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AP EURO EXAM 2020

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What was Czar Alexander II's nickname and the issue about it?

"Czar Liberator" because of his emancipation of the serfs and his many reforms. Though, he was not a very popular figure.

Revolutions of 1848:

"Spring of Nations" A series of political upheavels throughout Europe in 1848. It was the first and only Europe-wide collapse of traditional authority but within a year reactionary forces had won out and the revolutions collapsed.

Philisophes

"lovers of wisdom" French enlightenment thinkers who applied science and reason to society, gov't and law

First effect of Industrial Revolution

(+) Mass Production - Factory System (textile, goods, etc) -> lots of stuff for cheap!!! * Production Line by Henry Ford -> Better lives, comfort... -> Supply and Demand -> "Guitar Hero" game -> lower the cost of goods

Vesalius

(1514-1564) A Flemish scientist who challenged traditional anatomy with his text "On the Construction of the Human Body." Created with numerous illustrations of public dissections.

Concert of Europe

(extra term) series of alliances devised by Metternich to ensure that nations would help each other if revolution broke out.

Lack of Freedom

Difference Between Times for Peasants. Before E of S lack of personal freedom unmatched in Reds times - even though they like slaves under Stalin, they're like people not owned and bought/sold.

Variation in Type of Peasant

Difference Between Times for Peasants. In 1856 more variation in rural life e.g. state peasants, private serfs, household serfs - was just brutal collectivisation and centralisation under Stalin and kinda Lenin.

Modernisation Under Communists

Difference Between Times for Peasants. In 1964 electrification, mechanisation, greater communication and far more links with urban centres reduced isolation common to peasant life under the Tsars.

Amerigo Vespucci

Italian explorer who sailed down South America and was the first to realize that the Americas were their own separate continents from Asia

majority, individuality

Liberalism was a way to live without: harming the _________ and stifling ________________. Wanted individual rights + freedoms and universal manhood suffrage (later).

Reform Bill 1832

Limited reform of House of Commons expands voting greatly

consubstantiation

Lutheran doctrine of the Eucharist: after consecration, the bread and wine undergo a spiritual change, become the Real Presence, but are not transformed.

MTS Became Less State Controlled

Main Elements of Khrushchev's Agricultural Change. ... ........ .... ...... ......... as they were transferred to give more decision making and local control of the mechanised farm machinery - more Sovkhozes as they are state run so have equipment.

Less Tight

Main Elements of Khrushchev's Agricultural Change. .... ...... control of people by government.

Farms Made Larger

Main Elements of Khrushchev's Agricultural Change. 1950 (121,000 Kolkhoz and 4988 Sovkhoz), 1950 (44,000 Kolkhoz and 7375 Sovkhoz) - smaller number because bigger farms, took up more land. Tendency for central management.

National Initiatives

Main Elements of Khrushchev's Agricultural Change. Campaign to grow maize and Virgin Land Schemes in 1954. Grain production to be increased by a third by cultivating unused land in Kazakhstan and Siberia. 500,000 voulnteers went west to countryside with huge mechanised resources.

Higher Prices

Main Elements of Khrushchev's Agricultural Change. Higher prices for produce to try reduce rural poverty.

Orthodox Church

Main Elements of Khrushchev's Agricultural Change. Village life affected by campaign against ......... ...... after 1957.

Rural Housing Under Communists

Main change under Stalin in terms of material - concrete housing blocks on periphery of collective farms. Khrushchev planned 'agrotowns' to be made but like urban housing quickly built and poor. Became very overcrowded and subject to health problems. Kulaks suffered most - forced out of houses into tents/barracks. Was concrete not wooden but still some problems.

Results of Populism in Russia

Many students were capture by the police. The courts believed that acquitting them would show mercy and gain favor with the people, but Alexander refused.

Ninety-Five Theses

Marks the beginning of the Protestant Reformation. Made an immense impression on people who were not satisfied with the Catholic church.

Protocal of Troppau

Reactionary declaration by the members of the Holy Alliance, in which they declared they would intervene in any country that was experiencing internal revolution so as to restore order. England and France abstained.

Old Order:

Refers primarily to the aristocratic system that characterized French society and politics established in France under the Valois and Bourbon dynasties from the 14th century to the 18th century. It was overthrown by the French Revolution

Catholic Counter-Reformation

Reformation Catholic Church mounted a series of reforms and reasserted its authority.

Whigs

Reforming constitutional party in parliament succeeded by liberals

Carlsbad Diet 1819

Releases Carlsbad Decrees, breaking up the Burschenshaften (student organizations in HRE)

Catholic Reformation

Religious reform movement within the Latin Christian Church, begun in response to the Protestant Reformation. It clarified Catholic theology and reformed clerical training and discipline.

Frankfurt Assmebly

Representatives from the middle class of the German states met to discuss forging a nation. Many great obstacles (fractured political and military reality with two dominant states)

Republic of Virtue

Republic created by Robespierre in which abolished slavery in the colonies, mister and madame replaced citizen and citizeness, and education for all law passed, all in efforts to oppose the superstition of the Catholic church (DeChristianization)

Peasant Resistance To Stalin's Collectivisation

Resisted collectivisation bitterly despite mass deportations. Riots and armed resistances - 1 riot 5 days and had armoured cars sent to restore order. Went into farms to steal back livestock. Women played huge role - own protests with specific goals like stopping= grain requisitioning and getting back horses. One form of protest was slaughtering all animals to sell/eat quickly so gov couldn't have it.

John Gottfried Herder

Revived German folk culture by urging collection and preservation of distinctive German songs and sayings. (The Grimm brothers

July Revolution

Revolution in France against Louis Phillipe, four ordinances screw poor people over, workers barricade the streets.

Greek Revolutions

Revolutions attracted much attention with the idea of democracy reborn

Habeus Corpus Act of 1679

Right to a speedy trial. Political parties start to form.

Fascism

Right wing, authoritarian nationalistic political ideology which seeks to purge forces, ideas, people, and systems deemed to be the cause of decadence and degeneration and to produce their nation's rebirth based on commitment to the national community based on organic unity.

Republic of Virtue

Robespierre's attempt to erase all traces of the monarchy, nobility and the Catholic Church

Ivan the Terrible

Ruler of the Duchy of Muscovy (Russian state) from 1533-1584; violently expanded territory under Muscovy control and supressed the nobility

Time of Troubles

Russia from 1584-1603 after death of Ivan the Terrible because Russia had no clear ruler; ended with selection of a tsar from the Romanov family

Treaty of Adrianpole 1829

Russia gains Ottoman territorial powers to decide what to do with Greece

The Crimean War

Russia vs. France, England, & Ottoman Empire (Russia wanted to extend influence over the Empire). Russia loses and forces modernization on both sides. Britain then ends sales of commissions. Ended the Concert of Europe

Great Northern War

Russia vs. Sweden. Russia had Poland, Denmark and Saxony as allies. Treaty of Nystad is where Russia gained Latvia and Estonia and thus gained its Window on the West in the Baltic Sea

Tsar Alexander I

Russia's leader at the Congress of Vienna (BTS)

Boyars

Russian landholding aristocrats; possessed less political power than their western European counterparts

catherine the great

Russian leader whose familiarity with the Enlightenment and the general culture of Western Europe convinced her Russai was backward adn that it needed major reforms to remian a great power. She understood that any significant political form must have a wide bsae of political support and she worked to make her reign more democratic. She accomplished this through administrative reform and championing local bureaucracies through the nobles, sponsoring economic growth, and prioritizing territorial expansion.

Decembrist Uprising 1825

Russian revolt that was quickly crushed

Peter the Great

Russian tsar from 1682-1725; modernized Russian culture; established centralized bureaucracy involving the nobility; created Table of Ranks to allow common people to enter the nobility; built western style capital St. Petersburg; conscripted serfs for military service and built strong army/navy; defeated the Swedes in the Great Northern War

David HUme

Scottish philosopher who was one of the key figures in the Enlightenment attack on churches and clergy. He believed the greatest miracle was that people believed in miracles. His analysis of superstition in the church exemplified enlightenment attack on Church through rationality and reason.

David Hume

Scottish philosopher whose sceptical philosophy restricted human knowledge to that which can be perceived by the senses (1711-1776)

Second Estate

The second class of French society made up of the noblility and aristocracy (land owners). together with first estate, 3% of society.

Estates

The social classes in France

Genocide

The systematic and planned extermination of an entire national, racial, political, or ethnic group.

Army with a State:

The theory behind the success of Prussia. Their army was central, and they just so happened to have a state in contrast to a usual government.

Constitutionalism

The theory developed in early modern England and spread elsewhere that royal power should be subject to legal and legislative checks.

defenestration of Prague

The throwing of Catholic officials from a castle window in Bohemia. Started the Thirty Years' War.

Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659)

The treaty that ended fighting between France and Spain that continued after the Thirty Years' War; the treaty marked the end of Spain's status as a major European power.

Calvin

Theologian and organizer of the Protestant movement. Out of the other reformers he was the most determined.

Third effect of Industrial Revolution

Theory of Economics - Adam Smith * "Laissez Faire" Economics * * Government does not touch business or corporations - Government did not want to get in the way of economic growth - Corporations are able to do what they want

"God, Gold, and Glory"

These were the primary motives of travel

Second Estate

They consisted of the Nobles; they received special privileges and paid no direct taxes to the king

First Estate

They consisted of the Roman Catholic Clergy; they received special privileges and paid no direct taxes

Third Estate

They consisted of the bourgeoisie, the san-culottes and the peasants; they paid high taxes and had no special privileges

Peasants

They were the rural poor; they were the farmers who paid about half of their income in taxes to the nobles, the church and other agents of the king

Bourgeoisie

They were the urban middle-class; they were the merchants/artisans and were well-educated and often wealthy

San-Culottes

They were the urban poor; they were the cooks/servants who were paid low wages and were often out of work

Richelieu

This French Cardinal served as an advisor to Louis XIII and helped make the French King an absolute monarch

Velazquez

This artist was the artist of Philip IV's court in the 17th century. He is known for his realistic portraits of the royal family in Spain's Golden Age.

Kepler

This astronomer stated that the orbits of planets around the sun were elliptical, the planets do not orbit at a constant speed, and that an orbit is related to its distance from the sun.

Moderates

This group could live with or without the king, wanted some additional changes and supported violence only if it was justified

Radicals

This group hated the king, wanted drastic and sweeping changes and advocated the use of violence in the name of the revolution

Conservatives

This group liked the king, wanted no more changes and was opposed to violence

July 14th, 1789

This is the date that represents the symbolic start of the French Revolution; Parisians stormed the Bastille

May 5th, 1789

This is the date that the Estates-General was called to order; the 1st and 2nd estate expected to dominate the Estates-General

June 17th, 1789

This is the date that the Third Estate voted to leave the Estates-General and form a new body of government for the people of France

August 4th, 1789

This is the date the National Assembly ended the Old Regime, feudalism, church tithes and the special privileges of the First/Second Estates

Spanish Armada

This was a disaster. Spain did not have the ships or troops planned. They hoped for a miracle but it did not happen. They were beat by both the English and weather. It was a psychological blow to the Spaniards.

National Assembly

This was legislative branch of the government; it proclaimed an end to the absolute monarchy and the start of a representative government

Pragmatic Sanction

This was the act passed by Charles VI that stated that Habsburg possessions were never to be divided, in order to allow his daughter to be ruler

Edict of Nantes

This was the document published by Henry IV that granted liberty of conscience and liberty of public worship to the Huguenots

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

This was the document written by the National Assembly that identified the natural rights of the French citizens as well as their other liberties

Gustavus Adolphus

This was the king of Sweden who led a highly disciplined force into Northern Germany and turned the tide against the Hapsburgs in the 30 Years War.

National Convention

This was the legislative branch of government that deposed the king of his title, declared France a republic and publically executed the king and queen

Legislative Assembly

This was the legislative branch of government that was elected in to power and voted to start a war with Austria; it was forced to step down from power

National Assembly

This was the legislative branch of the government; it ended feudalism, serfdom, taxes to the church and the special privileges of the 1st and 2nd estates

Jean Bodin

This was the man who created the theory of sovereignty in which a state becomes sovereign by claiming a monopoly over the instruments of justice

Frederick William the Great Elector

This was the man who starting absolutism in Prussia by uniting the three provinces of Prussia under one ruler

Hohenzollerns

This was the royal dynasty of electors in Prussia

Liberty, Fraternity, Equality

This was the slogan (battlecry) of the French Revolution

Racial Theorists

Those who developed theories, which were based primarily on opinions, prejudices and non-scientific observation, to prove that one race was superior to another.

Indulgences

Through during indulgences you would be able to reduce a person's time in purgatory.

Still Inequality Between Urban and Rural

Through era still gap between rural and urban income, like other times. Also benefits enjoyed in terms of pensions, housing, travel and access to culture unequal. Farmers didn't suffer anything like violent impact of Soviet rule under Stalin, nevertheless collectives still demoralising.

Boycott

To abstain from or act together in abstaining from using, buying, or dealing with as an expression of protest or disfavor or as a means of coercion.

3 Types of Collective Farm

Toz - Peasants owned land but shared machinery. Sovkhoz - Owned and run by state, the peasants were paid a regular wage, similar to factory work. Kolkhoz - Land held in common, run by committee. Formed by 50-100 houses and their equipment put together. everything pooled other than 1 acre per household (most common under Stalin).

Romanov Family

Tsars of Russia from 1603 to the 1917 Russian Revolution

Battle of Lepanto

Turkish sea power was destroyed in 1571 by a league of Christian nations organized by the Pope

Northern German Confederation Political Structure

Two House Legislature: -Upper house: Bundesrat (nobles appointed by Emperor) -Lower house: Reichstag (elected)

Great Schism

Two popes ruled because one was thought to be invalid by some.

Pensées

Written by Pascal after his death, it described his feelings about keeping science and religion united and hoped to show that Christianity doesn't have to be contrary to reason.

Erasmus

Wrote "The Praise of Folly". This formulated and popularized the idea of reformation. It was able to engage in humorous, effective criticism.

new christians

a 14th century term for Jews and muslims who accepted Christianity; in many cases they included Christians whose families had converted centuries earlier;

conservatism

favorited obedience to political authority, religion being crucial to social order. resisted civil liberties and representative government.

Jean le Rond d'Alembert

fellow pessimistic philosophe to Voltaire who said "barbarism lasts for centuries; it seems that it is our natural element; reason and good taste are only passing"

political effects of the plague

feudal society

responses/ reactions to the plague

flagellants- whipped themselves as penance for their sins people abandoned their families went out and partied lived in moderation

causes of the spread of the plague

fleas bit rats that carried the plague, then fleas bit people

empiricism

formally introduced by Francis Bacon, it was the introduction of experiment into science and stated that knowledge can only derive from experience

Louis XVIII

french monarch who was restored to the throne by the allies after napoleon was defeated.

writing

gave Europeans ways to communicate and allowed for guidelines for exploration in the Americas

Rene Descartes

gifted mathematician who invented analytical geometry. His most important contribution was to develop a scientific method that relief more on deduction -- reasoning from general principle to arrive at specific facts -- than empirical observation and induction

why were the Italian city-states the birthplace of the renaissance

had a cultural advantage over the rest of Europe because of trade

spices

helped preserve food and made it taste better as well

inductive reasoning

idea of Francis Bacon that one may develop a theory or conclusion after several empirical observations

Line of Demarcation

imaginary line that divided new lands that were to be discovered between Portugal and Spain (lands east of the line would be Portuguese and lands west would be Spanish)

siglo de oro

the Spanish Golden Age: a period of flourishing in arts and literature in Spain, coinciding with the political rise and decline of the Spanish Hapsburg dynasty

Fertile Crescent

the area from which human civilization and farming first evolved (today known as the Middle East), its proximity to Europe caused the humans who migrated there to be more technologically advanced than those who moved to the Americas

rationalism

the belief that theories and knowledge should be based on reasoning and no only on emotional or spiritual beliefs

Atlantic slave trade

the capturing, movement across the Atlantic, and the selling of African slaves

fur- collar crime

the crime where bandits traveled around Europe and robbed all types of people, rich or poor

mercantilism

the economic theory that the world had only a fixed amount of wealth and to increase its own share, a country would have to take wealth away from another country; therefore, countries obtained imports (particularly raw goods) only from their colonies

Bartholomeu Dias

the first European to discover the Cape of Good Hope, which allowed for an all water trade route to Asia, worked for Portugal

Christopher Columbus

the first European to reach the Americas and opened them up for exploration and colonization, worked for Spain

Vasco de Gama

the first European to use an all water route to Asia by rounding the Cape of Good Hope, worked for Portugal

Copernican hypothesis

the idea that the sun, not the earth, was the center of the universe; this had enormous scientific and religious implications.

the Middle Passage

the journey from Africa to America from which slaves were traded (called this because it was the middle step in the slave trade)

Duke of Wallenstein

the military commander of the catholic armies during the first two phases of the 30 years war

The People's Will

the most radical of Russian revolutionary groups that dedicated itself to overthrowing Russian autocracy; killed Alexander II with a bomb on March 1, 1881

Danton

the newly appointed minister of justice who led the sans-culottes in revenge on those who had aided the king and resisted the popular will. stormed to bastille

Maria Theresa

the only female ruler over the Hapsburg empire. She limited the papacy's political influence in Austria, strengthened her central bureaucracy, and cautiously reduced the power that nobles had over their serfs. She was the mother of Marie Antoinette. She started her 40-year reign when her father, Emperor Charles VI, died.

Peace of Westphalia

the peace treaty that ended the Thirty Years' War in 1648

Babylonian Captivity

the pope moved to Avignon after being pressured to by French King Philip the Fair and this damaged the papal prestige

Counter-Reformation

the reaction of the Roman Catholic Church to the Reformation reaffirming the veneration of saints and the authority of the Pope (to which Protestants objected)

Gold

the riches that could be brought back for the glory of the country and the explorers, one of the three Gs

Old Regime

the social and political system in France where the people were divided into three social classes or estates. King is kidnapped in the destruction of this regime by hungry women demanding bread.

bourgeoisie

the social class between the lower and upper classes

the Cape of Good Hope

the southernmost tip of Africa, initially known as the Cape of Storms, discovered by Bartholomeu Dias, and used by Portugal to reach India

Gallican Liberties

the special rights of the French crown over the Church. It gave the French crown control over the appointment of bishops and deprived the pope of French ecclesiastical revenues.

Tabula Rasa

theory introduced by John Locke that argued all humans enter the world with a blank page. Personality is the product of the sensations that impinge on an individual from the eternal world through his/her life.

Geocentric Theory

theory that the universe revolves around the earth

heliocentric theory

theory that the universe revolves around the sun

Legislative assembly

this group declares france as a constitutional monarchy. electors chose a body of 745 representatives to be in the group. Lower classes and clergy are not happy. This group declares war on austria, fearing invasion and restoration of monarchy.

Alexander II of Russia main desire was

to restructure Russian society

why did some French nobles support the English?

to spoil the goals of the French crown so they could retain power

feminism (continental)

•Members: philosophical radicals, some socialists, women Advocated: •Social & economic equality •Better education •Reform in women's property & divorce laws •NOT fighting for political rights at this time

radicalism

•Members: working class leaders & industrial capitalists Advocated: •Find a government best for your people •Universal manhood suffrage Reform/reconstruct: •Criminal & civil law •Prison & poor relief •Municipal organization & rotten boroughs Opposed: •Conservatives

Long Term Effects

•Napoleon gains power • Napoleonic Code established • French public schools set up French conquests spread nationalism • Congress of Vienna convenes to restore stability to Europe • Revolutions occur elsewhere in Europe and in Latin America

John Stuart Mill

Liberalism spokesperson

Galileo

(1564-1642) An Italian who provided more evidence for heliocentrism and questioned if the heavens really were perfect. He invented a new telescope, studied the sky, and published what he discovered. Because his work provided evidence that the Bible was wrong he was arrested and ended up on house arrest for the rest of his life.

William Harvey

(1578-1657) An Englishman who used dissection to examine the circulation of blood throughout the body and how the heart worked as a pump. He insisted the heart and its valves were a piece of machinery that obeyed mechanical laws.

Cardinal Richelieu

(1585-1642) Minister to Louis XIII. His three point plan (1. Break the power of the nobility, 2. Humble the House of Austria, 3. Control the Protestants) helped to send France on the road to absolute monarchy.

English Poor Law

(1601) took care of really poor people and people who are unable to work to avoid destitution, but forced everyone else to work

Cardinal Mazarin

(1602-1661), Successor of Cardinal Richelieu and his bad attempts to increase royal revenue and the state led to the Fronde; ran the government while Louis XIV was still a child

Thirty Years War

(1618-1648 CE) War within the Holy Roman Empire between German Protestants and their allies (Sweden, Denmark, France) and the emperor and his ally, Spain; ended in 1648 after great destruction with Treaty of Westphalia.

Colbert

(1619-1683) Financial minister under the French king Louis XIV who promoted mercantilist policies.

Pierre Bayle

(1647-1706), skeptic, French Huguenot who found refuge in the Netherlands, examined religious persecutions and beliefs of the past in his Historical and Critical Dictionary, concluded that nothing can be known beyond all doubt, believed in open minded toleration

Voltaire

(1694-1778) French philosopher. He believed that freedom of speech was the best weapon against bad government. He also spoke out against the corruption of the French government, and the intolerance of the Catholic Church.

Rousseau

(1712-1778) Believed that society threatened natural rights and freedoms. Wrote about society's corruption caused by the revival of sciences and art instead of it's improvement. He was sponsored by the wealthy and participated in salons but often felt uncomfortable and denounced them. Wrote "The Social Contract."

Carlsbad Decrees

(1819) Repressive laws in the German states limiting freedom of speech and dissemination of liberal ideas in the universities in response to the Burschenschaften.

Zollverein

(1834). German Customs Union. It was coalition of German states formed to manage customs and economic policies within their territories. Established in 1818, the original cemented economic ties between the various Prussian and Hohenzollern territories

Alexander II's Emancipation Manifesto

(1861) Abolished serfdom against opposition from nobility and landlords. However, peasant's wouldn't receive free title to the land, and the situation won't be remedied until 45 years later.

Frederick William

(Hohenzollern family) The Great elector of Brandenburg- Prussia who brought his nation through the end of the Thirty Years' War and then succeeded in welding his lands into an absolutist state. Accomplished this by allowing his nobles or "junkers" to have complete control over their enserfed peasants in exchange for being able to collect taxes.

Conservative

(Political Spectrum) A person who believes in existing political institutions, values tradition, and favors less government involvement in social programs.

Radical

(Political Spectrum) A person who believes in extremely swift and major changes in existing institutions towards something not seen before.

Moderate

(Political Spectrum) A person who holds some liberal and conservative beliefs.

Reactionary

(Political Spectrum) A person who is extremely displeased with existing conditions and supports a return to earlier, more conservative ways.

Liberal

(Political Spectrum) a person who favors civil liberties, democratic reforms, and use of government power to promote social progress.

Giuseppe Garibaldi (the muscle/the sword)

(Young Italy Background) Threatened to attack France after Nice and Savoy was granted to them. Encouraged by Cavour to conquer the Two Sicilies with his 1000 "Red Shirts"; declared himself emperor under Emmanuel. Met Emmanuel "in the middle" to proclaim him King of Italy (1861). Cavour then blocked his march on to Rome.

DeChristianization

(extra term) A policy during the Republic of Virtue in which took "Saint off street names, Churches were pillaged and closed, new calendars started at 9/22/1792 with 10 day weeks. It wasn't a very supported policy, for the majority of France was already Catholic.

Trafalgar

(extra term) after this battle, Napoleon gives up on conquering great britain.

Grand Empire

(extra term) comprised of 3 parts, the french empire, dependent states, and allied states. Napoleon was the master of this empire.

Bourgeoisie

(extra term) educated, middle class of France; provided force behind the Revolution

Directory

A group of 5 men who were given control of France following the Reign of Terror; Napoleon was one of the 5 men

Index of Prohibited Books

A list of books that the Catholic Church prohibited people from reading. This list was approved by the Pope and all of Martin Luther's work ended up on it.

Industrial Revolution

A period of change from using hand methods to machine methods to produce goods as a result of: the Agricultural revolution and population explosion. It began in Great Britain because it had the: • Natural resources • Human resources • Capital & demand • Political & social conditions • technology

Rabbi

A person trained in Jewish law, ritual, and tradition and ordained for leadership of a Jewish congregation, especially one serving as chief religious official of a synagogue.

Republicanism

A philosophy of limited government with elected representatives serving at the will of the people. The government is based on consent of the governed.

Conservatism

A political and social philosophy that promotes the maintenance of traditional institutions and supports minimal and gradual change in society

Divine Right of Kings: Bishop Bossuet

A political doctrine that claimed that the King was God's messenger on earth and worked from God's will. Therefore, he is not subject to any authority on earth but can only be judged by God and can essentially do no wrong. No one can revolt against or restrict the king without being contrary to the will of God, or a sinner.

Tennis Court Oath

A promise made by the members of the National Assembly to stay together until they had written a constitution for France; this was the first deliberate act of the revolution (treason)

Giuseppe Mazzini

A radical idealistic patriot who wanted a centralized democratic republic based on universal male suffrage and will of the people in Italy

Danton, George

A radical supporter and close ally of Robespierre who was eventually declared a traitor; he was executed the guillotine

Marat, Jean-Paul

A radical supporter of the French Revolution who used his newspaper to demand more blood; he was eventually murdered

Romanticism

A response to the Enlightenment, it focused on emotion and intuitive response.

Fronde (1648-1653)

A series of violent uprisings during the early reign of Louis XIV triggered by growing royal control and increased taxation

Liberalism

A society or government policy where people enjoy various freedoms (US)

Ignatius of Loyola and the Jesuits

A spanish man who founded a group that worked to mass convert people to Catholicism through education.

Aryan

A term used by Hitler and the Nazi's to describe the German people as a superior race who descended from the Aryan's who inhabited Europe and India in Ancient times.

Peace of Augsburg

A treaty between Charles V and the German Protestant princes that granted legal recognition of Lutheranism in Germany.

Serfdom

A type of labor commonly used in feudal systems in which the laborers work the land in return for protection but they are bound to the land and are not allowed to leave or to pursue a new occupation. This was common in early Medieval Europe as well as in Russia until the mid 19th century.

Shakespeare

A very famous writer from the 1400s. He wrote plays such as "Hamlet" and "Romeo and Juliet".

War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713)

A war fought over the Spanish throne. Louis XIV wanted it for his grandson and fought a war against the Dutch, English, and the Holy Roman Empire to gain the throne for France. The Peace of Utrecht ended the war.

Hundred Years' War

A war over the monarchy between France and England.

Volk

A word for 'people' or 'nation'. Nationalist Germans used the term to exclude Jews, gypsies and other 'non-Aryan' people.

Peter the Great

Absolute Monarch who ruled over Russia between 1672-1725. He transformed Russian into a modernized empire. He created an educated Russian military and once he conquered the Balken Sea, created the first Russian Navy. Peter I nationalized industries within Russia and started trading. Also, he raised taxes, europeanized Russia with new dress and culture, and placed the church under government control. Built St. Petersburg and was head of the Russian Orthodox Church.

Absolute Monarchy

Absolute monarchy is a monarchical form of government in which the monarch exercises ultimate governing authority as head of state and head of government.

nationalism (western Europe)

Advocated: •Cultural nationalism: had own language, history & culture - wanted to perfect it •Political nationalism: preserve national culture, ensure liberty & justice for individual

humanitarianism

Advocated: •Universal •Kindness •Benevolence •Sympathy Opposed: •Maltreatment of working class •Subjugation of women •Colonialism

Schleswig War (War against Denmark)

After the King of Denmark attempted to annex Schleswig & Holstein, Bismarck drew Austria into an alliance to fight on the claim of liberating ethnic Germans from Danish control.

nationalism

All people derive their identities from their nations, which are defined by: •Common language •Shared cultural traditions & history •Religion (sometimes)

Utilitarianism

All the decisions made will be made for the greater good

Coercion Acts of 1817

Allowed those who advocated reform to be arrested and suspended habeas corpus

Triennial Act

An Act of Parliament reluctantly agreed to by Charles I (who said it reduced his sovereign powers) which stated that there had to be a parliament of at least 50 days duration every three years.

Overall Analysis Of Khrushchev's Reforms

Can't be that good - only leader to be fired from within. Decent short term, peak long term - was nicer than usual.

Acts of Uniformity and Supremacy

An Act of the Parliament of England, passed by Elizabeth I. The Act of Uniformity made Protestantism England's official faith, establish a uniform form of worship and re-established the use of the English Book of Common Prayer. The Act of Supremacy named Elizabeth I, the supreme governor of the Church

Metternich:

An Austrian foreign minister in the Congress of Vienna that opposed the formation of the United Germany because he wanted to be in control and keep the old order in tact

Sir Thomas More/Utopia

An account of the idealistic life of a community of Utopia.

Test Act

An act passed by British Parliament that required people who held civil and military positions to profess their faith in the Church of England. Was meant to make sure there were no Catholics (and other non-Anglicans, but mostly directed at Catholics) in positions of power.

Baroque

An artistic style of the seventeenth century characterized by complex forms, bold ornamentation, and contrasting elements

Capitalism

An economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by state

Mercantilism

An economic policy under which nations sought to increase their wealth and power by obtaining large amounts of gold and silver and by selling more goods than they bought

capitalism

An economic system based on private property and free enterprise; the driving force of the industrial age

Schutz-Staffel

An elite paramilitary group initially responsible for security at Nazi Party meetings, they became the main security unit for Hitler and were responsible for most of the human rights abuses carried out by the Nazi's. They were held up as the primary example of Aryan superiority as members had to fit the Aryan racial profile.

Balance of Power

An international relations concept that applies historically and currently to the nations of Europe. For example: To maintain the balance of power, the English made alliances with other states—including Portugal, the Ottoman Empire, and the Netherlands—to counter any threats.

Virgin Land Scheme Evaluation

Approach to using virgin land flawed. Land over used with little attention to crop rotation. Meant reduced soil fertility. Soil erosion not dealt with which is big problem in arid area, close to central Asian desert and prone to wind storms. Overall, Khrushchev wanted it to happen speedily and as a result he cut corners - in long term productivity, production fell especially in 1963. Many historians believe this failure was main reason in his downfall in 1964.

Edmund Burke

Argued that political parties were essential to the strength of a parliamentary government

Union of Arras and Utrecht

Arras: An accord signed that said the southern States of the Netherlands were loyal to the Spanish king Phillip II Utrecht:Treaty signed in reaction to Arras that unified the provinces of the Netherlands and

Diet of Worms

Assembly of the estates of the empire, called by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in 1521. Luther was ordered to recant but he refused. Charles V declared Luther an outlaw.

Klemens von Metternich

Austria's rep at the Congress of Vienna; influential conservative Austrian prince who distrusted democracy and had plans to restore Europe to pre-FR

Quadruple Alliance

Austria, England, Prussia, and Russia align against Napoleon. England was aligned with them only versus Napoleon, Russia vs. everyone.

Maria Theresa

Austrian Empress whose Enlightened reforms took some burdens off of the serf population; strengthened monarchial power by replacing local governments with state-run departments; conservative Catholic

Benedek:

Austrian general of Hungarian descent, best known for commanding the imperial army in 1866 in the Battle of Koniggratz against the Prussian army.

Klemens Von Metternich

Austrian representative, very conservative, pulled the strings behind the Congress of Vienna

Joseph II

Austrian ruler who emboded rational and impersonal force. He was much less a political opportunist than other Enlightened Despots and genuinely wished to improve the lives of the Austria people. He attempted this through the centralization of authority, ecclesiastical policies favoring secular power over the church, and economic and agrarian reform to stimulate economy.

Baruch Spinoza

Believed that God had no existence apart from the world, that everything was itself an aspect of God.

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan

Believes that humans were naturally selfish and wicked, and governments were needed to keep order and rulers needs absolute power to keep citizens under control.

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

Catherine de'Medici marries her daughter to Henri of Navarre and Huguenots from all over France came to Paris to celebrate the wedding. After being pressured by her advisors (Catholic nobles) that they came to take over the throne, Catherine ordered the murder of all the Huguenots (Calvinist Protestants) in Paris. Almost all of the Protestant nobles were slaughtered

Focus on Religion

Difference Between Times for Peasants. 1856 bonds of religion far greater, in 1964 influence of political ideology greater. Illiteracy and superstition characterised peasant life much more under Tsars.

Two Models for German Unification

Big Germany "grossdeutschland" (united by language, including Austria) & Small Germany "kleindeutschland" (excludes Austria)

Bismarck & Socialism:

Bismarck outlawed Socialist organizations and parties, but this only unified the Socialists even more. Then, he abandoned his attacks on socialists and passed legislation to better workers' lives.

Bismarck & Liberalism

Bismarck promoted industrialization and a free-market economy to attract liberals. His anti-catholic policies also appealed to anticlerical liberals.

Bismarck:

Bismarck was Prussia's representative to the Diet of the German confederation and watched Austria closely at the same time. He played a big role in history of Prussia during the mid 1800s in his determination to increase the power of the Prussian state. Made up politics of realism (Realpolitik) because he men of 1848 had become to idealistic and unworldly.

Kulturkampf

Bismarck's cultural struggle against the Catholics: -issued state controls on Catholic schools, seminaries, and marriages -united Catholics even more; Bismarck feared succession -ended Kulturkampf with a concordat with the Church, establishing their rights

How was philosophy similar between the Italian Renaissance and the northern Renaissance?

Both believed in the power of education, individualism, and cultivated knowledge of the Classics, scriptures, and writings from early Christianity.

How was art similar between the Italian Renaissance and the northern Renaissance?

Both imitated nature through emotional intensity through religious scenes.

How was literature similar between the Italian Renaissance and the northern Renaissance?

Both standards of literature portrayed the belief that it was an individual's duty to participate in their community and ascend toward union with God

Charles X

Bourbon King of France. He was restored to power by the Congress of Vienna. His conservative actions prompted his overthrow in 1830.

France's chief Foreign Policy goal

Break out of the Habsburg prison

Lord Castlereagh

Britain's rep at the Congress of Vienna

Robert Walpole

British Chancellor of the Exchenquer (Prime Minister) from 1721-1741; ran English government with support from Parliament, especially the House of Commons (lower house)

Isaac Newton

British scientist who defined the laws of motion, discovered gravity, experimented with optics, invented differential calculus and wrote "Principia"

Great Northern War

Broke out as Peter attacked Sweden(with assistance from Poland and Denmark) in his quest to establish a Russian trading port on the Baltic. After being routed initially, Peter re-organized his army on the western model and eventually gained Estonia, Livonia, and Karella on the Baltic. War is decided with the Battle of Poltava, but ends with the Peace of Mystadt in 1721. Sweden becomes a second-rate power after the war.

St. Petersburg

Built by Peter the Great of Russia to attract europeans and to get warm water ports. He made it his capital

Second effect of Industrial Revolution

Business Model - sell shores in their company * Corportations - integrated businesses -> "Vertical Integration" -> Corporate growth * Monopoly -> Capital ($) -> (-) eliminate competition

Impact Of Stalin's Collectivisation On Peasants

By Feb 1930 party claimed half peasant households collectivised - success. But reality was disaster. Most enterprising peasants (kulaks) shot/deported, 25-30% of all cattle, pigs, sheep killed, food shortages. High resistance. The unrest made Stalin backtrack. He wrote an article in Pravda, March 1930 saying his officials had moved too fast and 'dizzy with success' - correct. Young, militant urban activists got carried away competing to make more collectives and deport more kulaks. Central gov had little control over what was happening in provinces. Stalin called for return to voluntary principle and end to coercion. Given the choice huge number of peasants abandoned new collective farms and went back to their own farming. But once harvest gathered in, Stalin restarted just as viciously. By end of 1931 peasants forced back. Led to famine of 1932-34.

Council of Trent

Called by Pope Paul III to reform the church and secure reconciliation with the Protestants. Lutherans and Calvinists did not attend.

Pope Paul III

Called for a general Christian meeting to discuss differences created during the Protestant and Catholic Reformations.

predestination

Calvin's doctrine that God has decided all things beforehand, including which people will be eternally saved

Huguenots

Calvinist in France that faced much religious persecution.

Religious cause of the 30 Years' War

Calvinists vs. Catholics vs. Lutherans

Mary Queen of Scots

Catholic relative to Protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England. She was supposed to be the heir to the English throne, but Elizabeth had recently created a Protestant england, and did not want her cousin to return it to Catholicism. Mary had allegedly planned to overthrow Elizabeth and reassert Catholicism in England. Elizabeth found this out and had her beheaded. Her son, James, became the heir to throne.

What groups were considered enemies of Germany under Bismarck?

Catholics, Socialists, & Liberals, because he wanted to make people see themselves as Germans first and foremost as opposed to their views that went beyond Germany

Riots

Cause of Agrarian Reform Under Stolypin. At last major wave of unrest (1861 - 63) there'd been 1100 - 7000 outbreaks 1905-07. Major rural unrest common feature but more sig by 1905 and accompanied by major urban revolts - unprecedented in 1856 times (remained in countryside then).

Intelligentsia

Cause of Agrarian Reform Under Stolypin. Calls for agrarian reform - radical intelligentsia (1856) and Socialist Revolutionary Party (1905).

Productivity

Cause of Agrarian Reform Under Stolypin. In both cases (parallel to changes in 1856) not only did violent disturbance but also a concern to increase productivity and to use agriculture as a basis for industrial and military growth acted as a motive for change.

War

Cause of Agrarian Reform Under Stolypin. This time against Japan 1904-05, had once again revealed weaknesses and stirred up existing discontent in a similar way to 1856 (E of S).

Reform

Cause of Agrarian Reform Under Stolypin. Witte and Stolypin prepared to take reforming lead - tsar more reluctant. The reforms fell short of total political change - Alexander II didn't go as far as national parliament, Nicholas II set up parliament but very restricted. Neither case did peasants get chance for political expressions.

Test Act of 1673

Charles II's Parliament said that only Anglicans could hold military and civil offices

shift from medieval government to centralized government: France

Charles VII revived the monarchy; he reorganized the royal council and strengthened royal finances and created the first permanent royal army

Moltke:

Chief of the Prussian General Staff, he was a military strategist of genius. Revolutionized military thinking in 3 different ways: new command structures for larger armies, carefully planned the effectiveness of transporting soldiers through the railway and telegraph, finally he realized that rapid military advancements in technology would change battlefield tactics.

Reconquista of Spain

Christian efforts made following the Crusades to take over Muslim lands and drive them out of Spain.

How was literature different between the Italian Renaissance and the northern Renaissance?

Christian humanist literacy believed that the concepts of Christianity ought to be philosophies for individual everyday life, rather than following in the corruption of the church heresy/papacy. Northern humanists sought cooperation and reason over power and fame. Pantheism: theory of heavenliness being found in all aspects of nature Neoplatonism: hierarchy of substances and theory of spiritual love

Reconquista

Christian kingdoms were able to regain control of parts of Spain.

Ignatius Loyola

Commitment under Jesus

Non-Secular

Concerned with religious beliefs, ideas or rules.

Ivan IV (the Terrible)

Confirmed power of tsarist autocracy by attacking the authority of the boyars; continued policy of expansion; established contacts with western European commerce and culture.

Defenestration of Prague

Conflict in which the Protestant- Bohemians revolted against the Holy Roman Empire in Prague. Two officials were thrown out of windows and when they survived it was considered an act of God. This conflict kicked off the Thirty Years War.

Benjamin Disraeli

Conservative British Prime Minister (respected by Queen Victoria) -first and only man of jewish heritage to be appointed prime minister in England -believed in the strong "Greater England" foreign policy

Tories

Conservative English party during the 18th century; support of the monarchy and the Church of England

Tories

Conservative colonials who support British and divine right.

Johann Gottlieb Fichte

Considered to be the father of German nationalism, he believed the Germans were superior over all countries.

Da Gama

Crossed through the Arabian sea to make it to India.

Brahe, Tycho

Danish nobleman known for his accurate and comprehensive astronomical and planetary observations astronomer, astrologer and alchemist, and has been described more recently as "the first competent mind in modern astronomy to feel ardently the passion for exact empirical facts."

July 14 1789

Date of Storming of Bastille. write in the form of Month Date Year (no comma, with spaces)

Twenty Five Thousanders

Despite local parties being against local collectivisation, Stalin sent out an army of 25,000 backed by local police and the OGPU (secret police) to find kulaks and demand peasants to sign off on being enlisted to collective farms. The goods taken from kulaks set as a basis of the new farms.

Diet and Edict of Worms

Diet in which Luther appeared to defend his new Protestant religion before Charles V. Edict=When Charles V exiled or outlawed Luther from The Holy Roman Empire or any of it's other lands.

Hope For The Future

Difference Between Times for Peasants. Sadly, under Tsars there was some hope of a better life, looked like it was improving. But, by 1964 the failure of only leader of peasant origin, prospect of nuclear war, continuation of Communist rule and degradation of traditional religious life there was barely any hope for the peasants in a country centred around technology, growth and urbanisation.

James I of England

Divine right of kings, absolutist, Abandons the parliament, and alienates the puritans

marxism

Economics is driving force behind history, which is a series of class struggles. Believed every antithesis is rooted in economics whereby the proletariat wants something bourgeoisie has (influenced by Hegel).

shift from medieval government to centralized government: england

Edward IV, his brother Richard III, and Henry VII worked to restore royal prestige, used methods similar to machiavelli

Measures by Stolypin to Subdue Peasant Unrest

Ended Redemption Dues (1903). No peasant passports, seen as citizens for first time (1905). Imperial Land Decree of November 1906 became full law in 1910. Mir members could demand legal title to be transferred to them and could consolidate strips into one holding - consolidation of land helped peasants and productivity - could also now pass land to their heirs. Mirs who hasn't re-divided holdings since 1861 dissolved and land redistributed to the farmers. Head of household now owned land. 2.8/12 million converted titles to private ownership (but lands still couldn't be sold to anyone other than peasants and couldn't be mortgaged). Created wealthier class of peasant - kulaks who were made to like the tsar and increase productivity - not subsistence. Power of Land Captains reduced. Peasant Land Bank extended in 1905-06. Crop area of Siberia/Kazakhstan doubled 12-24 million acres 1906-14.

Robert Owen

English (utopian) socialist spokesperson. Society corrupts people. Believed a humane industrial environment and making a good profit was compatible as shown by New Lanark. Helped organize Grand National Union (encourage labor unions + want child labor laws)

Glorious Revolution

English Civil War between the Tories (Royalists- the king) and the Whigs (Parliamentarians) in which Mary and William of Orange of Scotland are asked to rule England by the parliament, but are forced to accept limitations to their power (Constitutional Monarchy), A reference to the political events of 1688-1689, when James II abdicated his throne and was replaced by his daughter Mary and her husband, Prince William of Orange.

Whigs

English Liberal party during the 18th century; supported limited monarchy and religious tolerance

Edmund Burke

English conservatism spokesperson. In his "Reflections on the Revolution in France", he condemned the reconstruction of French administration as blind rationalism. He predicted further turmoil as people without political experience tried to govern France and the deaths of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette as well as the revolution ending in military despotism.

John Stuart Mill, Harriet Taylor

English feminism spokespersons

Henry VIII

English king who created the Church of England after the Pope refused to annul his marriage (divorce with Church approval)

Oliver Cromwell

English military, political, and religious figure who led the Parliamentarian victory in the English Civil War (1642-1649) and called for the execution of Charles I. As lord protector of England (1653-1658) he ruled as a virtual dictator.

John Locke

English philosophe who was a defender of moderate liberty and toleration. He related the relationship between ruler and ruled to a patriarchal model of a family and an authority of the state which attempted to sort out problems rather than impose their will. Government should exist to preserve property, not to make religious decisions for its people. His psychology suggested the possibility of improving the human condition and rejected the christian doctrine that sin permanently flawed human beings. In fact, his thoughts implied that human beings need not wait for the grace of god or other divine aid to better their lives, they can take charge of their own destiny

Sir Robert Walpole

Englishman and Whig statesman who (under George I) was effectively the first British prime minister (1676-1745)

Thomas Malthus

Englishman who "Essay on the Principle of Population (1798)" influenced 19th century economic thinking. He believed there was poverty and misery because the population growth (exponential) was outstripping the growth of the food supply (linear).

Joseph II

Enlightened Absolutism who ruled Austria from 1765-1790; weakened the Catholic Church by giving Calvinists, Lutherans, and Jews freedom of worship; abolished serfdom; taxed the nobility; equality before the law; abolished the death penalty Reforms unpopular with the church and the nobility and were overturned by successor Leopold II

Pugachev Rebellion

Eugene Pugachev, a Cossack soldier, led a huge serf uprising-demanded end to serfdom, taxes and army service; landlords and officials murdered all over southwestern Russia; eventually captured and executed

the Old World

Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Middle East

Portugal

European nation that initially was at a disadvantage in trade because of its position, but went on to dominate exploration and trade with Asia

Concert of Europe

European powers working together to solve disputes, starting with the Congress of Vienna

animals

Europeans had access to kinds of ______ which could be used for labor, while the Native Americans did not; also, exposure to animals gave Europeans immunity to the diseases that came from them, while Indians did not

God

Europeans wanted to spread Christianity and convert the native people of the New World. Also, missionaries played an important role in colonies, as they prevented mistreatment of the Indians, one of the three Gs

Excommunication

Exclude from participation in the Church

Austria

Hoping to spread their revolutionary ideas, France voted to declare war on this country

Why Stalin Collectivised

Experts could use machinery and teach peasants to farm more efficiently - supplied tractors and other machinery through MTS - used metal ploughs/fertilisers under exports. Net result - higher food production. Mechanised agri required fewer peasants - would release labour for new industries. Much easier for state to procure grain it needed for cities and for export. Each farm also had Communist supporters to keep track of what had been produced.

Locke, John: Two Treatises of Government

Expressed the beliefs that people were naturally good and would help each other when left on their own. This document states that the power should therefore lie in the people and they should chose their government to represent them- the first ideas of democracy

Limitations of Stolypin's Reforms

Favoured state peasants to get state loans and money off expanding urban market. Large estates still getting profit of market food not little farmers - not great, Political power of peasants restricted by less liberal Duma. Continuing rural unrest - growth of Socialist Revolutionaries.

James II (1685-1688)

Final Stuart ruler who was Catholic and pushed for return to absolutism; he was forced to abdicate in favor of William and Mary, who agreed to the Bill of Rights, guaranteeing parliamentary supremacy.

Glory

Finding new lands would bring honor and fame to explorers who found them and the countries who sponsored them, one of the three Gs

Anglicanism

Form of Protestantism established by King Henry VIII in the form of the Church of England

Anglican Church

Form of Protestantism set up in England after 1534; established by Henry VIII with himself as head, at least in part to obtain a divorce from his first wife; became increasingly Protestant following Henry's death

Anabaptism

Form of Protestantism. Believe in adult baptism

French and Indian War

Fought between France and Britain over dominance in the American colonies; Treaty of Paris gave Britain formally French land (including colonies in India, Canada) and some land to the Spanish

Magellan

Found a straight through the bottom of South America. He made it to the Pacific and the Philippines.

Congress of Vienna

Four powers meat after Napoleon's fall, and agree that no one should be able to take over Europe and outline protocol for future international relations.

Talleyrand

France's rep at the Congress of Vienna

Prussia after Frankfurt

Frederick William IV allows for establishment of parliament. William I gains the throne after his death. After parliament refused his new military budget, William I appointed Otto Von Bismarck as his new Prime Minister.

Zollverein

Free-trade zone amongst German states with uniform tariff on foreign goods (excludes Austria). Liberalism on the rise resented Prussian dominance of the trade zone and Austrian influence in the region

Huguenots

French Protestants influenced by John Calvin

Bazaine:

French emperor that was courageous but not a good strategist during Franco Prussian war. (1870-1871). Eventually Napoleon III and his 100,000 troops surrendered because of this bad campaign

George Sand

French feminism spokesperson (pseudonym)

outcome of Hundred Years War

French gained all of their territory back except Calais

Shelling of Paris

French hold out until Jan. 1871 (realpolitik in action)

Louis XIII

French king who succeeded Henry IV when he was nine years old; his reign was dominated by the influence by his mother and regent Marie de Medici, Cardinal Richelieu, and wealthy nobles.

Napoleon I:

French military and political leader during the latter stages of the French Revolution. Emperor of the French from 1804-1815. His legal form, the Napoleonic code, has been a major influence on civil law. Napoleonic Wars: he established hegemony over most of the continental Europe and sought to spread the ideals of the French Revolution while consolidating an imperial monarchy.

Montesquieu

French political philosopher who advocated the separation of executive and legislative and judicial powers (1689-1755)

Marat

French revolutionary leader (born in Switzerland) who was a leader in overthrowing the Girondists and was stabbed to death in his bath. Published Radical Journal (Friend of the People)

Blaise Pascal

French scientist who wanted to keep science and religion together. He had a mystical experience and from then on sought to convert rationalists to Christian religion, which he was determined to show did not conflict with reason

Charles Fourier

French socialist spokesperson and counterpart to Owen. Believed the industrial order ignored the PASSIONATE side of human beings. Social discipline ignored all the pleasures that human beings naturally seek. Tried to solve problem of BOREDOM.

Count Henri de Saint Simon

French socialist spokesperson. Not the redistribution of wealth, but its management by experts, would alleviate the poverty and social dislocation of the age.

Louis Blanc

French socialist spokesperson. Political reform that would give the vote to the working class so they could vote on stuff to their own economic advantage (they are majority). A working-class electorate would finance workshops (replacing private enterprise) to employ the poor and eventually industry would be organized to ensure jobs for majority.

Anti-Semitism

Hostility toward or prejudice against Jews or Judaism. Discrimination against Jews.

Rhineland:

Gave Prussia an advantage as they cover German states and closer to France

Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainardji

Gave russia the Crimean peninsula which was significant in that it gave Catherine warm water port access. In addition, it made Russia the protectors of Orthodox Christians living in the Ottoman Empire.

Giuseppe Mazzini (the heart)

Genoese man that founded the Young Italy (romantic republic nationalist organization). Led unsuccessful attempts to siege both Sardinia and Rome, but raised hope of the Risorgimento (Italian Resurgence) as a national republic at the sake of those who wanted a constitutional monarchy

Burschenschaften

German nationalist student society, often anti-Semitic and xenophobic, who proposed unification and democratic principles

battle of White Mountain

Great Catholic victory in the Bohemian phase which dealt a crushing blow to Fredrick V's power.

Galen

Greek anatomist whose theories formed the basis of European medicine until the Renaissance (circa 130-200)

Sans-culottes

Group of poor radical workers, led by Georges Danton. sought revenge on those who aided the king.

Ferdinand III (r. 1637-1657)

Habsburg Emperor who centralized the gov't authority over Habsburg lands Increased the size of the imperial army, making it more professional

Hus, Jan

Had the same ideas about the Catholic Church as John Wycliff and Martin Luther, however his ideas (like John Wycliff's) were unable to spread much before the Catholic Church silenced him (no printing press). He was burnt at the stake for being a heretic.

Alexander II's Army Reform

He lowered the usual 25 year enlistment period into 6 years of active duty and 9 in reserves

Louis XIV of France

He ruled through absolutism and believed in divine right. He was the "Sun King" because he reigned from 1643-1715, the longest in European history. He restored the Palace of Versailles. He revoked the Edict of Nantes because he did like division within his realm. He carried out the expansionist policy to the full extent. He was at war 33 of his 54-year personal rule. Believed in absolute monarchy. He ruled absolutely. Controlled the nobles at his palace.

Why did Bismarck provoke war with France?

He wanted all parts of Germany to become united against a common enemy.

Henry VIII (England)

He was King of England and had multiple wives. These either died, were killed, or were divorced. He only had one male heir which ended up dying so his daughters became Queen of England.

Thomas More

He was a English humanist that contributed to the world today by revealing the complexities of man. He wrote Utopia, a book that represented a revolutionary view of society.

Luther

He was a very religious man who confessed all of his sins. He also started a religious reformation through posting his Ninety-Five Theses.

Oliver Cromwell

He was an English military and political leader who overthrew the English monarchy and temporarily turned England into a republican Commonwealth. He led the Parliamentarian victory in the English Civil War and is considered a very controversial figure in history. Some see him as a hero, while others see him as a destructive tyrant.

Columbus

He was sent by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain to go sail West and find a new way to India. He landed in the Americas instead.

Henry VII (England)

He was the first Tudor King and established a strong monarchical government. He used diplomacy to avoid wars which overall made him a successful King.

Louis XVI

He was the king of France at the start of the revolution; he was weak and indecisive

Petrarch

He wrote sonnets inspired by his love for a married woman named Laura. He is known as the father of Italian Renaissance humanism. He took up a literary career despite what his father wanted him to do.

Reparations:

Heavy costs to France:5 billion francs in reparations after war

Sturm Abteilling

Hitler's private army. Also known as the Brownshirts or Storm Troopers. They were to protect Hitler from political attacks and played a key role in Hitler's rise to power in the 1920's.

Ferdinand II

Holy Roman Emperor and king of Bohemia and Hungary who waged war against Protestant forces (1578-1637)

Charles V

Holy Roman Emperor and the most powerful ruler in sixteenth-century Europe; he reigned over the low countries, Spain's Italian and new world dominions, and the Austrian-Hapsburg lands. (hapsburg ruler)

Dekulakisation

How collectivisation was carried out. Force, terror, propaganda. Used 'class enemy' ideology as mechanism to achieve his ends - enemy = kulaks. December 1929 = liquidation of kulaks as a class. Aim of it is to scare middle and poor peasants into joining the kolkhozes. But civilians often unwilling to snake kulaks - ties to other peasants, even un-liked kulaks, stronger than ties to Communist state. Also, kulaks killed/sold/burnt their livestock, grain, homes, possessions to blend in with ordinary peasants.

John Locke, Second Treatise of Government

Humans have the right to life, liberty and property and government was to protect those rights. Rejected "Divine Right" and believed in a social contract

Fall of the Bastille

Hundreds of hungry people stormed the prison in search of gunpowder to save Paris and the National Assembly; this was the symbolic start of the revolution

utiliarianism

ISM advocating greatest good for the greatest number

laissez-faire

Idea that the government should play as small a role as possible in the economy "hands-off" and let the "free hand" of supply/demand drive the market. associated with capitalism

Results of NEP

Immediately the change could do little to offset the effects of a terrible drought which led to famine on an unprecedented scale, but 1922 saw a turning point. Stats indicate progress. Acreage sown increased from 192 million acres in 1922 to 291 million acres by 1929. There were modest increases in livestock numbers. Peasant cooperatives grew from 14-18 million members indicating greater efficiency in marketing, using machinery. The years 1923-26 saw quite high increases in the rate of grain production over the low point 1921-22. Enterprising farmers were allowed to lease land and hire labour more freely and there is evidence of more scientific knowledge being applied.

Edict of Restitution

Imperial law that prohibited all Calvinist worship and restored Catholic ownership of land stolen by the Protestant Princes of the Reformation.

7 Years War

In Europe, the 7 year was was fought between an alliance of France, Russia, Sweden, Austria and Saxony against Prussia, Hanover and Great Britain from 1756-63. This war had an international element due to the French and British fighting for land in the New World - known as the French-Indian Wars.

Rural Work

In both time periods peasants worked ruthlessly hard in the harsh Russian conditions, however, the state regulation of how peasants could farm under the Communists meant conditions were worse as if they didn't meet quotas they were liable to severe punishments.

Stalin's Overall Aim For Peasants

In mid-1929 5% of peasants on collective/state farms. Stalin announced 25% to be on by end of the year - huge increase wanted.

Rural Housing

In terms of rural housing, when comparing the two time periods it is clear that the fact little was done to aid improvements under both Tsars and Communists it was consistently poor throughout for the peasants.

Enlightened Absolutism

Incorporation of Enlightenment ideas (such as religious toleration, freedom of speech) into monarchial practices; often used to enhance the ruler's own power by limiting the power of the church and the nobility

Successes of Stolypin's Reforms

Increase in production of 27% between late 1890s and 1909-13. Russia became leading world grain exporter. Agricultural prices rose which provided incentives for growth while the wages of hired labourers rose at a higher rate - encouraging a greater rural market Growing use of farm machinery grew from 13 million roubles in value in 1900 to 60 million in 1913. The census of 1910 found a big increase in iron ploughs in place of the less effective wooden ploughs. Significant reduction in illiteracy. 51% of men could read and were in 1897 and 82% in 1920 (the figures for women are lower at 22 and 47%). This somewhat neglected figure may show one of the greatest changes EVER in rural Russia.

Calicut

Indian city, which Vasco de Gama reached, and from which the first Portuguese-Indian trade was conducted

Peace of Augsburg

Initiated by King Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire. It stated that the individual princes of the Holy Roman Empire could decide weather they wanted to be catholic or Lutheranism. Their decision dictated the religion of the people in their lands. Therefore, people could only be either lutheranism or catholic and they had to follow what their prince decided, or move to new land. This "law" created temporary peace within the H.R.E., but led to some unrest because it excluded calvinism.

30 Years War

Initiated due to the Peace of Ausburg leaving out the Calvinists in their ruling. War occurred in four stages: The Bohemian Period, Danish Period, Swedish Period and the French Period. The Peace of Westphalia ended the thirty year war.

Congress System

International meetings with European powers between 1818-1822

Robert Boyle

Irish chemist who established that air has weight and whose definitions of chemical elements and chemical reactions helped to dissociate chemistry from alchemy (1627-1691)

What was the major issue during Gladstone's ministry?

Irish nationalists seeking home rule for Ireland

According to Bismarck, what would unify Germany and assert Prussian dominance?

Iron & Blood

Pragmatic Sanction

Issued by Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI and signed by other European states; allowed Charles's daughter Maria Theresa to rule Hapsburg lands since Charles had no male heir

Cesare Beccaria

Italian aristocrat and philosophe who published "On Crimes and Punishments" in 1764 in which he applied critical analysis to the problem of making punishments both effective and just. He wanted the laws of monarchs and legislatures to conform with the rational laws of nature. The purpose of laws was not to impose the will of God or some other ideal of perfection,but to secure the greatest good or happiness for the greatest number of human beings.

Marco Polo

Italian explorer who reached China and influenced the Renaissance view of exploration

legislation

Liberalism advocated change through ___________, NOT revolution.

Cesare Beccaria

Italian humanitarianism spokesperson. "On Crimes and Punishments" - punishment should fit crime. Advocated speedy, fair, public trial. Opposed torture + unusual punishment. Punishment should be for the good of all - so they won't commit crime again.

renaissance art

Italian renaissance: used many new techniques such as blurring lines, and tempura paints northern renaissance: focused more on religion, was more house- things like furniture and tapestries

Describe Italy before unification.

Italy was broken up into separate states, mostly under foreign control (esp. Austria, Bourbon, and the Papal States)

Ivan III (the Great)

Ivan III, was the Grand Duke of Moscow, ended Mongol domination of his dukedom, extended territories, subdued nobles, and attained absolute power; made Moscow the center of a new Russian state with a central government

Radical Revolution

Jacobins and all that were under Robespierre wanted change in the french government so they rebelled

Utilitarianism

Jeremy Bentham's concept of utility, meaning the greatest good for the greatest number of people as applied to government

Louis Phillippe

July monarchy, claimed to be "King of the French" rather than the King of France. Didn't really fix much

Large Scale Cultivation

Khrushchev's agricultural reforms, success or failure? Scale of cultivation exceeded anything Tsars could imagine but was based on inadequate knowledge. Investment needed in transport but went into Virgin Lands which boosted short term production but not in long term. In 1956, the Kazakh harvest yielded impressive 16 million tons but was not success he hoped for. Huge investments needed in infrastructure and soil not good enough for sustained good harvests. 1963 - harvest failure in Kazakhstan, in longer term was some recovery but his enemies saw bad harvests as failure.

Khrushchev's Peasantry Roots

Khrushchev's agricultural reforms, success or failure? Unlike other rulers, he sympathised for farmers - visited them. Standard of living improved but not to extent he wanted (4 bed homes didn't appear and roads still not great). Procurement prices and peasant consumption of consumer goods rose due to state effort. This is slightly similar to pre-WW1 Russia. However, Khrushchev links to Slain era with his belief in central planning and 'big ideas'. Like Stalin's Forestation plans, Khrushchev believed in large-scale schemes as well (Virgin Land).

English Bill of Rights (1689)

King William and Queen Mary accepted this document. It guaranteed certain rights to English citizens and declared that elections for Parliament would happen frequently. By accepting this document, they supported a limited monarchy, a system in which they shared their power with Parliament and the people.

Henry VIII

King of England who broke away from the Catholic Church so that he could divorce his wife and marry Anne Boleyn who eventually had Elizabeth I

Phillip II

King of Spain, 1556 - 1598; married to Queen Mary I of England;he was the most powerful monarch in Europe until 1588; controlled Spain, the Netherlands, the Spanish colonies in the New World, Portugal, Brazil, parts of Africa, parts of India, and the East Indies.

Impacts of Lenin's Land Decree/War Communism

Land Decree very unpopular - smaller land holdings (43% under 5.4 acres, 72% under 10.8 acres), most households had little livestock (60% only one house). The unrest of the peasants clear! Due to backward nature of production and deaths of horses in war, new agricultural machinery disastrous for food supply. This led to a need to grain requisition so they could win civil war - confiscated food, fixed prices, controlled trade conscripted peasants. Class war erupted as peasants were left poor, starving and vulnerable. By 1921 crop area fallen by 20% of the 1917 level/ Armed units of up to 45,000 men were battling with hoarding peasants for supplies as regular market distribution had failed. Lenin made collective farms in Nov 1918 - 2975 set up from 1918-19. By 1921 600,000/100 million peasants worked on collectives.

Navigation Acts

Laws that governed trade between England and its colonies. Colonists were required to ship certain products exclusively to England. These acts made colonists very angry because they were forbidden from trading with other countries.

Gustavus Adolphus II

Lead Sweden throughout the 30 Years War, working to make it a political european power. His reign started in 1611 and ended in 1632. Ruled in many of the same ways as Peter the Great of Russia.

Kaiser Wilhelm I:

Lead the new era of Liberal Dreams (after 1862), however he was not imaginative nor progressive. The army was his life and love. He wanted the army to be a completely separate part of society made of aristocrats. Weak compared to Bismarck

Stenka Razin

Leader of the 1667 rebellion that promised Russian peasants liberation from noble landowners and officials; he was captured by the tsar's army in 1671 and publicly executed in Moscow

Schmalkald League

League of German Lutheran princes allied to resist the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V

Confederation of the Rhine

League of German States organized by Napoleon in 1813 after defeating the Austrians. The league collapsed after Napoleon's defeat in Moscow, Russia.

The 1917 November Land Decree

Lenin believed peasants needed complete freedom in their farming (then went against this with grain requisitioning). Private property in land abolished. Land could not be sold or leased. Was to be a massive reserve of land from which farmers were entitled to a snare provided they farmed the land themselves. Form of land tenure was to depend on the peasants themselves, and so varied from area to area. So peasants farmed the land but didn't own it - land was property of the people and in a people's state meant it was administered for people by state (not very Communist).

William Gladstone

Liberal British Prime Minister (Queen Victoria was not a fan of him) -active legislator and reformer (known for his speeches), esp. on the Irish Question -Supported the "Little England" foreign policy

Luther, Martin and Lutheranism

Martin Luther was a German Monk who wanted to reform the Catholic church. His ideas spread quickly because of the printing press. After many debates, Luther realized that a reform of the Catholic church was not possible, so he broke away from the church. Luther created his own religion-Lutheranism. Lutheranism believes in infant baptism, going back to the bible and holding it as the supreme authority. Also, that things within the church should be plain and simple, and the eucharist is both symbolic and in a way part of transubstantiation.

justification by faith

Martin Luther's concept that faith alone is enough to bring salvation

Mary Tudor

Mary "Bloody Mary" Tudor was Henry VIII's daughter and second in line to his throne. She was the wife of Philip II of Spain and she restored Roman Catholicism to England. She acquired the name "Bloody Mary" because of all the Protestants she had killed and burned at the stake as heretics. She could not produce a child to be heir to the thrown, so her sister, Elizabeth I became queen when Mary died.

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

Mass slaying of Huguenots (Calvinists) in Paris, on Saint Bartholomew's Day, 1572.

Principle of Legitimacy

Meant that lawful monarchs from the royal families that had ruled before Napoleon would be restored to their positions of power in order to keep peace and stability in Europe. This was part of Metternich's conservative order.

Petterloo Massacre 1819

Meetings in St. Peter's Fields to reform parliament, the militia moves in and killed eleven people. A reference to Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo

Junkers

Members of the Prussian landed aristocracy, a class formerly associated with political reaction and militarism.

liberalism

Members: Business, professional, some landowners Gov't: Pro representative gov't Opposed: •Use of force to compel citizens to believe something (anti-military) •Inequality •People not helping society/others •Government & church interference •Universal suffrage (feared mob rule) - this changed by late 19th C

Ottoman Turks

Middle Eastern power that acted as the middle man in trade between Europe and Asia and blocked land routes

Liberalism

Middle class (Bourgeoisie) freedom: economic and political, constitutional rule, parliamentary rule

Alexander II's Judicial Reform

More efficient and less corrupt court system with uniform procedures, impartial hearings, judicial independence, and jury trials

Lenin's Reaction To A Need For Change

NEP. A decree of march 1921. The state stopped requisitioning grain. A tax in kind instead of requisitioning i.e. a previously agreed proportion of what the peasants produced, was taken instead. Tax to be reduced as production increased to provide incentives. The rest of what peasants grew they were free to sell. Land Code of 1922 legalised peasants' title to land they occupied while affirming as a whole land belonged to the people. Successes - helped slightly with famine in 1922 turning point, acres sown from 192 million in 1922 to 291 million by 1929, increase in livestock, increase in rate of grain production compared to 1921-22, BUT people saw it as an end of Communism and still didn't solve all problems.

technology, economics, society, politics

Name four things the Industrial Revolution impacted.

legitimacy, containment (France), balance of power

Name the three main goals of von Metternich's plan to restore Europe.

German Unification: First Steps

Napoleon consolidated the area into 30 states, declared the German Confederation by the Congress of Vienna. Prussia aimed to create a strong German state by reforming its army, abolishing serfdom, and improving education.

Waterloo

Napoleon's final defeat in Relgium, after his exile in Elba.

Saint Helen

Napoleon's final, permanent exile location.

Tennis Court Oath

National assembly vowed not to leave an indoor tennis court until they wrote a new Constitution

Hohenzollern Candidacy

National liberals demanded a revision of the Constitution in 1867 , started taking a serious interest once he knew that Paris would be severely provoked by the thought of a German Prince on a spanish throne. He jumped for it, however, when the Spanish reintroduced it.

Rural Work Under Communists

Nature of work changed. Government regulated how much was produced and methods used - collectivisation meant peasants forced to cooperate and reach targets which were seldom achieved. Was investment in technology - tractors, MTS etc.

Fourth effect of Industrial Revolution

New social class structure -> the creation of the middle class * Nobel - rich upper / high class

Principia

Newton's book which established the law of universal gravitation and banished Ptolemy's laws and universe for good.

Concert of Europe:

No one country should get too full of themselves. 1815-1914

Catholic League leader

Nominally the Holy Roman Enperor (Now the Duke of Styria) but actually by Maximilian of Bavaria

the New World

North and South America

How was art different between the Italian Renaissance and the northern Renaissance?

Northern Artistic Renaissance focused more on empirical observation and accurately paying attention to details of visual reality. The Italian Artistic Renaissance, however, accurately portrayed visual reality through proportion, perspective, and human anatomy. Italian artists portrayed mostly classical mythology, while Northern artists portrayed mostly domestic interiors and portraits.

First Partition of Poland

Occurred in 1772 after Poniatowski became king and tried to recentralize the Polish state; Poland lost 30% of its land to Russia, Prussia, and Austria; resulted in Europe's first written constitution

Charles XI of Sweden

One of the most influential Swedish monarchs of the 17th century. He was crowned at the age of four and ruled from 1660 to 1697. During his reign, he displayed absolutism by suppressing the nobility in and creating bureaucratic absolutism. He established a table of ranks in his bureaucracy, which was essentially a meritocracy. He also created an army that could be mobilized very quickly. However, throughout most of his reign he was more interested in establishing his power than with foreign powers, and thus remained neutral.

Black Plague

Otherwise known as the Black Death. It killed thousands of people and was spread by black rats with fleas. Some places lost 50-60% of their population through this. Some people thought it was sent by a god or the devil.

Rural Housing Overall Argument

Overall, little was done by any Russian leader during the period to aid improvements in rural housing. But, despite the continuation of horrifying conditions, under Tsars they owned their own property not just set up on farm like they were urban workers being chucked into concrete blocks.

Indulgences

Papers sold by the Catholic Church to citizens in order to buy there way, or their loved ones, out of purgatory. Catholic Church did it because Leo X bankrupt the church and they needed money- made many protestants mad, especially Martin Luther.

Corn Laws 1815

Parliament passes them to maintain high grain prices, which greatly angered the peasants

Long Parliament (1640-1660)

Parliament who did not trust Charles I, a despotic king with an army, and resisted Charles's religious innovations. This Parliament enacted legislation that limited the power of the monarch and made government without Parliament impossible. It established that it could not be dissolved without its own consent. Parliament also had to meet a minimum of once every three years. Ship money was abolished. Leaders of persecution of Puritans had to be tried and executed. The Star Chamber was abolished. Common law courts were supreme to king's courts. It also refused funds to raise army to defeat Irish revolts. Puritans came to represent the majority in Parliament

Nationalism

Patriotic feeling, principles or efforts. An extreme form of this especially marked by a feeling of superiority over other countries

Nationalism

Patriotic feelings for ones country, principles that become a driving force in Europe forever after Napoleon

Results of Lenin's Agricultural Changes

Peasant farms more equal than ever. Private farming going and state run farms little success. Peasants achieved ambition of gaining land but state intervention a barrier (requisitioning, taxes, political control). Productivity low, production had fallen. Decline of industry/diversion to war reduced farm machinery - few incentives to grow more than enough to just support household. Huge tension between actual practice and Marxist theory. Party had waged war on peasants to get food. Peasants showed remarkable ability to organise armed resistance in some areas with Green Armies which resisted both Red and White forces.

Pugachev's rebellion

Peasant revolt under Catherine the Great during the first turkish war. It was led by Emil Pugachev and actually went so far as to organize its own separate entity. After the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainardji, the russian military was able to focus its attention on the rebellion and it was easily crushed.

Encomiendas

Permitted the Spanish to take the natives and use them as laborers. They were supposed to protect that Natives and pay them and supervise them.

Russian Orthodox Church

Peter the Great made this Church under his control

Relationship With Towns

Plan of a collective farm. 1st priority of the farm was to deliver quotas of food/grain to state who paid very low prices then sold it to town at higher price. Once quota met, peasants could sell surplus at local market coming mostly from private plots - milk, eggs etc.

Mass Propaganda

Plan of a collective farm. Advantages of collective farms and ignite class hatred. Effective in some areas. Many poor peasants did denounce their neighbours as kulaks but some for reasons, like denouncing Jews, to get their possessions (animals, farming equipment). Children encouraged to inform on neighbours and even on parents. One 13 year old pussyole snitch girl denounced her mother for stealing grain.

Decree of February 1930

Plan of a collective farm. Local parties power to use 'necessary measures' against kulaks - whole farms rounded up and deported with head of house slot or to labour camps to build infrastructures. By end of collectivisation around 10 million people deported to Siberia or labour camps.

Problems With Twenty Five Thousanders

Plan of a collective farm. No real knowledge of how to organise/run the farms but did know how to do class warfare, so dekulakisation went full speed ahead. Each region given target of kulaks to fins - always did whether they existed or not. Kulaks in 3 categories: counter-revolutionaries who were shot/sent to labour camps; active opponents of collectivisation who were deported, mainly to Siberia; and those who were expelled from farms to poor land (lucky ones).

Payment

Plan of a collective farm. On kolkhoz - no wage. Credited with 'work days' in exchange for their labour on collective fields. At end of year profits of forum divided up according to workdays by each peasant. Most farms had little profit, most peasants got hardly anything. Made the 1 acre private plot very important. Peasants could use those to supplement own diet and sell extra to towns.

Private Plots

Plan of a collective farm. Peasants kept own pigs, chickens, goats and grew vegetables.

Elizabeth I

Queen of England, she established the Anglican Church after her sister had tried to rid England of all Protestants

Mary Tudor

Queen who succeeded Edward VI and attempted to return Catholicism to England by persecuting Protestants; "Bloody Mary"

MTS Stations

Plan of a collective farm. There were 2500 machine and tractor stations. Established to support collective farms, they maintained and hired out machinery. Typically, peasants had to hand over 20% of their produce for this service. But the MTS stations were also used to control the countryside. Each MTS had a political department. His job was to root out anti-Soviet elements and troublemakers and establish party cells in local areas. It was also there to ensure that every kolkhoz handed over its quota of grain.

Food Processing Plant

Plan of a collective farm. To process crops such as sugar beet or cotton.

Landeshoheit

Pledge that German princes will never make war against Holy Roman Emperor

Revolutions of 1830

Poland vs Russia under Nicholas I, Frances vs. Charles X

Polish January Insurrection of 1863

Polish nationalists attempted to overthrow Russian dominance, but Alexander suppressed the rebellion and implemented Russia law, language, administration to "Russify" Polish life

Henry of Navarre

Political leader of the Huguenots and a member of the Bourbon dynasty, succeeded to the throne as Henry IV. He realized that as a Protestant he would never be accepted by Catholic France, so he converted to Catholicism. When he became king in 1594, the fighting in France finally came to an end.

raison d' etat

Political theory articulated by French statesmen Richelieu (1585-1642) that holds that the interests and needs of the state may take precedence over traditional moral and international law.

cartographers

Portuguese map makers who incorporated information gathered by travelers and explorers in order to make maps more reliable

Principle of Intervention

Powers are now allowed to intervene in revolutions in unstable countries

"Eastern Question"

Powers ask "What do we do about the Ottoman Empire to ensure safety for the other powers?"

Camillo di Cavour (the brain)

Prime Minister to King Victor Emmanuel of Piedmont-Sardinia; wrote the Risorgimento, and believed that as strong state (Piedmont) was needed for unification to create a constitutional monarchy

Gutenberg

Printed the first book on the printing press.

Communism

Proletariat=working class, utopian

Pope Leo III

Protected by Charlemagne from his enemies in Rome, he subsequently strengthened Charlemagne's position by crowning him as Roman Emperor.

2 Camps began to solidify into 2 groups

Protestant Union and Catholic League - 1609

Bohemia

Protestant kingdom in the Holy Roman Empire where the people defied their new ruler who tried to close down Protestant churches and the location of the first phase of the Thirty Years War

Puritans

Protestant sect in England hoping to "purify" the Anglican church of Roman Catholic traces in practice and organization.

Seven Weeks War:

Proved the success of Moltke's approach. The key to his success was the Prussian general staff, which worked under Moltke. Briefness of this war frustrated Napoleon III. in 1866 Prussia defeated Austria (seven weeks war) and took control of the German Confederation. He imposed mild terms on defeated Austria. The fact that they filled that gap between Prussia

Breech-loading rifles and cannons:

Prussia was able to quickly outmaneuver Austria with several human and technical advantages

Frederick William III

Prussia's king at the Congress of Vienna (BTS)

Frederick the Great

Prussian enlightened despot who emboded enlightened absolutism and drew upon the accomplishements of his ancestors to forge a state that commanded loyalty of the military, the nobility, the Lutheran clergy, a growing bureacracy, and university professors. Because his assertion of power was so strong, he had the confidence to permit a more open discussion of Enlightenment ideals and instituted policies of promotion through merit, religious toerlance, and administrative/economic reform.

Junkers

Prussian nobility; close relationship with the Prussian monarchy

Frederick William the Great Elector

Prussian ruler from 1640-1688; built a strong Prussian army to defend its unconnected territory; gave the Junkers control over their serfs in exchange for money

Frederick III/King Frederick I

Prussian ruler from 1688-1713; son of Frederick William the Great Elector who was named king of Prussia in 1701 by the Holy Roman Emperor

Frederick the Great

Prussian ruler from 1740-1786 who is often labeled as an Enlightened Absolutist; personal friend of Voltaire, ended capital punishment and limited corporal punishment on serfs, allowed for moderate religious tolerance; however, still relied on serfdom and did not free Jews Continued to build strong military and gained Silesia and Polish territory in the War of Austrian Succession

Storming of the Bastille

Public opinion shapes the future of france. This event involves the National Assembly, who starts revolt against the King at the armory. the prison refuses to help the national assembly, and attack begins. after prison surrenders, National Assembly takes gunpowder from the armory.

Diderot

Published work of many philosphes in his Encyclopedia. He hoped it would help people think more rationally and critically.

Elizabeth I

Queen of England from 1558 to 1603 noun Ex. daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn; she succeeded Mary I (who was a Catholic) and restored Protestantism to England; during her reign Mary Queen of Scots was executed and the Spanish Armada was defeated; her reign w

Duke of Alba

Sent by Phillip II to squash the primarily Calvinist, but also Protestant rebellion in the Netherlands. Was defeated when the Catholic South and Calvinist North worked together to push out Spain.

Fronde

Series of revolts in Louis XIV's childhood after the Thirty Years' War as a result of the increased taxation and continued centralized government and control; A series of civil wars in France by nobles against Louis XIV's and Mazarin's authority; they were unable to overthrow Mazarin.

John Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding

Set forth a new theory about how human beings learn and form their new ideas: he insisted that all ideas are derived from experience. tabula rasa

Marie Antoinette

She was the queen of France at the start of the reevolution; she was from Austria and spent too much money on herself

Why Further Change Was Necessary After Land Decree and War Communism

Similar challenges to Alexander II and Stolypin. Widespread peasant disturbance - more organised and well armed than before. Productivity low and food supply to cities too low and was a strong worker's resistance campaign. Agrarian sector couldn't support the industrialisation and military development needed - again wat had brought that home. The Reds had won the Civil War, but only just. Defence needed further development. Lenin more constrained by ideology than predecessors but even he had to sacrifice theory for necessity. Lenin forced back, like Alexander II, to capitalism through incentives, private development, free trade when his heart still lay with collectivisation. Virtual disappearance of a money economy and the actual decline of industry and urban population.

Communal Farming

Similarity Between Times for Peasants. Both in 1856 and 1964 individual enterprise restricted by communal agriculture - traditional peasant communities and Stalin's collective farms.

Oppression of the Peasantry

Similarity Between Times for Peasants. In both, the rural pop forced to support top heavy civil service - both bore burden of the state to maintain empire - serfdom. Kinda stayed in how Communists ran peasantry. In both times the police and army reinforced the power of a system which offered little, and oppressed, the peasantry.

Focus on Agriculture

Similarity Between Times for Peasants. In contrast to MEDCs land extremely important to other forms of production - 90% rural Russians 1856, 40% in 1964 - went down but in both cases much higher than UK, France, Germany.

Harsh Climate

Similarity Between Times for Peasants. Inhibiting factors to farming prosperity (short growing season, wet weather, arid, freezing conditions in south and east, waste land in north) true in both periods.

Backwards Country

Similarity Between Times for Peasants. Modern tech - Russia backward in both periods - market opportunities limited by organisation of society as a whole which was never free politically/economically.

Rural Housing Under Tsars

Single-room wooden hut (izbas) heated by oven on which they slept. Accommodation overcrowded especially as animals also lived in the hut. Cold, damp, grubby - added misery to peasant's lives. However, cheap to construct the huts as they made them themselves and could do it themselves. Wooden under Tsars vs concrete under Communists.

Stalin's View On Collectivisation

Socialist solution to agriculture. Can't build a socialist state when majority of pop own private land - ideology of Communism. Collectivisation would socialise peasantry - 'agrotowns' (live in apartment blocks together, leave children in creches, eat in restaurants and go to libraries/gyms. Bussed to field work - they would learn to work together and form communities of workers (Communism).

Predestination

Some people believed that god had given them a destiny to be saved.

Phillip II

Son of Charles V, a Hapsburg, and was King of Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sicily, and, while married to Mary I, King of England and Ireland. He ruled one of the world's largest empires which included territories in every continent then known to Europeans. Under his rule, Spain reached the height of its influence and power in the world. Spain was the hegemonic power that directed explorations all around the world and colonized territories in all the known continents.

conquistadors

Spanish conquerors who created a vast empire within the Americas

Spanish Armada

Spanish fleet that sailed to England to attack England, overthrow Elizabeth I, stop England from being further involved with the Spanish Netherlands (who Spain was indebted to), and stop England from continuing to pirate Spanish ships. The English attacked the Spanish and drove them away, winning. This is the beginning of the fall of the Spanish Empire

Escorial

Spanish imperial palace built 1563-1584, combining a monastery, the tomb of Spanish Habsburgs, and a royal residence

Bartolomé de las Casas

Spanish missionary who became the "spokesman" for the plight of the native peoples and believed that the Indians should not work on plantations; instead people from Africa should be used (wrote A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies

El Greco

Spanish painter (born in Greece) remembered for his religious works characterized by elongated human forms and dramatic use of color (1541-1614)

Burschenschaften:

Special type of student fraternity. Founded in the 19th century as associations of university students inspired by liberal and nationalistic ideas.

nationalism (western Europe)

Spokespeople: Hegel (German dialectical method), Mazzini (heart) •Members: Entire countries of France, England, Spain, Italy, and parts of Germany •Gov't: Used national pride to unify & get citizens to do things (war, colonies, etc.)

nationalism (eastern Europe)

Spokesperson: Vuk Karadzic (Serbian Nationalist) & many others **COV - lumped different cultures together Advocated: •independence from other empires (Austrian, Ottoman, etc) •preservation of own historic culture •borders based on culture

Henry IV

Started the War of the Roses. These were a series of civil wars.

Famine 1932-34

State collected 22.8 million tons of grain by end of 1931 to feed cities and finance industrialisation drive. However this was at a time of huge grain production drop due to upheaval against collectivisation and lack of farming/skills knowledge in terms of collective farming. Also drought, but mainly caused by gov like other Communist famines. One reason it is hard to measure amount of deaths (roughly 5.5m) is because Soviet regime ignored it because they didn't want to admit collectivisation was failing - also why so many died, no gov help. Ukraine , Russia's breadbasket, targeted especially with grain requirement in 1931 and 32 (7 m tons a year) even though amount produced falling rapidly - terrible for them. OGPU continuing to requisition in Russia and Ukraine meant that they were condemning 100k's to death. Even reports of them burning and chucking out excess requisitioned food not giving back to the needy - some say the famine was brought by Stalin deliberately (determined to requisition no matter what) because he continued to export grain to other countries (1.73 million tons in 1932 during the worst period of famine). Overall, was man made, caused by: upheaval against collectivisation; purging of the peasants who farmed the best; lack of machinery; poor organisation of new collective farms; peasant resistance of killing cattle etc and was all compounded by gov taking excessive amounts from worst affected parts of the country to pay for industrial equipment. Successes - carried on exporting large amounts of grain, but at what cost?

Declaration of the Rights of Man

Statement of fundamental political rights adopted by the French National Assembly at the beginning of the French Revolution.

Edict of Nantes

Stopped the French religious civil war. It stated that Catholicism was the major religion in France, but that other religions were still allowed to practice.

Charles II (1660-1685)

Stuart Restoration - he learned the lessons of his predecessors (Don't mess with Parliament!) - religious toleration, but leaned toward the Catholics. - Test Act (1673). - Habeas Corpus Act (1679). - he launched bold new foreign policy ventures challenging the Dutch for the commercial leadership of Europe.

robot

System of forced labor used in eastern Europe. Peasants usually owed three or four days a week of forced labor. The system was abolished in 1848.

Denmark War:

The Austro-Prussian war against Denmark over the Schleswig-Holstein question was a triumph for Bismarck; as much for the skill with which he subordinated Austria's foreign policy to Prussia's needs. Looking back, Bismarck believed that his handling of the ensuing crisis was perhaps his greatest single achievement. Denmark had to hand over Schleswig and Holstein to Austria and Prussia.

Dutch East India Co.

The East India Company of the Netherlands that was established to create trade throughout Asia. It became wealthier than England's company and eventually dominated the region.

Protectorate (1653-1658)

The English military dictatorship (1653-1658) established by Oliver Cromwell following the execution of Charles I.

German Confederation

The German states set up after Congress of Vienna. It replaces the Holy Roman Empire

Germany before Unification

The HRE was established among 300+ self-governing states, united by language. Judicial System: Body of Prince electors that often fought. Napoleon abolishes the HRE in 1806

Final Solution

The Nazi program of exterminating Jews during the Third Reich.

Janissaries

The Sultan of the Ottoman Empire's personal group of advisors that were very close to him. The group members were stolen from their families at a very young age and were raised under the Sultan's watch. They were given a very good education and nice wife but were not allowed to have any connection to outside world- if they did they would have loyalties to people other than just the Sultan and would therefore mislead him in order to benefit themselves.

What was the most important political development during 148-1914?

The Unification of Germany

Louis XIV

The absolute monarch of France. Was a part of the first generation of absolute monarchs- built Versailles, centralized all power to his control, increased amounts of exports, etc...

Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)

The baroque style reached its culmination under him. He was an organist and choirmaster of several Lutheran churches across Germany. He wrote secular concertos and sublime religious cantatas. Bach's organ music combined the baroque spirit of invention tension, and emotion in an unforgettable striving toward the Rubens. Unfortunately, he was not fully appreciated in his lifetime, but since the nineteenth century his reputation has grown steadily.

Transubstantiation

The belief that bread and wine are transformed into the body and blood of Christ. Protestants rejected this idea. Became a practice unique to Catholicism.

Glorious Revolution (1688)

The bloodless coup in 1688 in England when James II (a Catholic) gave up the throne and his daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange (of the Netherlands) - both Protestants - replaced James II to reign jointly. No Catholic monarch has reigned in England since.

Talmud

The body of Jewish Law.

Overall Analysis of Stolypin's Reforms

The considerable increase in industrial and military growth in this period may indicate that Stolypin, and thus Tsarist Russia, was able to use its main source of wealth without preventing agricultural growth. The greater amount of industrial goods available provided an incentive; there was a growth in both production and productivity. However, the debate comes from whether the reforms of late Tsarist Russia were limited and illusory or real and extensive. The agrarian reforms seem to have brought real improvements and there is a case for the peasantry being better off in this relatively short period than in any other time between 1856 and 1964. There was a lack of political freedom but there was at least the hope greater development. Lenin saw Stolypin as one of the greatest practical barriers to immediate revolution while at the same time creating a sort of capitalist farming which in the long run would build up a Russian middle class which would form the capitalist society that the proletarian revolution was destined to destroy. In terms of comparison, the 1861 change was more fundamental in ending serfdom, but the impact on prosperity, productivity, development and potential were probably greater in the 1905-10 changes. As war interrupted the development so much must be speculation. But in a sense the greater confidence that economic change gave to the Tsarist regime was a cause of the war, so perhaps the reforms brought disaster.

Judaism

The cultural, religious and social practices and beliefs of the Jews.

Edict of Nantes

The decree issued by French king Henry IV in 1598 that granted the Huguenots a large measure of religious toleration.

Reign of Terror

The excessively violent period of time during the French Revolution under the rule of Robespierre

Stadholder

The executive officer in each of the United Provinces of the Netherlands, a position often held by the princes of Orange.

First Estate

The first class of French society made up of the clergy (cardinals, bishops) of the Roman Catholic Church. together with second estate, 3% of society.

Holocaust

The genocide of European Jews and others by the Nazi's during World War 2.

Sacraments

The idea of making people holy by performing rituals in the Catholic church.

Hobbes, Thomas: Leviathan

The idea that all men were naturally evil and if left on their own with no government to control them they would kill and destroy. Therefore the people needed to be ruled by a government that inspired fear in them to keep them in line. The people would give up some of their freedoms in order to be kept safe by the government.

Life at Versailles

The king insisted that some of the most powerful nobles live at least part of the year at Versailles. These nobles became dependent on the king and turned into idle, corrupt flatterers, gamblers, and gossips. Small quarters.

Medici

The largest bank in Europe. Was found in Venice, Milan, Rome, Avignon, Bruges, London, and Lyons.

Earl Grey

The leader of the Whigs, who helped Britain form a government by replacing "rotten" boroughs (ones with few voters) with representatives for unrepresented cities, increasing number of voters 50%, and forcing the passage of the reform bill by threatening to reform the House of Lords

Committee of Public Safety

The leaders under Robespierre who organized the defenses of France, conducted foreign policy, and centralized authority during the Reign of Terror. Created by the National Convention, comprised of 12 members.

Polish Diet

The legislative body, or parliament, of Poland. They held all of the power in poland during the "Nobles' Commonwealth" time period. However, by the 18th century the Polish Diet gradually declined into an anarchy, making the once powerful Commonwealth vulnerable to foreign influence.

Estates-General

The legislative branch of the French government prior to the French Revolution; it could meet only with permission from the king (May 5th, 1789)

Council of Trent

The meeting called by Pope Paul III for leaders of the Christian church to meet and discuss the problems that they had amongst each other.

hidalgos

The minor nobility of Spain. Often they possessed little wealth and were interested in improving their position through the overseas empire.

Joseph II of Austria

The most radical royal reformer; son and successor of Maria Theresa; introduced legal reforms & freedom of press; supported freedom of worship; abolished serfdom and ordered that peasants be paid for their labor with cash

Nationalism

The nation=humanity: ethnic culture defined the idea of a nation after privilege and hereditary privilege were done with

Revolt of the Netherlands

The nobles in the Netherlands made a league to check the Spanish influence and to make a petition so spain would not a have a inquisition there, when Spain rejected the petition a massive revolt broke out

Revanche:

The policy of a nation to seek the return of a lost territory.

Marxism

The political and economic theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, later developed by their followers to form the basis for the theory and practice of communism

Realpolitik

The politics of realism. According to this, the men of 1848 had been to idealistic and unworldly.

Robespierre

The radical leader during the French Revolution responsible for the Reign of Terror; he wanted to create a Republic of Virtue

Junkers

The rich, land owning class that held much political power.

Zwingli, Ulrich and Zwinglism

Ulrich Zwingli was the leader of the Reformation in Switzerland who spoke out against the Catholic Church's beliefs. He founded Zwinglism, a religion based on the Bible and not on religious tradition. Zwinglists believe in 5 of the 7 sacraments (Baptism and Communion), and reject transubstantiation

Reign of Terror

Under Robespierre's rule, beheaded anyone who was a threat to current policies.

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

Union of Poland and Lithuania in 1385; struggled with inability to create a strong, centralized government; monarchy elected by nobility who often chose a foreign prince

Jeremy Bentham

Utilitarianism AND radicalism spokesperson

What two new Italian states were annexed between 1866-1870

Venice (1866); Rome (1870)

Cameralism

View that monarchy was the best form of government, that all elements of society should serve the monarch, and that, in turn, the state should use its resources and authority to increase the public good.

Candide

Voltaire's literary reply in 1759 to his contemporaries' optimistic view of the world and nature in a widely read satire attacking war, religious persecution, andwhat he considered to be unwarranted optimism about the human condition.

Louis XIV wars

Wanted to gain territory, weaken Hapsburgs, support absolutism, support catholicism, weaken economic power of Dutch and UK. Made his country gain a huge amount of debt.

Reasons For Lenin's Land Decree

War had bought about problems so Lenin needed to make a change to hold power and keep peasants on side seeing as there was a lack of food, due to inadequate farming. This need for change, following the war like lots of reform before, is the main reason for his Land Decree.

Henri IV

Was once Henri of Navarre but he changed his name when he began his rule over France as well as converting to Catholicism, "Paris is well worth a mass." Changes the image of France from having a weak monarch to a strong one instead and bring the first attempt at religious toleration to France.

Elizabeth I

Was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. She replaced her sister Mary on the throne. Elizabeth I had a Protestant reign but was placed under house arrest while her cousin Mary Queen of Scots tried to kill her.

King Christian of Denmark

Was the king of Denmark during the 30 Years War; Denmark was defeated by the Holy Roman Empire

Catherine de' Medici

Was the wife of Henry II. She acted as regent during the reign of her three weak and ineffective sons - Francis II (1559-60) Charles IX (1560-74) Henry III (1574-89).

Habsburgs

Wealthiest landholders in the empire. They were in control of Austria and overall ended up controlling a large part of Europe as well.

legal systems

What did utilitarianism oppose as it harmed people they should serve?

Vote by Order

When each estate received one vote; this was favored by the First and Second Estates

Vote by Head

When each representative received one vote; this was favored by the Third Estate

Poland

Which country wanted to use eastern European nationalism to undo partitions of territory & reestablish state?

Magyars

Which group of people wanted autonomy of Hungary within Hapsburg Empire?

How was philosophy different between the Italian Renaissance and the northern Renaissance?

While Italian humanism focused on the upper-middle class, Christian humanism focused more on the majority of the population, or the lower class. Italian humanism prioritized improving the intellect and his own metaethics, but Christian humanism focused more on the religious simplicity of daily life and the necessity for self-improvement.

Catch Up With West

Why Stalin Was So Rapid With Collectivisation. A want to modernise (less reliance on peasants), to solve the genuine sense of crisis in urban Russia in a time where the focus was on industrialisation the party supported Stalin and wanted to speed up pace of industrialisation and solve peasant problem. Also support by urban working class who saw the socialisation as a key part of the revolution and a way out of poverty.

1929 Harvest

Why Stalin Was So Rapid With Collectivisation. Harvest better but state still having difficulty obtaining grain as they resisted gov policies - kulaks blamed for urban food shortages (arrested and deported to Siberia).

Rising Tensions

Why Stalin Was So Rapid With Collectivisation. With tensions rising as right-wing people believed continued requisitioning would go back to War Communism, Stalin stopped it in 1928. But food shortages continued so he realised he had to rapidly collectivise to stop the peasants' stranglehold on the economy. The fact not enough prep or planning went in to the Soviet agri revolution supports that rapid collectivisation was an emergency decision to solve food procurement crisis.

After William I died, Bismarck was forced to resign by__________, and left a powerful united nationalist nation in the center of Europe

William I's grandson, William II

Rural Work Overall Argument

Work for peasants under communist rule was far more regulated, and individuals who didn't toe the party line were liable to be punished severely.

Rural Work Under Tsars

Work on land more dictated by 'nature's clock' - success determined by quality of soil, weather and skill. Agricultural work obviously involved hard manual labour in all times but at least before Bolshevik Revolution the peasants could control pave and production. Only restrictions came from Mir. Most peasants - farming was for feeding family, paying off debts, saving some for rainy day. Wrong to assume all subsistence farmers and work dusk to dawn to achieve a surplus leaving time for enjoyment (holy days and seasonal festivals).

Secular

Worldly rather than spiritual. Not specifically relating to religion or to a religious body.

Cardinal Richelieu

a French clergyman, noble, and statesman. Cardinal Richelieu was often known by the title of the King's "Chief Minister" or "First Minister." As a result, he is considered to be the world's first Prime Minister, in the modern sense of the term.

Martin Luther

a German monk who became one of the most famous critics of the Roman Catholic Chruch. In 1517, he wrote 95 theses, or statements of belief attacking the church practices.

The Travels

a book written by Marco Polo, in which he detailed his journeys in China

ideology

a coherent set of beliefs about the way the social and political order should be organized; what does it oppose/advocate?

joint stock company

a company made up of individual merchants who combined their resources and raised by selling stock to investors

Congress of Vienna:

a conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Klemens Wenzel von Metternich and held in Vienna from September 1814- June 1815. The objective of the Congress was to settle the many issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars, the Napoleonic Wars, and dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire

National Assembly

a group formed by disgruntled 3rd estate who tried to resolve the problems of french government. they make the tennis court oath and write the decaration of the rights of man

caravel

a kind of Portuguese ship with a new kind of mast, more room, and they had a rutter (which allowed people to steer the boat)

galleon

a large ship that was powered by sail and became popular during the Age of Exploration

pan-Slavism

a movement to create a nation state of Slavic people (under Russian leadership)

magnetic compass

a navigational device that was created during the 12th century but was improved upon during the Renaissance

astrolabe

a portable navigational device that measured the distance of the Sun and the stars above the horizon in order to measure latitude

Predestination

a religious theory rooted in the idea that all events have been willed by God. John Calvin, who started the Calvinist religion, interpreted biblical predestination to mean that God willed eternal damnation for some people and salvation for others. The elite that worked and repented their sins would be granted God's salvation, while those who disobeyed God's will would be dammed to hell.

Coup d'etat

a sudden overthrow of an existing government, usually by a small group. Napoleon overthrows government using this method.

Politique

a term first used during the Wars of Religion in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries to describe a ruler who put politics before religion. Therefore, a ruling with political motivation, rather than religious motivation.

causes of the hundred years war

a. dispute over Aquitaine; England owned it but Philip VI took it from them b. dispute over succession to the French throne

Virtu

ability to shape the world around you according to your will

Frederick the Great of Prussia

aka Frederick II of Prussia; enlarged Prussian army, kept a strict watch on the bureaucracy, abolished the use of torture, granted limited freedom of speech & press, had greater religious toleration, BUT kept Prussia's strict serfdom and rigid social structure intact and avoided any additional reforms

Principles of Intervention

allowed for armies to invade countries where revolution was taking place in order to save monarchs. principles used in c. of vienna

Napoleonic Code

also known as civil code. gave citizens equality, right to choose profession, gave religious toleration, and abolition of feudal obligations and hierarchy

Rococo Style

an 18th century artistic movement affecting many aspects of the arts; originated in Paris, characterized by lightness, elegance, and an exuberant use of curving, natural forms of ornamentation

Melaka

an Indian city where a Portuguese port was set up, was a strategic location because it served as a pit stop on the way to the Spice Islands

Louis XIV

an absolute monarch that built up France's internal strength through finance and military, strengthened army and connected france through trades routes, catholic religiion and the capital versailes and foreign expansion during his reign

Serfs

another name for slaves (unpaid labor). However they are tied to the land rather than individuals. In Austrian Hapbsurgs made all the peasants into serfs for free labor to make money/improve economy

social effects of the plague

art and literature was very morbid, people became more religious, groups of flagellants formed

Johannes Kepler

assistant to Tycho Brahe who, after his death, took possession of Brahe's tables of astronomical data and used them to find in the numbers mathematical harmonies that would support a sun-centered universe. Based on the mathematical relationships that emerged, Kepler set for the first astronomical model that actually portrayed motion and defined a new problem: none of the available theories could explain why planetary orbits were elliptical and why planetary motion was orbital at all rather than simply moving off along a tangent.

Louis Napoleon

became emperor after being elected president

Deism

belief of many leading philosophes that the God who had created nature must be rational and favor rational morality. This religion believed in life after death and advocated empiricism, tolerance, encouragement of virtuous living, and reason. Its most controversial belief was that of an indifferent god who stepped back after creation and allowed human life unfold according to the laws of nature.

guns

beneficial in combat for conquistadors because they frightened Native Americans with smoke and sound

Ethics

book written in 1677 by Spinoza in which he so closely identified god with nature, the spiritual and material worlds, that contemporaries condemned him. Many thought he drew god and nature too intimately into a single divien substance, leaving little room for the possibility of a distinctly divine revelation to humankind in scripture.

similarities and differences between Italian and northern renaissance

both centered around humanism humanism teachings in northern were aimed towards lay people whereas in Italy were kind of "elite"

First Turkish War

brask out in 1768 adn lasts to 1774, resulting in a russian victory against the turks

Olympe de Gouges

butcher's daughter who wrote plays and pamphlets. Wrote Declaration of Women's Rights

Ems Telegram

caused France to declare the Franco-Prussian War in July 1870. Had been skillfully edited because Bismarck was deeply worried as these events had unfolded. Changed words describing final changes between Wilhelm I and Benedetti.

the Spice Islands

center of the spice trade from which Portugal initially had exclusive trade with

Goa

city in India where a Portuguese port was set up by Admiral Albuquerqe

yeomanry

class of small freeholders who cultivated their own land a British volunteer cavalry force organized in 1761 for home defense later incorporated into the Territorial Army

everyday life

clothes: rich had fine materials with beautiful dresses and padded shorts and tights; poor had a plain canvas doublet and a plain gown for the women food: rich had white bread, beef with spices, mutton, poultry, potatoes, tomatoes, corn; poor had dark bread, sometimes pork, eggs improvements: mattresses, bed sheets, bathrooms, closets

(1870) Liberal ministry sponsored a land act that would

compensate Irish tenant farmers who were evicted and lend money to those who wished to purchase land

Francisco Pizzaro

conquistador who conquered the Inca Empire in South America

Klemens von Metternich

conservative thinker in Austria

Russia

country in which Napoleon's army is greatly weakened in an attempt to capture a city

Hispanic race

created as a result of the Columbian Exchange (Native American mixed with Spanish and black)

Social Contract

created by Rousseau; it was the idea that an individual should surrender liberty for protection

Legislative Commission

created by catherine the great in 1767 to advise her on revising the law and government of Russia. She knew extreme reform would only work if she had popular support, and she utilized this electoral commission to understand popular opinion. Before it convened, Catherine set a series of instructions which contained many ideas drawn from the enlightenment. Ultimately, she dismissed the commission before several of its key committees had reported, yet the meeting was not useless and collected huge numbers of information about conditions of local administration and economic life.

The Church of Ireland was _________ in 1869, and this removed __________ from paying a tithe to the Anglican Church.

disestablished; Catholics

Robespierre

dominated the Committee of Public Safety and was instrumental in the Reign of Terror, which ended with his arrest and execution in 1794.

Congress of Vienna

during the fall of 1814, kings all over europe gather in austria with wives, political advisors and servants. discuss ways to maintain peace after years of rebellion and warfare. decisions made by Russia, Prussia, Austria, France, and Great Britain

The Golden Age of the Dutch Republic

early 1600s due to political stability, economic prosperity, and cultural achievements.

laissez-faire

economic belief supporte dby Adam Smith which explains that an economy left to its own devices is the most fruitful economy, as an invisible hand guides prices and promotes competition.

Adam Smith

economist who heavily influenced the Enlightenment movement with his teachings. He believed economic liberty was the foundation of a natural economic system. he urged that the mercantile system of England be abolished. The regulations were intended to preserve the wealth of the nation, to capture wealth from other nations, and to maximize the work available for the nation's laborers. Smith argued that they hindered the expansion of wealth and production, and the best way to encourage economic growth was to unleash individuals to pursue their own selfish economic interests.

civic humanism

education designed to promote humanist leadership in civic affairs

Treaty of Frankfurt

ended the Franco-Prussian War; granted Prussia Alsace-Lorraine and imposed indemnity on France

Peace of Utrecht (1713)

ended the war of the Spanish Succession and confirmed Philip V as Spanish ruler. Led a Spanish Bourbon dynasty but said that Spain and France's thrones were to be separate. The Spanish Netherlands, Milan and Naples were given to Austria. Prussia got some land and Britain got Gibraltar for their navy as well as French possessions of Newfoundland, Hudson Bay and Nova Scotia.

maria Theresa

enlightened co-ruler with her son, Joseph II over Austria

The tensions between Austria and Prussia will push

every German state to pick a side on Prussia or Austria

Great Reform Bill

expanded number of people who could vote

Ferdinand Magellan

explorer who set out to sail around the world, crossed the Pacific Ocean, and discovered the Philippines, but died in battle before he could finish the voyage, worked for Portugal

Denis Diderot

exponentially influential figure in the compilation of the Encyclopedia. In addition, he openly criticized the European empires on moral grounds, especially the European conquest of the Americas, the treatment of Native Americans, and the enslavement of Africans.

Franco Prussian War:

in 1870, France and Prussia fought a war. Bismarck created an incident that influenced France into declaring war (Ems dispatch)- if France declared it would make Prussia look like they are defending themselves instead of wanting more land. Prussian and German state troops defeated French troops and Prussian won the war quickly. Started out bad for the French. French mobilization was chaotic, making a nonsense of any plans to fight the war on German soil. Napoleon II was old and suffering; and Moltke and his staff masterminded by allowing 380,000 German troops mobilizing.

Metternich

influential prince/minister of Austria in the Congress of Vienna. Wanted to promote peace, conservatism, and the repression of liberal nationalism throughout Europe.

Salons

informal social gathering at which writers, artists, philosophes, and others exchanged ideas

unigeniture

inheritance of land by one son alone, cutting daughters and other sons from the family property

Henry IV of France

inherited France in bad condition, cared about his people, lowers taxes, achieves peace, commissioned Edict of Nantes, gave Huguenots religious liberty

Charter to the Nobility

instituted by Catherine the Great, it guaranteed nobles many rights and privileges. In part, the empress had to favor the nobles because they could topple her from the throne, and the russian educated class was too small to provide an independent bureaucracy so the treasury couldn't afford an army strictly loyal to the monarchy.

deductive reasoning

introduced formally by Descartes, it is process in which assumptions or hypotheses are made on the basis of general principles. Unlike inductive reason, it moves broad to specific.

printing press

invented by Johan Gutenberg; made more people in Europe become more literate

Peter Paul Rubens

is the most famous Baroque artist who studied Michelangelo in Italy and took that Renaissance style to the next level of drama, motion, color, religion and animation, which is portrayed in his paintings

the Triangular Trade

large trade system that involved Africa, Europe, and America (finished goods went to Africa and America, slaves went to America and Europe, and raw materials went from America to Europe)

plantation

large, agricultural estate that grows cash crops and requires many people to work on it

parlements

law courts in France, each being supreme for a certain area of the country. Upheld certain "fundamental laws" which they said the king could not overstep - and they often refused to uphold royal edicts which they declared to be unconstitutional. Beneath surface, France still very composite. Different "local liberties"-> 300 different regional systems of law. No uniformity of codes or taxes.

New Laws of 1542

laws instituted by the king of Spain after he was convinced by Bartolomé de las Casas. They outlawed the forced labor of the Native Americans, noted that the natives should be given religious instruction, and made it difficult for people to inherit encomienda estates

Montesquieu

lawyer, noble of the robe, and a member of the provincial parlement who saw the need for reform within french society. Like Voltaire, he deeply admired English institutions and held up the british constitution as the wisest model for regulating power of government. He was a political conservative, but believed in division of power within the government. In addition, he didn't believe in one universal government for all. He stressed the importance of finding a government that best fit the society it served.

Francois Quesnay

lead spokesperson of the physiocrats, economic reformers who believed the primary role of government was to protect property and to permit its owners to use it freely. His policies put emphasis on land in the economy, which was in direct opposition to Adam Smith's focus on a commercial economy

physiocrats

led by Francois Quesnay, they believed that the primary role of the government was to protect property and to permit its owners to use it freely. They argued that agriculture was the basis on which all economic production was dependent and favored the consolidation of small peasant holdings into larger, more efficient farms.

Duke of Guise

led the french to victory over Germany at Metz in 1552. He captured Calais from the English. He was one of the leaders of the French Wars of Religion, and massacred the Huguenots. He was shot, then succeeded by his brother.

steel

led to armor, better swords, and better tools for Europeans

King Charles I of Spain

made it so missionaries were required to go on expeditions in the Americas to convert the natives

Ptolemaic System

made mathematical calculations relating to astronomy. This system was a standard explanation of the place of the earth in the heavens combined with the mathematical astronomy of Ptolemy and the physical cosmology of Aristotle. It reasoned that the earth had to be the center of the universe because of its heaviness and gave rise to many problems, specifically the observed motions of the planets.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

maintained that knowledge comes from our inborn ways of organizing sensory experiences

economic effects of the plague

many craftsmen took in new men and thought of ways to produce more product at one time

salons

meetings at the homes of fashionable, upper-class French women that helped to further the careers of many philosophes. The women who organized them were well-connected to political figures that helped to protect the philosophes and secure royal pensions for them.

Admiral de Coligny

member of French nobility who was leader of Huguenots, had influence over King Charles IX, was killed by St. B's Day Massacre, head was sent to pope in return for Golden Rose

Estates General

met in may 1789, 1st time in 175 years. A 3 estates met to solve financial crisis. Result is the King lost power, 1st and 2nd Estate try to power

Scientific Method

method of investigation involving observation and theory to test a scientific hypothesis

The Partition of Poland

military successes increased Catherine's domestic political support, but they made other states of Eastern Europe uneasy. These anxieties were overcome by this extraordinary division of polish territory. Poland was divided amongst Austria, Prussia, and Russia. It demonstrated that the major powers in eastern Europe were prepared to settle their own rivalries at the expense of a weak state.

Emilie du Chatelet

mistress to Voltaire and a brillian mathematician, she helpe dhim to publish "Elements of the Philosophy of Newton" and opened her home to him during his exile in Cirsey, France.

politiques

moderates of both religious faiths who held that only a strong monarchy could save France from total collapse

Conservatism

monarchies, aristocracies, nobilities: respecting traditions, strong political control

city-states as opposed to a unified state

more isolated; each had its own central gov. and system of justice; less unified

Thomas Hobbes

most original political philosopher of the 17th century, he had a dark view of human nature that justified for a strong central political authority. He portrayed human beings and society in a thoroughly materialistic and mechanical way. He traced all psychological processes to bare sensation and regarded all human motivations as egotistical. He believed humans exist only to meet the needs of daily life, not for higher spiritual ends. Only a sovereign commonwealth established by a contract between ruler and ruled could enable humans to meet their needs.

favorable balance of trade

mother countries only traded with colonies, while exporting more than importing (as a result, the mother countries were the ones who benefited)

Marie de' Medici

mother of Louis XII who became a regent until he was of age to rule France and ruled three years after he was of age

Enlightment

movement that began in Europe in the late 1600s as people began examining the natural world, society, and government; also called the age of reason

Conciliar movement

movement towards a council of papal authority, rather than just one man running the whole church

Marie-Therese Geoffrin

one of several well-connected French women whose salons provided the philosophe of the day a place to spread their ideas and gain popularity.

Mary Wollstonecraft

one of the Enlightenment's most important feminists, she accused Rousseau and others who upheld traditional roles for women of attempting to narrow women's vision and limit their experience. She argued that to confine women to the separate domestic sphere because of supposed limitations of their physiology was to make them the sensual slaves of men. Denying good education to women would impede the progress of all humanity.

Encyclopedia

one of the greatest monuments of the Enlightenment, and its most monumental undertaking in the realm of print culture. The first volume appeared in 1751 and illustrated the movement's determination to probe life on earth rather than in the religious realm. It was in part a collective plea for freedom of expression, reaching fruition only after many attempts to censor it.

Immanuel Kant

one of the most important Enlightened critics of the European empires, he rejected the dismissive outlook and harsh policies that flowed from the justification of slavery, and believed no single definition of human nature could be made the standard throughout the world and then used to dehumanize people whose appearance or culture varied.

Moses Mendelsohn

one of two highly influential jewish writers who lived in Germany and established the main outlines of an assimilationist position. He advocated the entry of Jews into modern European life, however he argued that a Jew could combine loyalty to Judiasm with adherence to rational enlightenment values. His more moderate approach made his theories much more accessible than Spinoza's

Baruch Spinoza

one of two major Jewish writers who lived in the Netherlands and set the example for a secularized version of Judaism. The new science of the mid-17th century deeply influenced him and like his contemporaries, he looked to the power of human reason to re-conceptualize traditional thought

Repeal of Corn Laws

overthrow the laws on grain to not charge so much for grain

Bonaparte

overthrows government of france in coup d'etat. he becomes emperor of france as a military leader, but is later weakened at moscow. exiled to st helen

Peter the Great of Russia

part of the Romanov Dynasty; was an absolutist monarch who claimed the divine right to rule; he westernized & modernized Russia thus making it a great military power; created the first Russian Navy; divided Russia into provinces; and established St. Petersburg as the capital of Russia.

Cossacks

peasants recruited to migrate to newly seized lands in Russia, particularly in south; combined agriculture with military conquests; spurred additional frontier conquests and settlements.

Concert of Europe

periodic meetings to work out disputes among countries-to keep the peace

Voltaire

philosophe during the Enlightenment who advocated religious toleration and spoke out against religious persecution. He used satire to make social and political criticisms of France and believed human society could and should be improved, though he was never certain that reform would be permanent. In that respect, his thought reflected the broader pessimistic undercurrent of the Enlightenment.

Isaac Newton

philosophe who discovered the laws of gravitation. To do so, this man addressed the issue of planetary motion, and in so doing, established a basis for physics that endured for more than two centuries.

viceroys

technically the enforcers of the New Laws, but did not fulfill their job because they profited from the encomienda system

Holy Russia

term given to Russia after Turks took over Constantinople. Russia considered itself inheritor of Eastern Christianity

Rousseau

philosophe who held a different view of the exercise and reform of political power from Montesquieu's. He transcended the political thought and values of his own time and it seemed to him impossible for human beings living according to the commercial values of the time to achieve moral, virtuous, or sincere lives. In addition, he felt that society itself was the source of human evil and one manifestation of that unnatural evil was the unequal distribution of property and defined liberty as obedience to a higher authority. He argued the policy of general will, which he say as always right. For Rousseau, obedience to the general will was the equivalence of freedom.

Nicolaus Copernicus

polish priest adn astronomer who rejected an earth-centered universe. He provided an intellectual springboard for the complete criticism of the then-dominant view of the position of the earth in the universe. He undertook the task to help the papacy reform the calender.

Great Schism

pope Urban VI was elected, but he was too forceful so they declared him faulty and elected Clement VII who resided in Avignon, then a council declared both popes invalid and elected another pope, but neither of the old popes stepped down so there were three popes

Galileo Galilei

popularized the Copernican system, and also articulated the concept of a universe subject to mathematical laws

Congress of Vienna

prevented Europe from collapsing

famous humanists

prince of humanism: Erasmus- north father of humanism: petrarch- Italy

The Scientific Revolution

process that established the new view of the universe and re-examined what had always just been accepted. It saw the establishment of new social institutions to support the emerging scientific enterprise adn set the standard for assessing the validity of knowledge in the western world.

People's Charter

promotion of worker interest, workers allowed to organize

Dialogue on Two Chief Systems of the World

published in 1632 by Galileo, this work proving the heliocentric theory brought him before the Roman Inquisition. While he was devout in his religious faith, he contended that the Bible was not a reliable authority on scientific matters. The Church would tolerate the heliocentric theory as long as it was just an hypothesis, but Galileo's work proved it. This publication was placed on the Index of Prohibited Books. Galileo was forced to recant in a public hearing but is said to have muttered, referring to the earth, "And yet it does move," as he walked away.

Marie Antoinette

queen of France who was unpopular her extravagance and opposition to reform contributed to the overthrow of the monarchy; she was guillotined along with her husband

Mary Stuart

queen of Scotland from 1542 to 1567, as a Catholic she was forced to abdicate in favor of her son and fled to England where she was imprisoned by Elizabeth I; when Catholic supporters plotted to put her on the English throne she was tried and executed

define renaissance

rebirth in europe

Francis Bacon

regarded as the father of empiricism and experimentation in science. His real accomplishment was setting an intellectual tone and helping create a climate conducive to scientific work. His goal was to direct natural philosophy toward an examination of empirical evidence and by doing so, achieve ne wknowledge and thus new capabilities for humankind.

Paracelsus

rejected the work of Aristotle and Galen and attacked universities. He followed a chemical philosophy that a human was a small replica of the larger world. He used chemical remedies that went for each sickness, He is associated with diagnosis and treatment of disease.

John Calvin

religious reformer who believed in predestination and a strict sense of morality for society

Populism

revolutionary group that aimed at creating a social revolution based on the communal life of the Russian peasants

Catherine the Great

ruled Russia from 1762 to 1796, added new lands to Russia, encouraged science, art, literature, Russia became one of Europe's most powerful nations

Enlightened Absolutism

rulers sought to centralize their authority in order to reform their countries. They often attempted to restructure religious institutions and to sponsor economic growth through religious toleration and a political meritocracy. Although they frequently associated themselves with the Enlightenment, many of their military and foreign policies directly opposed enlightened ideas.

new science

science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world determined through experiment.

Napoleon III

second ruler of the French empire. Proclaimed himself emperor in 1852, instituted reforms and rebuilt Paris. His successful imperialist ventures were overshadowed by the Franco-Prussian war (1870-1871). Overthrown in 1870

secular humanism vs Christian humanism

secular included civic humanism, focused more on learning for its own sake; Christian humanism used the interpretation of classical texts to bring about reform of the church

Duke of Alva

sent by Phillip II to "pacify" Netherlands, establishes Council of Blood- 12,000 people killed in one day

spread of the plague

started in southwestern China and spread eastward from there

Romanticism

steeped in emotion, culture of the people, awakening

define humanism

study of latin and greek literature with the goal of understanding human nature

Baroque

style of art that was used by the Catholics in the 17th century; very dramatic and overly decorated in gold and gaudy materials

encomienda system

system in which a king gives grants allowing settlers to demand labor and feudal dues from native subjects (supported the common belief that certain people, whites, are naturally superior than other people)

Tycho Brahe

took the next major step towards the conception of a suncentered system. He didn't embrace Copernicus' view of teh universe and actually spent most of his life trying to prove an earth-centered system. In pursuit of his own theory, he constructed scientific instruments with which he made more extensive naked eye observations of the planets than ever before.

Admiral Albuquerque

took the spice trade away from the Ottoman Turks and set up ports in Goa and Melaka in the name of Portugal

Treaty of Tordesillas

treaty between Portugal and Spain that drew a division, on the east side newly discovered lands that Portugal could claim, and on the west lands that Spain could claim

Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels

two communist spokespeople, who co-authored the "Communist Manifesto (1848)"

Boyars

upper nobility in Russia from the 10th -17th century

the new astronomy

used Copernicus' sun-centered universe and Brahe's empirical data to solve the problem of planetary motion

Aristotelian World View

view on the universe that states the universe is infinite, spherical, and eternal. It reasoned that the earth had to be the center of the universe because of its heaviness

view of women

viewed as less than men; ran the house, washed dishes, linens had to be clean, enough food and wine

Catholic Inquisition

was a hierarchy of the Catholic Church that targeted those who were thought to be or known to be Protestants or Catholic Reformers. Anyone captured was tortured, questioned, and forced to admit their involvement with the "sinful" religions and repent, or be killed. You were assumed guilty until proven innocent and the goal was to reconvert everyone to Catholicism.

shift from medieval government to centralized government: spain

was a loose confederation til about 1700, secured pope alexander VI and this gave them the right to appoint bishops in spain and establish the equivalent of a national church- started the Spanish inquisition

Prince Henry the Navigator

was a sponsor to many explorers, allowing many discoveries to be made; created a sailing school, which he gave the best available information and technology; and encouraged explorers to sail down Africa

Alsace-Lorraine:

was a territory created by the German Empire in 1871 after it annexed most of Alsace and the Moselle region of Lorraine following its victory in the Franco-Prussian War. The Alsatian part lay in the Rhine Valley on the west bank of the Rhine River and east of theVosges Mountains. The Lorraine section was in the upperMoselle valley to the north of the Vosges Mountains.

Council of Troubles

was the special tribunal instituted on September 9, 1567 by Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba, governor-general of the Habsburg Netherlands on the orders of Philip II of Spain to punish the ringleaders of the recent political and religious "troubles" in the Netherlands.

missionaries

went to North America in order to convert the Native Americans and control the conquistadors

germs

were spread by Europeans in America, leading to Indians being exposed to diseases they had no immunity to

Columbian Exchange

widespread exchange of food, spices, plants, animals, disease, ideas, and populations from the "Old World" to the "New World"

Peterloo Massacre

workers killed while protesting for better conditions 1819

philosophes

writers and critics who flourished in the expanding print culture and took the lead in forging new attitudes favorable to change, championing reform, and advocating toleration. They sought to apply the rules of reason, criticism, and common sense to nearly all major institutions, economic practices, and exclusive religious policies of the day.

Wealth of nations

written by Adam Smith in 1776, it introduced the idea of laissez-faire economic thought and policy, although he didn't oppose all government activity in the economy. He embraced an important theory of human social and economic development known as the four sate theory which said human societies can be classified as: 1. hunting and gathering 2. pastoral or herding 3. agricultural or commercial the transition between these different societies is the same as the transition from barbarism to civilization

Inquiry into Human Nature

written by David Hume in 1748, its central chapter stated that no empirical evidence supported the belief in divine miracles central to much of Christianity.

discourse on method

written by Descartes in 1637 in which he rejected scholastic philosophy and education and advocated thought founded on a mathematical model

The Critique of Pure reason

written by Immanuel Kant in 1781, it sought to accept the rationalism of the enlightenment and to still preserve a belief in human freedom, immortality, existence of God

95 Theses

written by Martin Luther and is widely regarded as the primary catalyst for the Protestant Reformation. It is vitally important to understand that these theses were used for the intent of displaying Luther's displeasure with the Church's indulgences

Persian letters

written by Montesquieu in 1721, it satirized contemporary institutions in a deeply cutting edge and critical exposition of the cruelty and irrationality of European life

On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres

written by Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543, it was a revolution-making, rather than revolutionary, text that directly contradicted the well-established theory of a geocentric universe.

Emile

written by Rousseau in 1762, it outlined his vision of the ideal education system. In it, he explained that children are naturally good and should receive an education that promotes kindness and happiness. In addition, he was one of the first to propose the concept of discovery learning, in which children learn through experience, and finally that growth occurs through various stages and every person grows in a different way, thus, education should be molded to the individual learning and growth style

Letters on the English

written by Voltaire in 1733 it praised the virtue of the English, especially in their religious liberty, and implicitly criticized the abuses of French society. The Parlement of Pris condemned the book, and the authorities harassed Voltaire.

Elements of the Philosophy of Newton

written by Voltaire in 1738, it popularized the thought of Issac Newton across the continent

The Advancement of Learning and Novum Organum

written in 1605 and 1620, these books by Francis Bacon attacked the scholastic belief that most truth had already been discovered and only required explanation as well as the scholastic reverence for authority in intellectual life. He believed scholastic thinkers paid too much attention to tradition and to the knowledge of the ancients.

Leviathan

written in 1651 by Thomas Hobbs, it was published during the turmoil of the English Civil War to provide a rigorous philosophical justification for strong central political authority

Principia Mathematica

written in 1687 by Isaac Newton it reasoned that the planets and all other physical objects in the universe move through mutual attraction or gravity. Every object in the universe affected every other object through gravity and its attraction explained why the planets move in an orderly, rather than chaotic, manner.

Essay concerning human understanding

written in 1690 by John Locke, it portrayed a person's mind at birth as a blank tablet whose content would be determined by sense experience. His vision of the mind has been aptly compared to an early version of behaviorism.

Two Treatises of Government

written in 1690 by John Locke, it stated that the role of government was to preserve life, liberty, and property, and all persons should be able to live in a natural state of perfect freedom and equality.

Spirit of the Laws

written in 1748 by Montesquieu, it exhibits the internal tensions of the Enlightenment. In it, Montesquieu pursues an empirical method, taking illustrative examples from the political experience in both ancient and modern nations. He concluded that no single set of political laws could apply to all people at all times.

Discourse of the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences

written in 1750 by Rousseau in which he contended that the process of civilization and the Enlightenment had corrupted nature

Discourse on the Origin of inequality

written in 1755 by Rousseau in which he blamed much of the evil in the world on the mal-distribution of property. He contended that human beings in primeval state of nature had been good, but that as they eventually formed social relations, and then social institutions, they lost their goodness.

The social contract

written in 1762 by Rousseau, it was an extensive discussion of politics that outlines the kind of political structure Rousseau believed would overcome the evils of contemporary politics and society. Society is more important than its individual members, because they are what they are only by virtue of their relationship to the larger community.

Treatise on Toleration

written in 1763 by Voltaire; argued religious toleration had created no problems for England and Holland,reminded governments that " all men are brothers under God"

Philosophical Dictionary

written in 1764 by Voltaire, it was a series of witty yet serious essays on topics ranging from certainty to circumcision.

Jerusalem

written in 1783 by Mendelsohn, he argued both for extensive religious toleration and for maintaining the religious distinction of Jewish communities. He believed that religious diversity within a nation didn't harm loyalty to the government; therefore governments should be religiously neutral.

A Vindication of the Rights of Woman

written in 1792 by Mary Wollstonecraft, it brought Rousseau before the judgement of the rational Enlightenment ideal of progressive knowledge. The immediate incentive for this essay was her opposition to certain policies of the French Revolution which were inspired by Rousseau.

Long Term Causes

• Corrupt and inconsistent leadership. • Prosperous members of Third Estate resent privileges of First and Second Estates. • Spread of Enlightenment ideas

Immediate Effects

• Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen adopted. • France adopts its first written constitution • Revolutionary France fights coalition of European powers • Monarchy abolished; execution of King and queen • Reign of Terror

Connections Today

• French law reflects Napoleonic Code • France eventually became a democratic republic

Immediate Causes

• Huge government debt • Poor harvests and rising price of bread • Failure of Louis XVI to accept financial reforms • Formation of National Assembly • Storming of Bastille

utopian socialism

•Built self-sufficient communities •All shared workload •Common property •If gap between rich & poor disappeared, fighting would cease •All live as peaceful, happy family - a "Utopia"

socialism

•Gov't: Pro-Parliament -A backlash against the emergence of individualism & the fragmentation of society -A movement toward cooperation and a sense of community Advocated: •Economic equality & planning •Equal distribution of income (useful members) •Social equality & harmony through communities based on cooperation •Communal ownership of assets Opposed: •laissez-faire economics (capitalism) •Poverty •Inequality •Injustice •competition

conservatism

•Gov't: monarchy Advocated: •Monarchy •Catholic Church • Aristocracy •Status quo Opposed: -Liberals - Radicals - Republicans - Rapid change

republicanism

•Members: intelligentsia, students, writers, working class, veterans (outgrowth of Jacobins) •Gov't: Pro Republic Advocated: •Political equality •Universal male suffrage •Reform by VIOLENCE & FORCE (met in secret societies) Opposed: •Monarchy •Constitutional monarchy •Aristocracy •Catholic Church (anything conservative) •Liberals (change by legislation)

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