe: usually at least three or four genders •They differ by criteria used to define them •The role is sanctioned or acknowledged •Some have more power attributed to them than others

Two-Spirits: Sexuality

•People have desire to have sex with GV because of: •Taboos against sex during menstruation or pregnancy, so you can have sex with the third gender and not your wife and its allowed. •No one is getting pregnant and threatening your marriage is your husband has sex with a Male gender variant, third gender. •This is why sex with GV is often exempt from punishment for affairs •Sometimes considered to be lucky •Often if wives are having trouble getting pregnant, wives are sent to the third gender to have sex for luck. •This often works for getting pregnant because you might have a husband who has no sperm (but doesn't know that) and the wife is sent to a male gender variant, third gender who has sex with the wife and can get her pregnant. But then it is declared to have been lucky and it is the "husband's" baby.

Liminality in Polynesia

•Polynesian culture: •Competition for power and prestige focus of male life •Men and women have separate spheres of life (sexual division of labor)

Machi

•Religious practices are mixture of shamanism and Catholicism •Different roles and expectations depending on the sex of the individual machi. •MGV: safe from accusations of homosexual, enact femaleness but not a lot •FGV: some are celibate and chaste, calling themselves nuns or angels •For the FGV: this shows the colonial legacy of mixing traditional and colonial religions together in cultural practices

Hijras (India, Pakistan) (British were colonists)

•Seen as early as 8th Century BC (were a part of royal courts as court jesters and performers before colonial arrival) •They are considered to be "defective males, with sexual impotence" (This is requirement for the role)•They adopt the clothing and behavior of women•Often called "Not Men" with defective male organ or castrated male. They cannot get sexually aroused. •Frequent sexual relationships with men as receptors (but not considered gay) and "men who have no desire for women" •If they feel as though they were born to be hijra, but their penises work, they go through an emasculation operation to castrate themselves by damaging the testicles but say "I was born this way" •Hindu idea that sex and gender are inborn but prohibited by Indian Law because the British colonists used the Legal method of control after no one in Indian society bought into a wide-spread moral devaluing.

Mahu in Polynesia: Sexual orientation

•Sexual orientation is not defining. It is assumed to be consistent with gender. •The more he is a man, it is assumed he will may a wife. The more he is a Mahu, the more he will marry a husband.•Not associated with religion, not sacred in any way. •Gender Liminal more useful than Third Gender. •Viewed as "acting like a woman" not becoming a woman because he can always go back to man if he likes. •Male pronouns often used. But again, the more he is a Mahu, then female pronouns may be used. It is a very individual choice.

Middle East Sexuality

•The Hadith is a holy book: Sayings and deeds of the Prophet in Islam (records of what Muhammed said) •This is what prohibits homosexual relations, and holds the most conservative of views •As opposed to the Qur'an (holy book) which does not explicitly condemn homosexuality •Historically Iran (as a state and culture) did not conceive of homosexuality as simply wrong. The West brought that in here as well. •Sexuality often based on "active" and "passive" roles, where passive are stigmatized and active are not.•Sexuality and alternative sexualities are not openly discussed, but often operate in secret or behind a blind eye. •Family is so important that conventional marriage is culturally reinforced and required, but often affairs are tolerated with same sex individuals •Same sex affairs are not threatening because it doesn't result in children. •Affairs are made easier by sexual segregation. If men stay with men, they can carry on affairs in their private spaces, away from wives.

Two-Spirits: Sexuality

•Their sexuality is not central to defining Gender Variation (GV)•Sexual relationships with same sex were a result rather than a cause of being GV •This means that you were born the third gender and that then as a result of being the gender, you were interested in having sex with the same sex .•This differs from how we think about sexuality here (you are born with a sexuality and then you choose your gender presentation). •Relationships vary: from casual to long term to living alone

Kathoey (Thailand)

•Theravada Buddhism says there are three ways you are born: •3 sexes: male, female, and hermaphrodite (now called intersex)•3 genders: male, female, and kathoey •Kathoey is an independent third sex •Secondary meaning of male who acts like woman

Travesti (Brazilian)

•There are many terms used to call someone who is a travesti: •Bichas: literally bug, pest or animal (Is this a nice thing to call someone? No.) •Viado: literally deer (This is an insult as well, calling them meek or saying they are hiding their true selves) •Travesti: verb to cross dress (most neutral term) •The male and travesti roles are produced through the application of eitherpassividade or atividade in the role of sexual relationships (not sexual orientation) •The active male role in same-sex relations is still a man, with no special category because he is penetrating someone. That matters most. •A man is a man until accused of being a bicha or viado.

Hijras :Community

•They create their own families: Houses, Gurus, Chela (disciple), mothers, aunts, daughters •Often because they won't be working traditional male jobs supporting their parents or bearing children, they are asked to leave their childhood homes and find community together in their own social structure. •British rule tried to end hijra, criminalized it legally, and attempted to bring idea of sodomy as sin morally •Now wrongly associated with AIDS because of the moral shaming (heterosexual prostitution and Westernization of Indian values account for higher rates of HIV/AIDS).

•Same-sex sexual activity now distinguished from kathoey

•Traditionally Kathoey not stigmatized like homosexuals •Recently, kathoey has become equivalent to homosexuality •Hermaphrodites now distinguished from homosexuals (so biology becomes central) •1990s- gay man in Thailand is associated with gym-enlarged biceps and pectorals, accentuated body and facial hair (they took from our gay aesthetic) •Gay men more concerned with self-identification and masculine identity than heterosexual men •Gay positioned as middle ground between kathoey and man •Gay men wanted their own place and identity to be masculine men and still be separate from kathoey because kathoey becomes men dressing and identifying as women.

Kathoey (Thailand)

•Until 1970s: kathoey was a broad term included biological hermaphrodites (what we now call intersex), cross dressing men and women of all sexualities •Later (1990s), women selected themselves out of kathoey role. •Cross dressing masculine females are now tom •Feminine lesbian partners of the tom are dee •Kathoey then became male transgender, cross dressing men, hermaphrodites, transsexuals, and effeminate homosexuals •Kathoey are often called Ladyboys. This can be an insulting term for them, but one used very often in country and around the world to discuss them. Kathoey is the culturally appropriate term and the one we will use in this class.

Waria (Indonesia Diversity)

•Waria have a sexual desire for, and partnership with heterosexual men, but it is very different role from "gay men" •Some are prostitutes, but also important role as beauticians, and make up artists •In 1900s stigmatized, but included by smaller politicians as sponsors for events and, often then becoming politicians themselves •Appear in lip-synching contests, beauty pageants, TV sitcoms, music videos •Waria-European (often Dutch) male connection through Internet and travel. Waria are selected as prostitutes by Dutch male travelers and then those men maintain relationships from afar.

•Lesbi and Tombois

•Women and Lesbi in Indonesia remain in the domestic sphere and this does not threaten family values •Lesbi and Tomboi relationships are not generally flaunted in public•In a strategic way, often they are silent on coming out, because they assimilate easier this way, less conflict •Conservative Islam created hostility towards gender diversity, and they want to stay quiet to avoid this towards them •Globalization allows information and discourse between Indonesian diversity and Western models of rights and gay culture •This is beginning to change things and make them more outspoken

Mati

•Women who identify as Mati speak about themselves "doing Mati" not being Mati. It is about a thing you do, not who you are. •Most often a working class, Black female practice, associated with Creole (religiously associated with the Winti religion) •Mati relationships can involve anger, jealousy, and possibly accepted low level of violence, understood as a sign of love (Can be understood as being what we might call hot tempered)