AP Euro Final (Units 2-21)

Creditanstalt

A leading Vienna bank that failed in 1931 and sent a wave of shivers, bankruptcies, and business calamities over Europe.

Andrei Sakharov

A leading dissenter and committed opponent of the regime who was allowed to return to Moscow from exile and take part in political life because of glasnost.

Anti-Corn Law League

A league of the working class and the middle class who didn't like the corn laws that were controlling England. They eventually got them repealed with the help of the Prime Minister in fear of a famine like in Ireland.

Gladstone (not a term)

A liberal minister in the House of Commons that made significant changes in England. (not a term)

German Confederation of 1815

A loose confederation of German states reinstated after the debacle in 1815. It was not enough to satisfy German nationalists.

European Defense Agency (not a term)

A military cooperation between EU members. (not a term)

Raymond Poincare

A moderate conservative leader who sent troops into the Ruhr when Germany refused to pay reparations and "saved" the franc by passing new taxes, tightening tax collection, cutting government expenditures to balance the budget. This stabilized the franc at a low value and the internal debt was repudiated.

Virginia Woolf

A modernist writer who examined the complex passage of time through the characters she created in novels such as "To the Lighthouse"

Tugenbund

A moral and scientific union, a league of virtue or manliness, and its members aimed to develop their character and this contributed to Germany as a whole.

Marseillaise

A morning war song brought by the Marseilles Detachment. A fierce call to war upon tyranny.

Albania

A mountainous, mainly Muslim region off the Adriatic which Serbia and Greece wanted, and Italy thought they had a claim to. It was the cause of the second Balkan war.

Febronianism

A movement in the Catholic Church to decrease the papacy's power and make Catholicism a national religion. James II liked religious toleration, so he fought this.

Pietism

A movement within the Lutheran church that focused on the illumination of soul and improvement of individual, therefore contradicting with the ideals of the Enlightenment.

Metayer (Sharecroppers)

A person who works the land using tools, seeds, and other materials provided by a noble. This lord would, in turn, get crops or earnings as compensation for their generosity.

Fouche

A physics professor before the Revolution, he became the minister of Police to Napoleon. He was once a leader of the Terror and and an extreme Herbertist. He was influential in the fall of Robespierre.

Turgot

A physiocrat and philosopher appointed by Louis XVI to be the head of a reformed ministry. He made many economic reforms, but was unpopular, so he resigned.

Lend-Lease

A policy adopted by the US in 1941 that provided arms, raw materials, and food to powers at war with the Axis powers.

Ostpolitik

A policy encouraging the building of bridges to the Soviet Union and East Europe (including East Germany). The goal was to improve the relations between them.

Austroslavism

A political belief within Austria where many nationalities didn't actually want independence; they just wanted some form of self-government.

Civic Forum

A political movement in the Czech part of Czechoslovakia, established during the Velvet Revolution in 1989. Its purpose was to unify the dissident forces in Czechoslovakia and to overthrow the Communist regime.

Tories

A political party that supported the Stuarts and were virtually non-existent in Parliament.

John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough

A powerful English military leader during the War of the Spanish Succession.

Jean Monnet

A practical and visionary French administrator who helped reorganize the postwar French economy. He tried to set Europe on a path towards economic and political unity and took extensive means to do so. He established the ECSC and was its first president.

Dumouriez

A prominent French general who had won many battles for the French Republic and then defected to Austria, angering the French people.

Battle of Peterloo

A protest that took place at St. Peter's fields in Manchester in reaction to the revision of the Corn Laws. It was broken up by soldiers.

La Rochelle

A protestant town that appealed for help from England reminding Elizabeth that she once controlled them. They gave sporadic help.

Quakers

A religious group that emerged, allowing all people to have religious revelations, rejecting religious and political higherarchies, and allowing women to preach.

Church of Ireland

A replica of the English Church that was placed in Ireland but was not accepted by them.

Beveridge Report

A report by William Henry Beveridge in Britain. It proposed to guarantee full employment in a free society and lifelong social security for all. This allowed for social insurance to expand.

Corvee

A requirement for certain peasants to labor on the roads a few days each year. This was a form of taxation in France that was abolished by Turgot.

Kulak

A rich peasant who owed a lot of the land.

Treaty of Dover

A secret treaty forged between Charles II and Louis XIV. It stated that Charles would assist Louis with an impending war against the Dutch and that Louis would pay Charles in return. This treaty was made with the hope that Charles would convert to Catholicism. It also came into effect during the Dutch War.

Five Great Farms

A section of free trading areas (no internal tariffs) that were flourishing. Colbert created these and named them for the five areas they existed on. This area was a small part of France, but was as England in square mileage.

Jules Guesde

A self taught worker, former member of the Paris Commune, and extreme Marxist who some people in France chose to follow. He thought it was impossible to free the working class by any compromise or parliamentary means.

Civil Society

A society in which people can live free from the dictates of a state.

South Sea Bubble

A speculative mania that ruined many British investors. It was founded around the South Sea Company, and was brought down by the investors and fraud. From this scandal Robert Walpole rose to power.

Pierre Bayle

A spokesman for relativism and skepticism. Ridiculed popular beliefs, human gullibility.

"Pyrenees exist no longer"

A statement of Louis XIV that was boasting of his newfound control of Spain. Because France and Spain had both held lands surrounding the Pyrenees mountains, France's gain of this land imposed Louis to say that the Pyrenees were not a barrier to their empire any longer.

Law of "Limited Liability"

A stockholder could not lose more than the par value of an investment--this allowed many people from all classes to feel safe investing their money and in turn pushing the economy forward.

Bill of Rights

A summary of rights the English felt that all people should have, which was recognized by William and Mary. They included the idea that no law could be suspended without parliament's ruling, no person could be arrested without reason, and that no law could be made without parliamentary consent. It was a social contract between the King and people.

Commercial Capitalism

A system of capitalism where "entrepreneurs" were merchants who knew where products could be sold, and they prevailed over producers.

Zemstvos

A system of provincial and district councils that Alexander II set up. These took up local matters like education, medical relief, and food supply, and they developed civic sentiment because they were a form of self-government.

Hereditary Subjection

A system similar to manorialism in the east where serfs were forced to live under the roof of a lord because of hereditary reasons (ie. their grandfather worked for that lord's grandfather). They could not take another job or go to University without the permission of said Lord.

Beard Tax

A tax on those men in Russian who wore beards established by Peter the Great to discourage them because Peter saw them as barbaric and improper.

"Ems Dispatch"

A telegraph of French demands to Austria (Hohenzollerns) to give up the rule of Spain. Bismarck condensed this conversation to make it seem like a rude conversation, and its publication angered both countries.

Hungry Forties

A term used to describe Europe in the 1840s because of the failure to recover from the continent-wide depression. It caused mass hunger and discontent.

Industrial Revolution

A term used to describe the new industrial revelations and burst in economic efficiency and productivity from 1780-1850.

Union Treaty

A treaty devised by Gorbachev that gave considerable power to the other Socialist Republics in the USSR and removed Moscow's complete control over them. It created a framework for the republics to share power within a new political federation. This made the hardliners angry and caused them to launch the August Coup.

Free Trade Treaty of 1860

A treaty made with Great Britain in order to lift up the French economy and encourage free trade internationally for a better global economy.

Revisionism (not a term)

A type of Marxism which accepted the state and believed it was possible to make gradual and peaceful change through government. (not a term)

Protestant Union

A united group of Protestants who aimed to protect their religious freedoms.

Hawley-Smoot Tariff

A very high tariff set by the Unites states in 1930 that contributed to the decline of international trade because other countries could sell less, and therefore buy less from the US

Treaty of Tordesillas

1494. Treaty between Portugal and Spain, splitting the known world in half. Spain got the Americas and the land around there, and the Portuguese got Africa, Asia, and Australia.

Six Articles

1539. The requirement of everyone in England to believe in transubstantiation, celibacy of the clergy, confession, and other aspects of Catholicism. Enacted by Henry VIII

Thirty-Nine Articles

1563. Stated clergy could marry, services were to be in English, and abolished monasteries, issued by Queen Elizabeth I

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

1572. Catherine de Medici decided to use her daughter's wedding to Henry of Navarre as an excuse to massacre a ton of Huguenots in Paris at one time. This angered the Huguenots and made them fight harder.

Time of Troubles

1604-1613. This was the time period after the death of Ivan the Terrible in which six different Tsars took the crown and each one of them was soon disposed of. During this time the Russian nobles demanded that their liberties be restored and assured by the Tsar.

War of the League of Augsburg

1688. When England combined with the Dutch, HRE, the kings of Spain and Sweden, and the electors of Bavaria, Saxony, and Palatinate. They waged war on France together because they feared a universal monarchy. This was when the Stuarts wanted Louis XIV to get England back so they could rule it again.

Peace of Ryswick

1697. Ends the War of the League of Augsburg. Gives France Alsace.

Pragmatic Sanction

1713. The article issued by Charles VI of Austria that stated that all Habsburg lands were to be kept together and passed on down through the Habsburg family. This was originally agreed to by the Habsburg states and foreign nations, but was violated after his death.

The "Fifteen"

1715- the first of the Stuart invasions of Scotland. James III and his followers (Tories, Non-Jurors, Jacobites) invaded Scotland only to be stopped by the Whigs and having lost support from Tory backing.

The "Forty Five"

1745- The second of the Stuart invasions of Scotland. The young pretender. His attempt was more successful than his father's, lasting longer and with more support, but again there was no support in England for the rebellion and it died.

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle

1748. The treaty that ended the War of Austrian Succession, at least for the time being. It gave Austria back Belgium, and secured Prussian control of Silesia. Britain and France both also gave up major holdings of each other's that they had obtained overseas.

Treaty of Luneville

1801--the terms of Campo Formio were confirmed and Austria and France thus ceased to be at war with one another.

Treaty of Nanking

1842. This forced the imperial government to cede the island of Hong Kong to England forever, play 100 million dollars in reparations, and open four large cities to trade with Europe with low tariffs.

Falloux Law

1850. A law that put all education in the hands and under the supervision of the French Catholic clergy and church.

Peace of Paris (not a term)

1856. This ended the Crimean war, caused Russia to give up gained territory, and said that they couldn't maintain warships on the Black Sea. It protected the Ottoman Empire. (not a term)

Turin Conference (not a term)

1860. This was the first meeting of parliament of the Kingdom of Italy. (not a term)

October Manifesto

1905. This manifesto from the tsar promised a constitution, civil liberties, and an elected Duma with legislative and administrative powers. This was issued as a successful attempt to divide the opposition (liberals vs. revolutionaries)

Duma Executive Committee

1917. The committee set up by the Duma to rule while the Duma was dismissed. It was the moderate, constitutionalist, and legal authority in Petrograd. Under pressure by the Petrograd Soviet, it set up a provisional government under Prince Lvov, admitted one socialist to the new gov't (Alexander Kerensky), and demanded the abdication of the tsar.

Council of People's Commissars

1917. The new government erected by the November Revolution and the Congress of Soviets. It was led by Lenin, with Trotsky as commissar for foreign affairs and Stalin as commissar for nationalities.

General Kornilov

1917. The newly appointed military commander who dispatched cavalry to restore order and suppress the soviets (he was from the far Right). However, he was defeated by the Bolsheviks, socialists, and revolutionary soldiers.

Petrograd Soviet

1917. The workers council in St. Petersburg (Petrograd) which represented the revolutionary forces and was socialist. It pushed authority to the left, and became the center of working class upheaval. It called for the end of war.

Constituent Assembly

1917. This assembly was to be elected by universal male suffrage and draft a constitution for the new regime.

Congress of Soviets

1917. This congress pronounced the Provisional Government defunct and named in its place the Council of People's Commissars

March (or February) Revolution

1917. When women's bread riots/anti-tsar riots broke out, the troops sided with the revolutionaries, the Petrograd Soviet and Provisional Government formed, and Nicholas II abdicated, making Russia a republic.

Clement Attlee

1945-1951. The British Prime Minister after Winston Churchill. He was with the Labour Party and set Great Britain on a course for a growing welfare state.

Truman (not a term)

1945-1953. Truman Doctrine. He denounced the Soviets for violating their pledge to allow free elections in eastern Europe and their failure to cooperate in the join occupation of Germany. He said that the Soviet control over eastern Europe was similar to Nazi/Fascist aggression. (not a term)

United Nations

1945. An international organization set up after WWII to prevent future war, maintain international peace and security, and encourage cooperative solutions to international problems. At first, few were willing to subordinate their sovereignty to an international body, but it grew and became successful.

Truman Doctrine

1947. This was a policy to contain communism everywhere and help free peoples who were resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or outside pressures. It committed the US to involvement in global military and economic affairs.

Berlin Blockade

1948-1949. This was the Soviet reaction to the currency change in West Berlin/Germany. They blockaded all road and rail access to Berlin. In response, the western countries flew in supplies and food to West Berlin until the Soviets lifted the blockade in 1949.

Council of Europe

1948. When delegates from 10 European countries met and established this in hopes that it would become a legislative body for a federated Europe. However, it never became an important political force and confined itself to humanitarian, cultural, and social issues.

Konrad Adenauer

1949-1969. He led the Christian Democrats in Germany. He was old, patriarchal, strong-willed, and wanted to regain international respect for Germany and move away from intense nationalism. He provided leadership, stability, and continuity, which allowed for economic expansion and West German sovereignty. He helped make the Federal Republic of Germany a western ally and a major economic power.

NATO

1949. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization. It was an anti-Soviet military treaty organization which had a network of military arrangements and a chain of command that was led by General Eisenhower.

European Coal and Steel Community

1952. The community including the Benelux countries, Italy, West Germany, and France. They all placed their coal and steel industries under a supranational authority. They agreed to eliminate import duties and quotas on coal and steel and to place production under a common High Authority with decision making powers. This paved the way for more vast economic integration.

Pierre Mendes-France

1954-1955. This was a brief reform ministry in France which was the only one in the Fourth Republic to be effective.

Warsaw Pact

1955. A pact in which the soviets coordinated military alliances with their satellite states to ensure protection during wartime and again bring them closer to the Soviet Union. It was an extension of the Council for Mutual Economic Aid.

Imre Nagy

1956. A reform-minded communist leader in Hungary whose reform program and release of political prisoners ignited pressures for democratization, a parliamentary government, and separation from Moscow. The Soviets forced his party to replace him with a more subservient person, and they sent in tanks to forcefully repress the riots.

Gomulka

1956. The communist leader in Poland who relaxed political and economic controls, halted collectivization, improved relations with the church, and took steps to loosen ties with Moscow. He curbed police terror and temporarily created a freer atmosphere, but the reform era was short lives and his regime controlled Poland with growing repression.

Treaty of Rome

1957. The countries of the ECSC signed this treaty to create the Common Market/European Economic Community (which later became the European Union).

Sputnik

1957. The first artificial satellite to orbit outer space; it was launched by the Soviets. This started the space race.

Common Market

1957. The large free trade area/customs union established by the Treaty of Rome, which had a goal of full economic and political integration. It pledged to eliminate tariff barriers, develop a common tariff for outsiders, harmonize social and economic policies, and work toward free movement of capital and labor. In a separate treaty, they agreed to coordinate their atomic research in the European Atomic Community.

Khrushchev (not a term)

1958-1964. He introduced the "thaw" and de-Stalinization. There was a relaxation of state controls (political police restricted, more development of consumer goods and agriculture). In a speech to the 20th Party Congress, he denounced the crimes of Stalin. He believed in peaceful coexistence and that a war with capitalism was not necessary or inevitable, so there was a brief period of detente under his reign. However, he was eventually ousted because of the fear that his reforms endangered powerful party members and because he failed to take a hard line with the US. (not a term)

Kennedy (not a term)

1961-1963. He was in office during the Berlin Wall and Cuban Missile Crisis and decided to quarantine Cuba. He highly disliked the USSR. (not a term)

Berlin Wall

1961. The wall built by the Soviets to keep the East Germans from going into West Germany. It was a symbol of the Cold War and German division, and many who tried to pass it died.

Bay of Pigs

1961. When the CIA trained Cuban exiles who launched an unsuccessful assault on Cuba where the leader, Fidel Castro, was developing close relations with the USSR

Cuban Missile Crisis

1962. When the Soviets started setting up missile sites in Cuba, which could reach the US. This caused the US to set up a blockade of arms and supplies and to threaten to react with nuclear retaliation to any Soviet action. The Soviets backed down, recalled their ships, and removed their weapons from Cuba with the US promising not the attempt to invade Cuba again and to remove missiles from Turkey. As a result of this crisis, the arms race escalated further.

Partial Test-Ban Treaty

1963. A treaty prohibiting all test detonations of nuclear weapons except underground to prevent the spread of harmful radiation.

Brezhnev (not a term)

1964-1982. He ended the cultural "thaw" and emphasized military buildup at the expense of the economy. The Soviet economy began to lag behind the West (very little technological development, no increase in standard of living, agriculture remained weak). He also suppressed the Prague Spring in Czechoslovakia. (not a term)

European Community

1967. The community that emerged from the combination of the ECSC, Common Market, and European Atomic Community. This finally created a European parliament. The members in this community's parliament were sat by party and not elected by individual nations, and they were elected by a European-wide electorate. It had limited legislative authority but supervised the budget.

Alexander Dubcek

1968. The man who made liberal reforms in Czechoslovakia (opened political debates, free press, legalized opposition parties, threatened the one-party state, Prague Spring), but was suppressed by the Soviet military.

Nixon (not a term)

1969-1974. He and Kissinger believed in balance of power diplomacy. He assumed that each country's long-range national self-interest and geo-political concerns should count more than ideology. This resulted in closer economic relations between the US and the USSR (US gave more aid and investments). He also initiated diplomatic relations between the US and China. The two Germanys had closer economic and diplomatic relations and were admitted to the UN separately. He was also involved in the SALT I talks. (not a term)

Helmut Kohl

1974-1982. The Christian Democratic chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany. Under his leadership, modest economic growth resumed, production increased, and the German mark was very strong. However, high wages and general social benefits led to heavy labor costs which burdened the economy and reduced its competitiveness in the world economy.

Helmut Schmidt (not a term)

1974-1982. The Social Democratic chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany. He moved to control inflation through retrenchment and conservatism, but the industrial slowdown of the 1970s brought unemployment, which closed the doors for the guest workers, and there was much anti-immigrant sentiment. (not a term)

Helsinki Accords

1975. These were a high point of detente and confirmed that postwar Europe had regained the political and economic vitality that was shattered in the war. They pledged to work for peace, economic and cultural cooperation, and protection of human rights. They ratified the European territorial boundaries established after WWII and set up "Helsinki watch committees" for the surveillance of human rights in the nations that signed them. This encouraged dissenters to defy repression in Eastern Europe. The USSR signed it too because detente offered an opportunity to settle unresolved issues of WWII. It also considered a commitment to human rights a small price to pay for the economic and other benefits of detente

Carter (not a term)

1977-1981. He took a hard line with the USSR and was very focused on human rights. He withdrew the SALT II Treaty from Senate because of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. (not a term)

Afghanistan

1979. The area that the USSR invaded to strengthen the weak pro-Soviet regime. This caused Carter to withdraw the SALT II Treaty from the Senate because he believed this was a serious threat to world peace.

Reagan (not a term)

1981-1989. He referred to the USSR as the "evil empire" and crushed Soviet inspired leftist movements in Latin America. He supported anyone who wasn't communist, including terrible fascist leaders. There was also a dramatic increase in military spending and arms buildup under his leadership. (not a term)

Francois Mitterand

1981. He was the first Socialist president in the French Fifth Republic. He was a moderate socialist and his legacy was cohabitation. He reduced the workweek and nationalized large banks and several leading industrial corporations. He was one of the few who still believed in Keynesian economics and government intervention. However, when the increased labor costs hurt the economy, he changed course; he stopped nationalization, emphasized retrenchment to cope with inflation, and emphasized new technology and modernization. These reforms encouraged economic growth, but didn't help unemployment.

Maastricht Treaty

1991. This treaty officially established the European Union (was previously the European Community).

Tony Blair (not a term)

1997. He led the New Labour Party and expanded the welfare state, but kept a more moderate stance (welfare state + free market). (not a term)

British Labour Party

A "socialist" party in England formed by trade union officials and middle class intellectuals. They shaped the more liberal reforms in England, but were nothing close to being socialist.

Women's Social and Political Union

A British feminist union. It sponsored petitions, mass meetings, and protests that demanded equal suffrage for women.

Montaigne

A French essayist who began to question everything and embodied skepticism; questioned variety of human customs/who's are right? (cannibals)

Social Gospel

A Protestant Christian intellectual movement that was most prominent in the United States and Canada. The movement applied Christian ethics to social problems, especially issues of social justice such as economic inequality, poverty, alcoholism, crime, racial tensions, slums, unclean environment, child labor, inadequate labor unions, poor schools, and the danger of war.

Bakunin

A Russian anarchist that believed the state caused workers' problems. Marx disagreed with him because he believed the source of their problems was capitalism. Marx later kicked him out of the First International.

Lenin

A Russian orthodox Marxist who demanded revisionism be stamped out. He became the leader of the Bolsheviks.

Muzhik

A Russian peasant or serf. They were oppressed and treated like slaves.

Ivan Pavlov

A Russian psychologist. His findings showed that animal/human behavior could be explained on the basis of conditioned responses, so human actions were merely conditioned responses, not conscious decisions.

Gneisenau

A Saxon who had served in the French side of the American Revolution. He saw the nationalism they had and wanted to create that in Prussia.

Michael Servetus

A Spanish man who denied the fact that there was a trinity and sought asylum in Geneva. John Calvin turned him away and burned him at the stake for heresy.

Edmund Burke

A Whig member of Parliament who believed landowners should govern, and that they should vote according to their own conscience, not based on their constituents' opinions. He was the founder of philosophical conservatism.

European Central Bank

A bank that was set up in Frankfurt Germany by the EU that had the authority to set forward monetary policy for member EU countries. The monetary policy's effects on each country's social and economic policies became controversial as various economies came under a more centralized system of monetary management and as the sovereign debt crisis developed.

Credit Mobilier

A banking institution that raised government funds by selling shares to the public. With these shares they bought stock in companies and fueled the French economy.

Franche-Comte

A base from where the Spanish attacked the French.

Lepanto

A battle that prevented the Ottoman Empire from moving forward into Europe more.

Realism

A belief system based largely on facts. It describes the new outlook many people chose to take on after the 1848 revolutions, choosing a more "realistic" view of political change. It was the opposite of idealism.

Discourse on Method

A book by Descartes in which he set forth his ideas and introduced the idea of systematic doubt (disbelieve everything until it is proven). He encouraged to question everything.

"Decline of the West"

A book by German historian/philosopher Oswald Spengler. He traced the history of the west from its energetic youth (Renaissance) to declining old age (WWI), which provided an explanation for the seemingly senseless war

"Rights of Women"

A book by Olympe de Gouges. It was written following the publishment of the Declaration. It states how each of the seventeen articles applies to women and how they should also obtain other rights, such as the right to divorce their husbands, have equal education, obtain property through inheritance, and have whichever career they chose.

"Civilization and its Discontents"

A book by Sigmund Freud that had pessimistic descriptions of the endless struggle between humanity's deep irrational drives and civilized moral standards (unconscious instincts usually won)

"The Rights of Man"

A book by Thomas Paine that was published in 1791 and defends the French Revolution and gives the phrase a powerful English meaning to the motto for revolutionary thinkers. The idea that "man" is everyone.

Condition of the Working Classes in England (book)

A book that Engels wrote highlighting what he saw the working conditions in England to be and affirming many of Marx's ideas.

"The Courtier"

A book writing by Castiglione. It highlighted the way that men and women should behave in a well functioning society, as well as towards each other. It established a sense of manners much different than what they had in the Middle Ages and was widely published around the world. It said that men should be manly and strong, and women should be soft and delicate.

"The Second Sex"

A book written by Beauvoir. It contended that women, even though they were half of the human race, had always been oppressed by a male-dominated society. It also stated that women had been denied access to positions of authority, power, property, and leadership.

"The Feminine Mystique"

A book written by Betty Friedan. It described the frustrations of women who were being blocked from professional careers. It encouraged women to move beyond their traditional lives at home and to utilize their skills and education to participate in the workforce.

"Reflections on Violence"

A book written by Georges Sorel. It declared that violence was good regardless of the end accomplishment and that workers should believe in the "myth" of a general strike against the bourgeoisie, even though it was a myth. He thought that people need to get excited and agitated to do something; not be rational and think about ways to do it.

Spiritual Exercises

A book written by Ignatius Loyola that detailed the training of the Jesuits and highlighted the importance of the Catholic Church, Pope, and Rome.

Institutes of the Christian Religion

A book written by John Calvin in Latin that stated the way he believed that good Christians should act in the world, and unlike Luther's statements, were aimed at a much broader audience than those in Germany.

"Grapes of Wrath"

A book written by John Steinbeck that was about a family of farmers living through the Great Depression in America.

Fronde

A break out of parlement members and nobles who were insecure in the rule of Mazarin so they waged an uprising against him. To assist their cause they brought in Spain (who was still against France) and angered the people in their own country, promoting the absolute rule of Louis XIV.

Suez Canal

A canal built by a French company that employed many people. The building of this was one of the more successful projects of Louis Napoleon.

Suez Canal

A canal that a French company built and was largely financed by the British. Ismail promoted the building of this.

Dresden

A city in Germany that was heavily bombed by the Americans and British. It killed 50,000 civilians.

Legislative Commission

A great consultative assembly called by Catherine the Great that allowed nobles to make propositions of what needed to be fixed and allowed her to learn about her country and its problems that needed to be solved.

Non-Jurors

A group of Anglican Clergy that refused to take oath and made secret underground worship centers. They supported the Stuart uprising.

Young Hegelians

A group of Germans who questioned the ideas of Hegel and formed the beginnings of Marx's communist ideas.

Knights of the Empire

A group of knights that acknowledged no higher authority than theirs except that of the Holy Roman Emperor. They lived in small manners and estates, different from the large ones Lords lived in.

Jesuits

A group of military and religiously focused people who followed Ignatius Loyola. They are also known as the Society of Jesus. They developed many schools for boys in Catholic Europe, and helped reconvert people back to follow the Pope. They helped strengthen the idea of one worldly religion with the Pope in Rome at the head of that.

Levellers

A group of people who asked for universal manhood suffrage, a written constitution, natural rights, elected parliament, and equality of representation during Cromwell's rule in England.

Fifth Monarchy Men

A group of people with the belief that the end of the world was coming. They believed that there had been four phases to life on earth (in Caesar's at the time) and that the phase of God was to come soon, where justice and peace would reign over earth.

Ursulines

A group of women that started a religious group much like the Jesuits, but not as famous.

Aristocracy

A higher class with refined tastes. They cared more about social standing than work. They were educated or worked in the government, and usually had a lot of inherited money and land.

Taille

A land tax levied upon the peasants in France, who were unable to pay. The middle and upper classes were granted tax exemptions from this. This caused the French government to become very poor.

Nonproliferation Treaty

A landmark international treaty whose objective is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and to further the goal of achieving disarmament.

Solemn League of Covenant

A law passed that made Presbyterianism (Calvinism) the established religion of England, Ireland, and Scotland.

Second Balkan War

A war over the territory of Albania. Russia supported the Serbians, but Austria was against them. They ended up creating an independent kingdom in Albania, which satisfied the Austrians but upset the Serbians and Russians.

Mme. Roland

A woman involved with the Jacobins and often hosted the meetings at her house.

Emmeline Pankhurst

A woman who was a leader of the Women's Social and Political Union. She led radicals in violent protest for suffrage because she was fed up with stubborn male politicians. This included damaging stores, mailboxes, and government buildings.

Sophie Condorcet

A writer and translator for Adam Smith. She held salons that opposed Napoleon in secret and allowed for intellectual and free conversation in her home.

Fichte

A writer whose views on the French changed through the years, and he began to dislike the French nation. He thought the Germans were the best and their culture was the best and it needed protecting from the French.

Rupert Brooke

A young, well-known, English writer who died in war and left literary statements about the spiritual nobility of sacrifices for the nation.

Maginot Line

Advanced, elaborate French fortifications built on the east border facing Germany and along the Swiss to the Belgian border.

Leninism

Aka Bolshevism. This was orthodox Marxism with Lenin's additions that included the idea that imperialism was the highest state of capitalism (driven by surplus capital and investment in underdeveloped areas for profit, which led to struggles between imperialist powers and the subjected peoples, which provided opportunities for revolution) and that the party was supposed to be small, elite, centralized, etc. (refer to Bolsheviks)

Constitutional Democrats

Aka Cadets. This party was made up of liberal nobles, the middle class, and progressives. It focused on a constitution, a nationally elected parliament, and believed that they could still have a tsar (Western liberalism)

Third International

Aka Comintern. This international Marxist organization was a tool for the Russians to promote the worldwide proletariat revolution based on the Bolshevik model. All other Communist parties had to follow its policy, which included strict discipline, work against revisionism, and infiltrate unions and armies. It sent agents to other nations to promote revolution. However, it became more moderate under Stalin's rule.

Cadets

Aka the Constitutional Democrats. When the Duma first met, they fought for the principle of a constitutional government. They demanded universal male suffrage and responsibility of the ministers to the parliament majority. This caused the tsar to dismiss the Duma.

European Recovery Program

Aka the Marshall Plan. It was a nonpolitical plan for reconstruction for which the US would provide financial support. It gave aid in accordance with what each country needed. It worked with joint European and American priorities in order to get maximum benefits.

Spanish Popular Front

All leftist groups in Spain joined in this against adherents of the old regime and fascists.

Holy Alliance

An alliance that vowed to protect the servitude and kindness of Christianity. It meant to create peace but was seen by some as a way that imposed Christianity and discouraged liberty and democracy.

Frederick V

Calvinist, Elector of Palatine, the head of the Protestant Union. He was chosen as the new king of Bohemia to protect Protestantism.

Catherine's "Greek Project"

Catherine wanted Greeks (members of Greek Orthodox Church) to replace the Muslims as the dominant element through out the Middle East. They enlisted Austria to help.

Mary Queen of Scots/ Mary Stuart

Catholic; cousin of Elizabeth I; was next in line to be queen of England; had been queen of France and Scotland; Elizabeth was threatened by her, so she imprisoned her before many years before she was killed.

Bakunin

An anarchist who called for terrorism against tsarist officials and liberals. He believed a true revolutionary would be devoured by one purpose: the revolution.

"Germany in its Deep Humiliation"

An anonymous anti-French work that Palm, the publisher, was put to death for selling.

Talleyrand

An archbishop coming from a line of nobility before the Revolution, he became the minister of Foreign Affairs to Napoleon. He spent the Terror in the US and wanted, ultimately, a constitutional monarchy, but was willing to work towards a compromise.

Chechen Republic

An area in the Russian Federation that proclaimed its independence but had large oil reserves so Russia was resistant to its departure. Russia used deadly military and air attacks to prevent it from succeeding.

Blackshirts

An armed band of young men who followed Mussolini. They brawled with Communists and ordinary workers in the streets and opposed socialist ideas. They stirred up discontent and led the March on Rome.

Vertical Integration

An arrangement in which the supply chain of a company is owned by that company. Usually each member of the supply chain produces a different product or service, and the products combine to satisfy a common need or create a common product.

Horizontal Integration

An arrangement when companies within the same industry combine to reduce competition and protect themselves against fluctuations in prices and markets.

Cubism

An art movement that came about from 1906-1907 and was publicized by artists such as Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque. It focused on geometrical forms and sharp angles. It attempted to see all dimensions of reality at once and break something down into many sub-parts. It abandoned perspective and portrayed a 3D reality on a 2D surface. Examples of this are "Violin and Palette" by Braque and "Led Demoiselles D' Avignon" by Picasso

Classicism

An artistic and linguistic theory emphasizing balance, order, harmony, and the artistic achievements of the Ancients. This was highly encouraged by Louis XIV and Nicolas Boileau (advocate of classic writing).

Marshal MacMahon

An early president of the French Third Republic that tried to dismiss a premier he didn't approve of but had the support of a majority of the chamber. This was unsuccessful, so he tried to dismiss the Chamber and hold new elections, but this was also unsuccessful because people feared the recent authoritarian government of Napoleon III. This caused parliamentary reforms that made the premier and the chamber the most powerful political elements.

Monnet Plan

An economic plan drawn up by Jean Monnet, which enlarged and modernized France's economic base and paved the way for industrial expansion. It was a flexible form of economic planning in which government, management, and labor played mutually reinforcing roles.

Communist Manifesto (book)

An overexaggerated writing that highlighted Marx's ideas about what communism should be and why they should have it. He explained what happened in the workplace and why it pertained to class structure. He trashed the bourgeois. It was his call to revolution.

Declaration of Verona

Announced Louis's intention to restore the Old Regime and punish those involved in the revolution of 1789. This endeavor was not very successful.

Siegfried Sassoon

Another English poet who disliked the war, speaking of its senselessness and mocking propaganda.

Ludendorff

Another general who helped come up with the final German offensive. He was the one who recommended Germany make peace with the Allies and form a more democratic government.

Storming of the Tuileries

August 10, 1792. When the working class people stormed the Tuileries, trying to defeat the Swiss Guard and imprison the Royal Family.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

August 26th 1789. 17 articles in which the Assembly declared the rights of the French man and outlines the privileges that all people had and were therefore entitled to. This was the beginning of the new government that the National Assembly was to set up.

"Allied States"

Austria, Denmark (Norway), Sweden, and Russia. These states were influenced with Napoleon, and would side with him in wars, but he had no direct influence over them or what they did. They would sometimes adopt his reforms and sometimes not adopt his reforms.

Second Coalition

Austria, Russia, and Great Britain formed to make the second coalition against France and their occupation of Egypt. Russia wanted to protect their wars against the Ottoman Turks and their expansion into the East. England was protecting their territories in India, which France aimed to attack. Austria didn't like France's rearrangement of Germany.

Hadyn

Austrian composer. The first great master of the Classical style of music. He wrote more than 100 symphonies and is called the "Father of the Symphony"

Silesia

Austrian land that was conquered by Frederick the Great, doubling Prussia's population, adding valuable industries, and making Prussia a great power in Europe.

Balance of Payments

Balance between the amount of money a country makes in exports and the amount of money a country spends on imports (even if they weren't equal in amount of goods).

Penal Code of Ireland

Basically stated that Catholics in Ireland had no rights. They couldn't be clergy members, they couldn't be in parliament, they couldn't inherit money, or even buy horses in some cases. They couldn't be teachers, or attend university. They couldn't be apprentices or have more than two apprentices. It was the persecution of all Catholics in Ireland and one of the reasons Ireland still hates England to this day.

El Alamein

Battle in northern Africa where the British held the Germans from advancing further into Egypt.

Battle of the Bulge

Battle where Germany launched its final offensive on the thinly held lines of the Americans in Belgium on the Ardennes, creating a vulnerable bulge in the advancing armies. It caused many losses and confusion. The Allies won in the end. It was only as successful as it was because the Germans went radio silent.

Battle of the Atlantic

Battle where the Germans wanted to blockade and starve the British and control the Atlantic to threaten US involvement in the war. They used U-boats and had initial success, but they eventually lost because the British used US convoys, computers to break codes, emails for communication, sonar, and radar.

Czechs

Bohemians, Protestants

"State Service"

Both the nobility and the serfs fell into this pattern under Peter the Great. All nobility were required to join the army and the status given in the army was based on the service to the King instead of your social class.

"Violin and Palette"

Braque, Cubism

Corn Laws

British laws, revised so they prohibited the importation of foreign grain unless the home price was very high. This benefited the aristocracy and upper classes and made the peasants angry.

Ultra

British military intelligence

Margin

Buying on margin: borrowing money from a broker to purchase stock

The Young Pretender (not a term)

Charles Edward Louis John Casimir Sylvester Severino Maria Stuart, the son of James III. He and his followers attempted to invade Scotland. They were more successful than James III, but were ultimately fought off by the English, who held no support for the Stuarts.

Parlement

French courts; Henry IV silenced their protests against the Edict of Nantes

Foch

French general who was made commander in chief of all Allied forces to unify against German assault

Louis Blanc

French journalist and spokesman for the unhappy republican/socialist working class of France. He proposed the system of "social workshops" (state would support manufacturing centers in which laborers would work for themselves without the intervention of private capitalists. There would be employment for all)

Count de Saint-Simon

French noble. He was an early socialist who advocated public ownership of capital controlled by leaders who would plan huge projects to better society.

Moliere

French playwright who was famous for his comedies. His source of comedy was the deflation of arrogance, and his works underline the humanity of even the most absurd of his characters. They advocate reason and balance.

Corneille

French playwright who was famous for his tragedies. He created a new Classical Verse Tragedy type of play, which was specifically directed towards a middle class audience because it questioned traditional ideas. However, his popularity declined because his plays were artificial and abstract, and his rival, Racine, became popular.

Racine

French playwright who was famous for his tragedies. He used Corneille's Classical Verse Tragedy form of plays. In his plays, he explored human mind and emotions, specifically human selfishness.

Charles Fourier

French socialist. He was uncompromising and condemned all social institutions. He believed that society should be organized into small communal units ("phalansteries" with 1620 people each, each person doing the work that suited him/her best)

Friedland

French victory over Russians. Alexander didn't want to retreat back to his country in fear of a peasant revolt, so he decided to negotiate with Napoleon (Treaty of Tilsit).

Galileo's Laws of Moving Bodies

Galileo's law that all objects fell at the same rate of acceleration.

GATT

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. It was the foundation of a postwar global commercial system where Europe regained international influence. This laid down rules to prevent discrimination in international trade. It set up procedures for handling complaints and provided framework for continuing negotiation through sessions designed to lower tariffs and remove non-tariff barriers.

"Patriot King"

George III. He wanted to increase influence of the king in Parliament and had to work through Parliament to do so, so he created the "king's friends"

Central Powers

Germany and its allies

Nepotism

Giving an office or special treatment to those whom you are related to.

Asiento

Granted the English the "privilege" of providing Spanish America with African slaves.

Basic Law

Grundgestez. This was to be the temporary constitution in West Germany until the unification of the two parts of Germany. It had an extensive bill of rights and power was decentralized under a federal system.

Matthias

Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor and the King of Bohemia

Luddites

Handcraft factory workers that attacked whole factories in northern England and smashed machines which they thought put them out of work.

Pluralism

Having multiple jobs or doing multiple things, in this case having multiple positions in the church. This was a problem with Popes and other Cardinals.

James VI of Scotland

He became James I of England. He inherited the rule of England and Scotland after the death of Elizabeth. He wrote the "True Law of Free Monarchy", and believed in royal absolutism. He was always in need of money and was therefore always at odds with parliament.

Herder

He believed in Volkgeist, that true culture must arise from the common people, that all cultures must develop in their own unique way, and that law should reflect local traditions.

Copernicus

He believed the earth moved around the sun. He was the first one to say that the Greeks were wrong and that he could prove it.

Nicolae Ceausescu

He had served as an extremely repressive and Stalin-like dictator in Romania for years. He wanted to industrialize the agrarian society regardless of human cost and borrowed heavily from the West, making the country pay. He stood out because he broke from Moscow and was independent in foreign and military affairs. During the revolts he was violently ousted from his position and killed.

Regiomontanus

He laid the foundations for mathematical conception of the universe. He was the most influential scientist of the 15th century.

Leon Blum

He led the Socialists and was a spokesman for democratic and reformist (parliamentary means) socialism. He became the premier of a coalition cabinet of Socialists and Radical Socialists (the French Popular Front except the Communists who didn't join the cabinet but pledged their support).

Tristan Tzara

He promoted Dadaism (rejected the structures of traditional literature and generated criticisms of European rationality, aesthetic ideals, and social conventions). This movement quickly vanished, but passed on some of its ideas to Surrealism.

Edmund Gierek

He replaced Gomulka in Poland. He was reform minded and embarked on an ambitious economic development program that was financed by heavy borrowing from the West. Initial results were promising and the economy began to improve, but to pay off the debt, he had to expand exports at the expense of domestic consumption. This caused economic conditions to decrease, which sparked social unrest. He was ousted due to pressures from the Soviet leaders and was replaced by General Jaruzelski.

Clemenceau

He represented France at the Peace of Paris. He was very nationalistic.

Gracchus Babeuf

He wanted a dictatorial government in which private property was abolished and equality would be decreed between all people. He was one of the first communists and was executed.

Joseph Chamberlain

He wanted the British government to provide economic security and advance the welfare of its people. He believed that Great Britain needed a self-sustaining and self-protecting empire/market.

Bruni

He was a chancellor of Florence. He wrote a history of the Middle Ages and compared it to the history in Florence, which separated the two ages from each other, showing the importance of Florentine advancements and why Florence needed to be protected. Made history provide useful and practical knowledge and showed the need for authentic sources.

Charles de Gaulle

He was a general and leader of the French Resistance during the Vichy government. He was the provisional president and the first president of both the Fourth (1946) and Fifth (1958-1969) republics. He disliked the machinery of the Fourth Republic, so he resigned in protest. During the Algerian crisis, he was named the premier of the Fourth Republic to maintain control of the situation. He was given emergency powers for 6 months and authority to prepare a new constitution for the Fifth Republic. Under this constitution, the president had much more power, and he was voted into this position. There was more peace, stability, economic prosperity, and France became a world leader again under his leadership. However, his education cuts and his high power caused his popularity to drop, making him resign.

Matteotti

He was a highly respected Socialist deputy who publicly exposed hundreds of cases of armed violence, fraud, and deception, causing the Fascists to murder him.

Giolitti

He was a prime minister of Italy who tried to enact liberal reforms and help the budding and new Italian country.

Prince Eugene of Savoy

He was a talented military for the Habsburg forces. More than anyone, he was the founder of modern Austria. He also won many battles against the French and the Turks, and he drove the Turks out of Hungary, which led to the Peace of Karlowitz.

John XXIII

He was one of the most innovative popes of modern times, and worked to bring the Church into greater harmony with the modern world. He emphasized the older social teachings of the church and called upon wealthier countries to share resources with the less favored. He also issued the Pacem in Terris and convened the Vatican II. He encouraged ecumenicism and opened dialogues with other faiths.

Ramsay MacDonald

He was prime minister and represented the Labour Party. He made plans to introduce a severe retrenchment policy (reduce spending), which angered the Labour Party. This caused him to be kicked out and form a coalition called the National government, which got the majority.

Prince Lvov

He was put in charge of the Provisional Government

Charles V

He was the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. He chose to keep alliance with the Pope, called for the meeting of a council to resolve the Schmalkaldic War, and banished Luther from the Holy Roman Empire.

Eduard Bernstein

He was the German leader of revisionists and a social democratic member of the Reichstag. He wrote Evolutionary Socialism which set forth new views about socialism.

Leo XIII

He was the Pope after Pius IX. He instituted a counteroffensive against irreligion and science. He formulated Catholic social doctrine in Rerum Novarum.

Willy Brandt

He was the former Social Democrat mayor of West Berlin. Because of the grand coalition (Social Democrats, Christian Democrats, Free Democrats), he became foreign minister and launched the Ostpolitik. Under a different coalition between the Social Democrats and the Free Democrats, he became chancellor. He negotiated treaties with the USSR and Poland and accepted the Oder-Neisse border. He also officially recognized the German Democratic Republic and promoted close ties with it and eastern Europe.

Count Witte

He was the former prime minister of Russia, and under his rule, Russia adopted the gold standard.

Ivan III

He was the grand duke of Muscovy and overthrew Mongol overlordship and Asian domination. He united Russian lands and centered their control in Moscow. He also recruited boyars as service nobility.

Johann Tetzel

He was the man that began to sell indulgences in Germany, in order to help gather revenue to rebuild St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, as ordered by the Pope. He argued with Luther about his ideas and caused him to write the 95 Theses.

Imre Nagy

He was the old party leader in Hungary who initiated reforms. As a result, he was hanged and replaced by Kadar.

Leon Trotsky

He was the war commissar in the Council of People's Commissars and founded and led the Red Army.

Erasmus

He wrote a purified and intricate Latin style. He wanted to end church corruption. He satirized the worldly interests of the clergy and pope ("Praise of Folly"). He criticized their actions. He gave ideas to how men could still be religious and go about taking part in worldly matters ("Handbook of a Christian Knight"). He said that education was the key to reform and moral improvement.

Boccaccio

He wrote the Decameron in Italian, which is a series of tales designed to talk about human nature. He was one of the first and most influential humanists.

Leviathan

Hobbes' book on government that advocated for an absolutist government.

International Monetary Fund

IMF. This provided loans to governments to manage temporary balance of payments difficulties and to help reduce the need for currency devaluations.

Iron Law of Wages

Idea proposed by David Ricardo that rapid population growth would cause wages to be barely high enough to prevent starvation.

Council of Troubles

In 1567 this council was called by Duke of Alva, at the request of Philip II to discuss how to get the Dutch people under control.

Robot

In Bohemia, the three to four day a week shifts that people had to work under a lord. They usually did these so they could go home and work their own land afterwards.

Admiral Kolchak

In Siberia, this man proclaimed himself to be the ruler of Russia, but was fought off by the Red Army.

John of Leyden

In a way, he created the first cult ever. They were the first communists, abolishing private property, banning money, and endorsing polygamy. He lasted only sixteen months in Munster, where he was then burned at the stake.

Dardanelles Campaign

In an attempt to open communications with Russia, Great Britain and France launched a naval attack by way of the Dardanelles. It failed in a stalemate.

Alcide de Gasperi (not a term)

Christian Democratic leader of Italy. Under his leadership, the economy prospers (mixed economy)

Active Citizens

Citizens that are over 25 and can pay a small direct tax. They can vote for electors. This was over half of the French population.

Passive Citizens

Citizens that don't meet the requirements in order to vote. This was less than half of the citizens in France.

Civil Code

Code based on the universal nature of justice and human relationships, so applicable to all countries. Provides for legal equality.

Council for Mutual Economic Aid

Comecon. A council created by the Soviets to formalize economic ties with their satellite states (which they received after WWII) and make them closer to the Soviet Union.

Committee of Public Safety

Conducted the government as a dictatorship and war cabinet. It prepared and guided legislation through the Convention and centralized the government. To end the war, it proclaimed the levee en masse and instituted economic controls.

1943 Casablanca Conference

Conference including Roosevelt and Churchill where they resolved to accept nothing less than unconditional surrender from the Germans. They also opened up the front in Italy.

"First" Treaty of Paris

Confined France to its pre-war status and left the question as to what should happen to the rest of Europe.

Tycho Brahe

Copernicus' student, but didn't believe in his heliocentric theory.

Water Frame

Cotton spinning machine that had several hundred spindles. Needed to be powered by water and several more workers than the spinning jenny, so was used in large factories. This could only spin a course, strong thread, so was re-spun on cottage jennies.

Soviets

Councils. These started to pop up all over in Moscow and St. Petersburg as a reaction to Bloody Sunday.

Colony

Countries or areas directly governed by European states and their appointed officials.

Biblical Criticism

Criticizing the Bible and wondering about the accuracy of some of the points in it.

"The Persistence of Memory"

Dali, Surrealism

Polish-Saxon Question

Debated intensely by the congress of Vienna. Who gets control of Poland? How should Saxony be divided? Ended up giving Poland to Alexander and 2/5 of Saxony to Prussia.

Cartesian Dualism

Descartes arrived at this belief: God has created two kinds of fundamental reality: thinking substances and extended substances. Thinking substances are related to thoughts, feelings, and opinions. Extended substances are related to the material world.

Hugo Grotius

Dutch lawyer (1583- 1645). Wrote Law of War and Peace, which advocated for international law and that it should be based on natural law (all countries should work together for the common good).

Edmund Burke

English conservative. He rejected the Enlightenment theories of universal natural rights and believed that a people must change its institutions by gradual evolution of its own traditions and that no people could suddenly realize any freedoms not already prepared for in the past.

Mary Wollstonecraft

English feminist who wrote Vindication of the Rights of Women. She promoted voting and civil rights for women.

English Poor Law of 1601

English law that required all abled-bodied people to work. Begging was not allowed.

John Stuart Mill

English liberal political theorist writer. He argued that women should have the same voting rights as men.

William Harvey

English man who published "On Movement of Heart and Blood". This advanced physiology and set forth the belief of continual circulation of blood through the body.

Daniel Defoe

English novelist who founded the Weekly Review (newspaper)

Robert Owen

English. He was one of the first socialists and cotton lords. He was against bad working conditions, so he payed high wages, reduced working hours, and corrected drunkenness for his workers. He also built schools, housing, and cheap stores for them.

Franche Comte

Free country of Burgundy. A French speaking region between Switzerland and Burgundy, which the French held control of for a period before the treaty of Nimwegen.

Germanic Liberties

Freedom of member states of the HRE from the control of the HRE and the emperor, which they fought to continue to have.

Erasmian Virtues

Proper behavior in the social situations of daily life, tolerance and restraint, good manners, scholarly understanding, love of peace, reforming zeal, and a reasonable tone. The book On Civility of Children highlights these.

Lomenie de Brienne

Proposed the same economic system as Calonne, but when rejected he moved on and tried to reform the parlements again. When this failed he and Louis XVI agreed to the Estates General.

Dissenter

Protestants who didn't accept the Anglican Church. They enjoyed religious tolerance, but were politically excluded, so they wanted reform for equality.

Richard Simon

Published "Critical History of the Old Testament", which was a pioneering work in Biblical criticism. He was a French priest who believed Catholicism should depend more on tradition than the actual Bible. He applied textual criticism on the Bible and concluded that the Old Testament was unreliable.

Two Treatises of Government

Published anonymously by John Locke in 1689. Attacks absolutism and promotes constitutionalism.

"Second" Treaty of Paris

Put stricter terms on France and made them finance Europe and stationed a military sect in France that was paid for by France. It also stripped some of the territory from France.

Girondins

Radical faction of the Jacobins

Great Power Veto

In the Security Council of the UN, all five of the Great Powers had this veto, so they could act on important matters only if they were unanimous in their decision.

ICBM

Intercontinental ballistic missile. It can deliver nuclear warheads at long range distances.

Zimmerwald Program

International socialists met in conferences during WWI, and during one of them in 1915, they created this program which called for immediate peace without annexations or indemnities. However, this group split, and the "Zimmerwald Left" (Russians) actually wanted a social revolution, not peace.

Richard Arkwright

Inventor of the water frame.

Liberalism

Ism that emphasized the rights and liberties of individuals should possess in every well-ordered, modern society.

Neomercantilism

Ism where nations tried to strengthen themselves with tariffs, trade competition, and internal regulation without regard to the effects on other nations. Workers and entrepreneurs were now economically affected by their government, nation, and laws.

Feminism

Ism. People (usually women) who felt that gender inequality needed to be fixed and that women should be equal and have equal rights to men.

Radicalism

Ism. People who followed this wanted all people to vote and for there to be no monarchy. They didn't follow history, usage, or custom in their beliefs, and wanted more individual rights. To achieve these goals, they aimed to reform parliament. They lived in England.

Republicanism

Ism. People who followed this wanted universal male suffrage, more say in government, no aristocracy, and more individual rights. They were very militant-like though, and were often willing to use violence or other measures to obtain what they wanted. They would also often discuss these ideas in secret societies, as they were prosecuted for their ideas. They lived on the continent.

Nationalism

Ism. The idea of keeping the heritage of a group of people or nation in tact and representing it in the laws and traditions of the country. It was opposing some of the reforms of Napoleon.

Romanticism

Ism. These people loved the unknown. The disliked the Enlightenment, and praised the middle ages for their emotion. They favored emotion and inner genius over reason, and liked nationalism and it's revival of older culture.

Conservatism

Ism. These people supported the old monarchies. They didn't like the new ideas of the enlightenment, or of nationalism. They were usually very fond of religion and established class structure.

Classical Liberalism

Ism. These people were the moderates of their day. They liked a constitutional monarchy, and felt that the government should be representative of its people. The didn't think that every man should be able to vote, but they did not like established classes and strong aristocracy. They wanted a laissez-faire economy and felt that war was unnecessary. They wanted slow democratic change through legislation, not revolution.

Socialism

Ism. They wanted everyone to be equal in all aspects of life. They would often try and form small communities of their own where there was no class structure and wages were all the same for everyone. They thought that forced equality would help form actual equality.

Edict of Restitution 1629

Issued by Ferdinand. Declared all territories secularized after 1552 to be restored to the Catholic church.

1598 Edict of Nantes

Issued by Henry IV. Gave the Protestant people certain areas to worship in, and also gave them protected towns and their own military force. Most importantly, they gave Protestants and Catholics the same legal rights.

Rerum Novarum

Issued by Leo XIII. It was a writing from which many movements of Catholic socialism are derived. It found fault in capitalism for poverty, insecurity, and degradation of working classes. This stated that socialism and Christianity were similar in principle, but criticized socialism as being materialistic and anti-religious, so it recommended Catholics to form socialist parties and labor unions of their own under Catholic auspices.

Constitutional Charter 1814

Issued by Louis XVIII, which guaranteed the economic and social gains of the French Revolution, permitted intellectual and artistic freedom, and created a parliament with an upper and lower house. It was not liberal because only the wealthiest men could vote.

Milan Decree

Issued by Napoleon, saying that any neutral ship that had passed through an English port or had been searched by a British ship couldn't enter Napoleon's ports.

Syllabus of Errors

Issued by Pius IX. This denounced faith in rationalism and science. It also denied that the pope should align himself with liberalism, progress, and modern civilization. This was a warning for Catholics, not a dogma.

Brunswick Manifesto

Issued by Prussia and Austria. If the King and Queen (Louis and Marie) are harmed, the two countries will declare war on the French people.

1629 Peace of Alais

Issued by Richelieu; it amended the Edict of Nantes, taking away all military and territorial rights of the Protestants to prevent another civil war in France.

Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges

Issued by a French King, affirmed the supremacy of councils over popes, declared administrative independence from the Roman church, outlawed annates, allowed lay investiture in France, so papacy lost influence in France.

Carlsbad Decrees

Issued in 1819, these decrees were designed to uphold Metternich's conservatism, requiring the German states to root out subversive ideas from universities and newspapers. It also established a permanent committee with spies and informers to investigate and punish any liberal or radical organization.

Reform Bill of 1867

It increased the suffrage in England to over 1/3 of the adult male population.

Reform Bill of 1884

It increased the suffrage in England to over 3/4 of the adult male population.

Constitution of 1795

It organized the government into two houses of legislative representatives, one house of five hundred with 500 members, and the house of Ancients with 250 (all over 40 years old). There were five people in the executive branch. Everyone votes for the electors. It was a program of successful expansion and restricted the politically active class.

"Handbook of a Christian Knight"

It was a book written by Erasmus that showed how people should engage in the world while remaining devout Christians.

Wars of the Roses

It was a civil war in England that lasted thirty years. The red rose family was the Lancasters, and the white rose family were the Yorks. After this war is over Henry the VII takes over and the Tudors reign for many years.

Kellogg-Briand Pact

It was signed by 65 nationalities and said that war was not the proper means of international issues. This peaceful outlook, however was not enforced.

Joseph Mazzini

Italian moral philosopher. He was the best known nationalist in Western Europe. He founded his own secret society (Young Italy) and tried unsuccessfully to lead an uprising against the kingdom of Sardinia.

City-States

Italy had many little city-states instead of monarchies during the Renaissance that were ruled by wealthy merchants. This allowed for them to advance and compete against each other. Florence was one of these city states.

Paul VI

John XXIII's successor, who shared his social concerns and encouraged ecumenicism. However, he upheld papal supremacy and took a firm conservative view on moral issues such as birth control.

The "Revolutionary" Emperor

Joseph II of Austria. Being an impatient and driven man, he reformed the country dramatically.

Henry II

King of France until he died in a jousting match. He opposed the spread of Calvinism.

"Fish Magic"

Klee, Surrealism

Taille

Land tax imposed on the third estate. Many wealthy people in the third estate were able to get around paying this tax, so the main burden fell upon the peasants.

Miranda

Latin American who became a general in the French Army and fought for independence.

Anti Socialist Laws

Laws passed by Bismarck that repressed socialist newspapers and meetings and drove socialism underground.

Nuremberg Laws

Laws that deprived Jewish people of all citizenship rights and forbade intermarriage or even sexual relations between Jewish people and non-Jewish people.

Ventose Laws of March 1794

Laws that provided the confiscation of lands and property of enemies of the revolution in order to help soldiers and patriots that needed the property.

Duce

Leader. The title Mussolini gave himself to introduce a feeling of superiority above his people.

Guise family

Led the Catholics in the French wars and wanted to get rid of heresy, but wanted to govern France more

Duke of Norfolk

Led the Catholics of northern England against Elizabeth I

Eminent Property Rights

Lesser landowners could do what they pleased with their land but at any time they were subject to rents and fees that the lord would put on them.

Prince Max of Baden

Liberal. He was recruited as the head of cabinet in Germany in which even socialists were included.

Existentialism

Life is meaningless and absurd (also called absurdism). The meaning of life is to create meaning in a meaningless world. "Man is condemned to be free."

Factory Act of 1833

Limited the factory workday fro children between nine and thirteen to eight hours and for kids ages fourteen to eighteen to twelve hours, though no effort to help in rural areas went out. Kids under nine were forced to enroll in elementary schools.

Modernism

Literary/artistic movement during the 1920s where people were experimental while exploring the inner complexities of human psychology.

Crystal Palace

Location where London hosted a famous industrial fair. It was an architectural masterpiece made entirely of glass and iron.

Essay Concerning Human Understanding

Locke's book that stated that true/certain knowledge is derived from experience and observation.

Tabula Rasa

Locke's saying, "Blank Tablet." It means that the mind is a blank tablet when born and social environment shapes what people think/believe, so a better environment would cause better outcomes, so this supported social progress.

Kingdom of Italy

Lombardy, Venetia, and old Papal states. Napoleon ruled this himself for a while, and then gave the power to his stepson Eugene but kept the crown for himself.

Junkers

Lords in East Germany and surround areas with increasing need or ambition to increase their profit.

Reichstag (not a term)

Lower chamber in the German government (not a term)

Act of Settlement of 1662

Made each town responsible for its poor

Capital (book)

Marx's last work which was held his economic theories (iron law of wages, labor theory of value, surplus value)

Social Democratic Labor Party

Marxists. This party believed in an international revolution with the workers as the revolutionary class. They believed that capitalism needed to develop in Russia first before a revolution. They were split into the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks factions.

The World Turned Upside Down

Men and women switch clothes, slave gives orders to master, women hold gun while men hold baby, just flipping the social norms. Good fun/resentment for what they were put through.

Hidalgo

Men of Spanish/Portuguese nobility that were considered generous and often became clergymen.

Chartered Trading Companies

Merchants and their respective governments created these companies to have the special privileges, capital, and protection needed for long distance trade. They had government backing because these merchants made a lot of money for their countries. These companies began to intrude on the Spanish and Portuguese monopolies and with them, new empires launched and expanded.

"The Ploughed Field"

Miro, Surrealism

Antiballistic Missiles

Missiles that attacked offensive missiles for defense

Politiques

Moderates that believed political unity was more important than religious unity.

"The Spirit of the Laws"

Montesquieu's book. This held that the different governments apply to different areas. There is also separation of government and balance of power. In this book Montesquieu draws greatly on the government in England.

MRP

Movement Republican Populaire. It included the Communists, Socialists, and Popular Republican Movement. They were a Catholic progressive party in France who formed the French provisional government after the Third Republic was dissolved.

Chartist Movement

Movement that sought political democracy. They demanded universal male suffrage--this gave great hope to many people.

Surplus capital

Much of the European investments had been placed in colonies thus creating surplus capital, or profitable areas for Europeans.

Fascio di Combattimento

Mussolini's first fighting band for fascism that was established in 1919. It was made of demobilized and restless ex-soldiers. This group eventually became more developed and turned into the Blackshirts.

MAD

Mutually Assured Destruction

Germaine de Stael

Napolean's critic. He was a German nationalist writer.

Treaty of Pressburg

Napoleon took Venetia from Austria after Austerlitz and annexed it to his Italian states. He then started to have the states around Venice make his naval ships.

Dissidents

In eastern Europe during the years of detente, these people called for recognition of human rights guaranteed by the Helsinki Accords. They wanted to end the party-state dictatorships and the restoration of a free "civil society"

Volksgeist

National Character: this must be expressed by the people in the country and they must be proud of it.

Assignats

Negotiable instruments used as bonds and later currency for people who had them to buy the confiscated church land for the government. Because the peasants couldn't obtain these easily they usually went through a middleman to get the church land.

Act of Settlement of 1701

No king of England could come from the Roman Catholic faith. Measures against the Pretenders and the Stuart Kings.

Second Estate

Nobles and Aristocrats.

John Wesley

One of the men who helped preach about Methodism and traveled all around England to spread the word, speaking to large crowds in open fields.

Florence

One of the most important Italian city states. It is considered the birthplace of the Renaissance. It was the foundation for modern banks, a busy trading hub, and was a thriving independent city state until it was taken over by the Medici Family.

Amalgamated Society of Engineers

One of the new model/craft unions. It represented skilled machinists and won benefits for members by conservative means, so was more accepted.

Prefect

One of the people ruling over each of the 83 districts, in Napoleon's name and wishes.

Bank of France

One of the revived banks from the Old Regime to help assist the government in financing.

Petition of Right

Parliament forced Charles I to sign this. It stated that the crown can't raise taxes without Parliament's consent, can't arrest without charges (due process), no martial law

Roundheads

Parliamentary forces going against the King who earned their victories with the New Model Army during the English Civil War. They were the Calvinist members of parliament, and their name was given because of their short haircuts.

Gubernii

Part of the new government set up by Peter the Great. There were 10 governments (state like areas but without the rights) that ruled over their respective areas, but with Peter really in control.

John Paul II

Paul VI's successor, who was also the first Polish pope. He was energetic and modern, encouraged ecumenicism, reached out to non-Christians, and recognized past wrongdoings of the Church (Crusades, Inquisition, Galileo pardoned). He entered into diplomatic relations with the USSR and eastern Europe during the Cold War, and contributed to the revolution there. He was progressive on global, social, and economic issues, but favored orthodoxy and papal supremacy in matters of church doctrine and governance. People were upset that he didn't modernize the church more thoroughly and his unwillingness to respect the spirit of shared authority promised by the Vatican II.

Peace of Prague 1635

Peace treaty between Saxony (Saxony was united with Sweden) and the HRE/Ferdinand. Many Protestant German states agreed with it so they also withdrew support for Sweden. This made it seem like the German states were uniting and the religious wars were ending (didn't actually end yet).

Reign of Terror

Policy set up by the Convention to repress the counterrevolution within France. Many were killed, mostly peasants/laboring class.

Grand Duchy of Warsaw

Polish body created by Napoleon without Alexander's support, and this made Alexander angry because he wanted to have a hand in the recreation of Poland.

Napoleonic Legend

Popular feeling of awe for Napoleon. It led to the election of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte simply because of his name.

Sans-Culottes

Popular revolutionists that weren't part of the convention but were very influential to those inside of it. They were usually from Paris and wore the long pants of the working class. They pressed the Revolution forward.

Social Revolutionary Party

Populists. This party was socialist, rural, liked the mirs, and looked to the peasants as the revolutionary class. However, they believed that they could skip over capitalism and go right to socialism.

Albuquerque

Portuguese viceroy who established commercial military bases centered at Goa, just north of the Malabar Coast of India.

Vasco Da Gama

Portuguese; sailed in 1498 around Africa to the southern tip of India, and started a war with the Arab traders, Turks, and Venetians that traded with them. Eventually he won out, colonizing many of the areas around there and increasing Portuguese influence.

De-Stalinization

Process of de-glorifying Stalin and his reign. It included renaming cites named after him and moving his body to outside the Kremlin Wall.

Statute of Artificers 1563

Regulated the admission of apprenticeship and standardized the level of wages for various trades in England. This undermined guilds.

North German Confederation

Replaced the old German Confederation; united the northern German states under the Prussian King and a general constitution.

Mazzini and Garibaldi

Revolutionaries that proclaimed the establishment of the Roman Republic in the Papal States.

1941 Atlantic Conference (not a term)

Roosevelt and Churchill. Issued the Atlantic Charter (ideological basis of the peace, goals of Allied nations) (not a term)

Four Freedoms

Roosevelt wanted these to be secure. They were freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom from want, and freedom from fear.

1945 Yalta Conference (not a term)

Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin. "Declaration on Liberated Europe," plans to create the United nations, agreed to divide Germany into 4 zones of occupation (3 powers + France), USSR would get half of reparations, USSR would enter the war against Japan after German defeat in exchange for land lost in the Russo-Japanese War. (not a term)

1943 Teheran Conference (not a term)

Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin. Established commitment to a second front in Europe (France/Normandy, Operation Overlord), discussed the demilitarization/occupation of Germany, Roosevelt wanted to make spheres of influence in eastern Europe to prevent Soviet domination/spread of communism. (not a term)

"Social Contract"

Rousseau's book. In nature, humans are brutish. They make government by themselves so it is a contract between the peoples, not the government and the peoples. Through this contract they elect someone to represent the General Will (common ideas and well being) of the people.

Machine Tractor Stations

Stations that each maintained a force of tractors, harvesting combines, and expert agronomists which could be dispatched from one collective farm to another by local arrangement. This allowed them to apply capital to agriculture.

SALT II Treaty

Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty II. Its goal was to limit the manufacture of nuclear weapons in the US and USSR. It was signed by both countries, but was never ratified because of Carter was upset about the USSR invading Afghanistan.

SALT I Treaty

Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty. The US and USSR agreed to reduce their antimissile defense system to make it possible to work towards equality in offensive weapons. This was an example of detente and peaceful coexistence.

Francis II

Successor of Leopold II. He was more inclined to suppress the nobles and satisfy their demands. He wanted to repress the French revolutionaries.

Gustavus Adolphus

Swedish King who created an extremely powerful Protestant army. He was killed in battle.

Communism

Synonym for socialism

Internal Tariffs

Taxes on imports and exports within countries

Entente Cordiale

The "close understanding" between Great Britain and France; not an official alliance. They recognized their occupations in Morocco and Egypt, and agreed to support each other against third parties.

Glasnost

The "openness" Gorbachev allowed to win the support of the country to promote perestroika. There was more freedom of expression, religion, press, travel, etc. History was made accurate, police abuses were reduced, and there was overall less fear. Examples of this were Gulag Archipelago and Sakharov.

New Industrial Revolution

The "second" Industrial Revolution. There were new sources of power being utilized, new industries being developed, old ones expanding, and the geographical spreading of industry. Specifically, there was the development of steel, chemicals, gasoline, and lighting.

Congress Poland

The 15 year government in Poland that was established at the congress of Vienna with Alexander at the helm.

Michael Romanov

The 17 year old that took the throne of Russia, becoming Tsar. The nobles elected him after the time of troubles because they believed that he held no political influence yet and would make a good leader. The Romanov family would rule for centuries, until the fall of the Russian monarchy in 1917.

United Provinces of the Netherlands

The 7 united northern provinces of the Netherlands after they gained their independence through the Union of Utrecht.

Muhammad Ali

The Albanian born Turkish governor of Egypt who made several western reforms in Egypt and made it more desirable to Europeans to live and place their money there.

Matthew Perry

The American naval officer who stormed into Tokyo and demanded diplomatic negotiations with the Japanese Emperor, thus opening Japan up to the rest of the world.

Archbishop James Usher

The Anglican Prelate of Ireland that stated that the earth was created in 4004 B.C.E. This was placed on many Bibles but wasn't accepted because of new knowledge about the ancient history of the Chinese and Egyptians.

Count Kaunitz

The Austrian diplomat that negotiated the alliance with France through the marriage of Marie Antoinette to Louis XVI. In return for French support he promised to encourage the French mission in Belgium.

Metternich

The Austrian foreign minister for forty years. He renewed negotiations with France and sided with Napoleon, who would in turn help him in Austria.

Prince Eugene of Savoy

The Austrian leader in the War of the Spanish Succession

Gregor Mendel

The Austrian monk who arrived at an explanation of how heredity operates and hybridization occurs (genetics) by experimenting with peas.

Sigmund Freud

The Austrian physician who founded psychoanalysis. He developed theories about personality and the subconscious (ego, id, superego). He believed that repressed desires controlled behavior.

Ostead Company (not a term)

The Belgian/Austrian company that made six very successful and trips overseas, much to the jealousy of England, who offered their recognition of the Austrian King's daughter's claim to the throne of Austria in return for them to stop shipping.

Ferdinand II

The Bourbon leader of the Two Sicilies who was forced to grant a liberal constitution to his people. This was later revoked.

Kitchener

The British General who built a railroad along the Nile River and defeated the Muslims in the Omdurman battle.

Neville Chamberlain

The British Prime Minister after 1937. He was one of the main architects of the appeasement policy.

Castlereagh

The British foreign minister who wanted to pitt the allied countries against France and formed common ground between Austria and Great Britain.

Helmut Kohl

The Christian Democratic chancellor of West Germany that took the initiative to unite the two Germanys. He won a sweeping victory in the first free elections of the Federal Republic of Germany.

Cominform

The Communist Information Bureau. The revived Comintern that the Soviets created to reassert closer control over communism throughout the world and because they felt threatened by the US.

William and Mary

The Dutch decedent of William of Orange and his wife Mary, the daughter of James II. They took over after they forced Mary's father out of England and Scotland into France.

Estates-General of the United Provinces

The Dutch form of Government. There seven elected representatives at the highest level (more at lower) who would meet and discuss how the country was to be run.

Ferdinand I

The Emperor of Austria who was thought to be incompetent and eventually was dethroned.

Napoleon III

The Emperor of France that offered to help Italy, then signed a treaty with Austria, then helped Italy again, and then protected Rome and the Pope.

Frederick William IV

The King of Prussia who enacted some liberal reforms and summoned an assembly to create a Prussian constitution. He later revoked these reforms and the assembly.

Charles XII

The King of Sweden who was crushed by the Russians, ending their domain, however short. He then fled to Turkey to seek refuge.

Louis Philippe

The King who took over after Charles X who accepted the Constitutional Charter, adopted the flag of the French revolution, and admitted that he was merely the "king of the French people". Otherwise, he made very few significant reforms.

Vulgate

The Latin translation of the Bible by St. Jerome that was declared by the Council of Trent to be the only translation acceptable for use.

Quadruple Alliance

Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain--an alliance against the French and Napoleonic rule that had previously taken place.

Cossacks

Russian Cowboys; they supported Pugachev.

Bolsheviks

Russian for "majority". A Russian political party that rose out of the conference in London where Lenin won the majority vote in favor of getting rid of revisionism. This was was orthodox Marxists were called.

KGB

Russian secret political police

Magellan

Sailed around the world in 1520, was the first one to do so (sailed around tip of Chile). He created the modern views of the world and figured out that the world was round, not flat.

Baron Stein

Saw Prussia as the best hope for the German future and was committed to making a nationalistic view. He also "abolished" serfdom, but really just got rid of hereditary subjection.

College

Schools that were a combination of English grammar schools and the first few years of university learning. The French created these schools to educate their people.

Cossacks

Semi independent cowboy like people that were militaristic nomads who were lawless and engaged in protests with Razin.

Duke of Alva

Sent to the Netherlands by Philip II to take control of the Protestants.

National Convention

September 20, 1792. The new convention to make a constitution that simultaneously ran the new "French Republic" in its beginning years.

Margaret Thatcher

She was a British Conservative Party leader and was the first female prime minister of any major western nation. She was against the welfare state, nationalized industries, and some public services. She cut government expenditures, reduced imports, and resisted trade union wage demands. She focused on economic growth, productivity, and investment. In effect, she cut spending and raised productivity, inflation was curbed, but unemployment remained high.

Rosa Luxemburg

She was one of the leaders of the Spartacist uprising.

Anti-Comintern Pact

Signed by Germany, Japan, and later Italy which started their agreement to oppose communism and was the foundation for a diplomatic alliance between them.

Treaty of Rapallo

Signed by the Weimar republic and the USSR, this treaty provided an established economic relationship between the two countries. Germany manufactured goods for the Soviets and the Soviets would buy them. The USSR got military advice from Germany.

Polish Liberties

Similar to German liberties, and were upheld and decreased the power of the already poorly effective king.

Entrepreneur

Someone who starts their own business. In the late fifteen and early sixteenth centuries these people were often trading merchants.

Sisters and Brothers of the Common Life

Started by Gerard Groote. This was an example of lay religion, and it eventually received papal approval. They lived normally but preached about God and created schools that went by grade essentially. They focused on character and conduct.

March on Rome

This was when the Blackshirts mobilized for a threatened coup and began to converge on the capital. It caused the cabinet to resign and Mussolini was named premier and received a year's grant of full emergency dictatorial powers to restore order and introduce reforms. However, there was still a parliament and a constitutional government, and this process was relatively legal.

Schmalkaldic War

This was when the German Princes that didn't want to be Catholic joined with the Turks and the French to take on the Holy Roman Empire, basically fighting about religion (Lutherans vs Catholics). This was ended with the Peace of Augsburg.

Sheltered Markets

This was when the home country would supply the colony with manufactured goods in return for raw materials. The goal was to establish a self-sufficient trading unit with various climates and resources and was protected by tariffs. It would guarantee a market and wealth for the home country.

Ecclesiastical Reservation

This was where the Ecclesiastical states were to stay as such under the papacy, there was no way they could be converted to Lutheranism.

Whigs

Those who controlled the House of Lords. They usually were aristocrats, middle class, business men, and the majority of the Anglican Church. They fought against Stuart rule after Queen Anne.

Old Believers

Those who were against the religious reforms taking place. Because the Russians realized they may have translated the Bible wrong, they made the proper changes, but certain people didn't like these switches. They wished for the old ways to be returned.

Elite

Those who were part of the small part of the population who had made money or were more educated than their counterparts.

1609 Twelve Years Truce

Truce vowing to stop the fighting between the Dutch and the Spanish for twelve years. Officially divided the Netherlands into the Dutch Republic and the Spanish Netherlands.

1945 Potsdam Conference

Truman, Attlee (Britain), and Stalin. They agreed to German disarmament, demilitarization, "denazification," and punishment of war criminals (trials). Each power could take reparations from its occupation zones (Soviets would get more). The Polish and Soviet boundaries were pushed more westward, which drove out the German population and was a final and unsettling consequence of the war. Stalin announced that eastern Europe would not have free elections (Truman and Attlee can't do anything about it). US reveals that it has the nuclear bomb and issues an ultimatum to Japan.

Stavisky Riots

Violent anti-republican riots that took place in response to the financial scandal where Stavisky induced municipal authorities at Bayonne to launch a flotation of worthless bonds. He was faced with exposure and "committed suicide," but rightists encouraged the rumor that he was killed by the police. This caused people to accuse the government of involvement in the scandal and demand the end of the corrupt republic.

"King of the French People"

What Louis Philippe thought himself to be, realizing the dreams of an absolute monarchy in France was unrealistic and that the French people should have at least some say in government.

Post-Auschwitz Theory

What Protestant writers came up with as a result of the inexplicable events of WWII and the Holocaust. They thought that during that time, God had removed Himself from history.

Wagram

When Austria proclaimed a war of liberation and Napoleon, with the support of the Germanic princes he had given power to, attacked them, repressed the liberation war, and won, keeping the Austrians at bay.

Annexation of Bosnia

When Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia before they said they would. This angered Serbia and humiliated Russia

First Balkan War

When Bulgaria, Serbia, and Greece joined together against Turkey to get territories, which they thought belonged to them. The Ottoman Empire was defeated.

Diplomatic Revolution of 1756

When Count Kaunitz made the alliance with France, bringing the Habsburg family and the Bourbons into alliance for the very first time. It also caused Britain to reexamine their standing in Europe, and they allied with Prussia, completely flipping what had been going on earlier.

Pride's Purge

When Cromwell and Colonel Pride attacked the Long Parliament in protest to their unwillingness to behead Charles I. What was left of the Long Parliament is called the Rump.

Battle of White Mountain

When Ferdinand and the Spanish defeated the Bohemians and drove King Frederick out of Bohemia.

Jena and Auerstadt

When France smashed the all-powerful and famous Prussian army in two decisive victories.

The "Shame of the Princes"

When German princes competed for the German territories. From this, the number of states within Holy Roman Empire reduced, but the more powerful states within it gained land.

Demilitarization of the Rhineland

When German troops and forts were banned from the Rhineland. Allied troops occupied it for 15 years to ensure German compliance

Siege of Paris

When German/Prussian forces sieged Paris after the battle of Sedan, but Paris refused to surrender for four months.

Stalingrad

When Germans assaulted Stalingrad, a key resource center. Both sides went all in. The Germans occupied most of the city when the Red Army launched a great counterattack which, along with the extremely cold winter, caused the Germans to surrender the city. This was the turning point in the war, and the aura of the German military invincibility was shattered. It was one of the bloodiest battles in history.

German Blank Check

When Germany gave Austria the power to do whatever they needed to and still retain German support. Austria thus issued an ultimatum to Serbia, which lead to the declaration of war.

Ottawa Agreements

When Great Britain and its dominions adopted a policy of lower tariffs against each other and higher ones with other countries. This idea was originally piloted by Joseph Chamberlin.

Peace of Amiens

When Great Britain signed the peace treaty with France in 1802 periodically ending their war and allowing France to focus on other things.

1857 Mutiny

When Hindu and Muslim mercenaries launched a great revolt against British occupation. It spread greatly until it was repressed by loyal native troops.

Munich Beer Hall Putsch

When Hitler attempted to declare the start of a revolution in a beer hall in Munich. The police suppressed this and sent Hitler to prison.

Remilitarization of the Rhineland

When Hitler chose to send troops back into the Rhineland, violating the treaty of Versailles. The French considered military action to stop him, but was unwilling to act without British support (the British were unwilling to risk war, so they did nothing about this).

Crimes of the Stalin Era

When Khrushchev made a speech in which he revealed Stalin's crimes (that he was personally responsible for the purges/executions of the 1930s, that many of the accused were innocent, that his colleagues had lived in fear of their lives, and his ineptitude during the German invasion)

1534 Act of Supremacy

When King Henry VII declared that the English King was to be the protector and only supreme head of the church and clergy or England. All people were forced to accept this doctrine and worship the new religion.

Siege of Leningrad

When Leningrad was sieged by the Germans in their invasion of the USSR. This was before the battle of Stalingrad.

Flight of Varennes

When Louis XVI tried to escape his country with some nobles but was caught and forced into ruling a constitutional monarchy, which he didn't want to do.

Retreat from Moscow

When Napoleon backed away from Moscow but the retreat back to France was rough and many men and horses died in the process.

Liberal Empire

When Napoleon let the Legislative Assembly have more power and his position and power as Emperor were loosened, leaving room for more liberal people to take control. This never did get to run its full course though.

Berlin Decree

When Napoleon prohibited the import of British goods into Europe. The goods counted as British if they came from England or the English colonies.

Ulm

When Napoleon surrounded Austrian ships and forced them all to surrender without resistance.

Battle of Leipzig

When Napoleon's new, untrained army was smashed by the Germans (know it as battle of Nations), and Napoleon was stuck in France.

Capitulation at Bailen

When Napoleon, for the first time since the beginning of the revolution, had to completely surrender his French fleet to the British and Spanish during the Peninsular War.

Defenestration of Prague

When Protestants in Prague decided to throw two emissaries sent my Matthias out of the window of a palace in protest because they feared the loss of their Protestant liberties.

Armenian Deportations

When Russia threatened the Ottoman Empire's eastern frontier, the Turkish gov't ordered the deportation of Armenians (nationalist Christians) out of the war zones, fearing potential sympathizers with Russia or the Allies. They were supposed to be relocated, but many were killed and the few survivors eventually got their own small republic.

Calas Affair

When Voltaire fought for the rights of Jean Calas, a protestant who was wrongly convicted of murdering his son because he was going to turn catholic.

La Barre Episode

When Voltaire wrote a letter to exonerate a youth name La Barre, who had been executed for defiling a wayside cross.

Battle of Boyne

When William "invaded" England (though he was under the protection of many English Lords) with his army and pushed James II into France, taking the throne for him and his wife.

Tangier Incident

When William II gave a speech in Morocco in favor of Moroccan independence from France. This was aimed to break up the alliance between the British and the French, but it actually made it stronger.

October Days

When Yeltsin ordered for tanks to fire on the Russian Congress of People's Deputies building when they opposed him.

Meiji Restoration

When a coalition led by patriotic samurai seized control of the government and restored the political power of the emperor.

Capture of Bastille

When a crowd, denied weapons by the governor, attacked the military prison Bastille in a mob, killing 6 soldiers and the governor.

Night of August 4

When a few noblemen surrendered their hunting privileges, bannitalles, rights to manorial courts, and feudal privileges. What was left of serfdom and feudalism was abolished. Tithes were gone, tax privileges were given up, and feudal fees were arranged to be paid off one final time.

Spartacist Uprising

When a group of communists, lead by Luxemburg and Liebknecht, tried to gather the Germans in an uprising in favor of Bolshevisim. They tried to start the proletariat revolution.

Kapp Putsch

When a group of military men and ex-nobles gathered together and attempted a Putsch, or armed revolt, and tried to get a man named Dr. Kapp situated as the head of state in the Weimar republic. They failed.

Insurrection of Paririal

When a mob came and attacked the Convention, calling troops to Paris for the first time in six years to help calm the people down and protect the delegates.

Indulgences

When a person gave money to the church to be spared from punishments for his/her sins. A way for the church to make money.

General Strike of 1926

When a strike by coal miners in Great Britain led to a general strike supported by other unions. This caused the government to declare a state of emergency and call military personnel and volunteers to take over essential services, so the strike failed. This led to the Trades Disputes Act of 1927

Boxer Rebellion

When a traditionalist secret society rebelled against the unwanted reforms in China. They killed missionaries and Chinese Christians.

Sarajevo Crisis

When a young Bosnian revolutionary assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, who was next in line to the throne. This made the Austrians very angry and helped start WWI (immediate cause).

Balance of Power

When all smaller countries join together against one large one in response to the threat of a universal monarchy. Tries to keep the power between all countries in a balanced form.

Glorious Revolution

When both the Whigs and Tories, fed up with James II and the baptism of his son in the Catholic Church, overthrew James and offered the throne to his daughter Mary and her husband William (both protestant).

Triple Alliance

When in 1882, Italy was added to the Dual Alliance (Germany and Austria-Hungary). If one member was at war with 2 or more other countries, the others were to come to the aid of that country.

Katyn Forest Massacre

When in 1940, after the USSR joined with Germany in partitioning Poland, Stalin ordered the Red Army to massacre thousands of Polish POW. Their mass graves were found by German troops.

War Socialism

When in Germany the government would send so many supplies toward the war effort that civilians lived under almost complete economic equality.

Class-Consciousness

When individuals believe that classes existed and they developed an appropriate sense of class feeling.

March on Versailles

When market women and revolutionary militants attacked Versailles and forced Louis XVI to move to Paris where he could be better watched. This moved the National Assembly with him, and subjected its member to the liberal ideas of Paris.

Gothic Revival

When medieval architecture and arts were revived by romanticism. The middle ages were thought of as fascinating, colorful, mysterious, had a spiritual depth, and expressed an inner genius.

September Massacres

When more revolts happened and 1,100 prisoners were dragged and publicly executed in the main square by the people of France.

Universal Monarchy

When one king rules over all or almost all of Europe. Many people were afraid of this happening with Louis XIV, just as they had been with Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire.

"Exploding" the Diet

When one of the Polish Lords would use their Librium Veto and end the diet.

Domestic System

When people worked in their own homes but were paid by an entrepreneur to make the products which he would then sell for profit.

Kronstadt Mutiny

When sailors, who were among the first followers of the Bolsheviks, revolted because objected to the domination of the soviets by the party, which threatened a leftist renewal. The Terror killed off many of them.

November (or October) Revolution

When the Bolsheviks took power in 1917. They had assured the support of the troops, so they took over the city (Petrograd) and had a warship turn its guns on the Winter Palace, where Kerensky's gov't was. There was no one to defend it. The Congress of Soviets pronounced the Provisional Government defunct and named in its place the Council of People's Commissars. Kerensky fled.

Battle of the Nile (or Aboukir)

When the British fleet cut off the French army and successfully defeated France and began to kick them out of Egypt in an attempt to protect India.

Boer War

When the British fought against the Afrikaners and took over all of the Cape Colony

Invasion of Sicily

When the British, Canadians, and Americans conquered the island of Sicily. They later drove north and liberated Rome.

Falkland Islands

When the Conservatives seemed headed for political trouble, Thatcher stirred patriotic and imperial memories by dispatching a small armada to the Falkland Islands to prevent their takeover by Argentina. This caused the Conservatives to win the next election.

Occupation of the Ruhr

When the French invaded an industrial part of Germany and the Germans protested with general strikes. The French were removed through the Dawes plan.

Battle of Marne (not a term)

When the French launched a counter attack and sent the Germans into retreat. (not a term)

The Battle of Fonterey

When the French took Belgium in a decisive win, only to have it stripped away again by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.

Battle of Verdun

When the Germans attacked northern France. The French had few troops to defend with because Joffre wanted to save them for the future battle of the Somme. Even so, they held strong and the Germans retreated

Irish Home Rule

When the Irish had a parliament of their own.

Capture of Singapore

When the Japanese captured Singapore, a British colonial city and naval base. It was supposedly unconquerable.

Star Chamber

When the King Henry VII took over he created the place where he and his advisers could meet about infringements on the law, and discuss other matters of importance.

Siege of Vienna, 1683

When the Ottoman Empire invaded Vienna. They were ultimately fought off by the Austrians/Polish/Germans/Pope/Leopold I

Papal Index of Prohibited Books

When the Pope would ban books that he deemed as heresy. This included many Protestant works. The same thing happened in England and Protestant Europe.

Repeal of the Corn Laws

When the Prime Minister joined with the Whig party and got the corn laws repealed, allowing free imports of grain. This prevented a famine in England and made free trade highly prized.

Reichstag Fire

When the Reichstag caught on fire and the Nazis blamed the Communists for it. This created a national hatred of communism.

Bachlau Conference

When the Russians (Isvolsky) and Austrians (von Aeniental) met in secret and came up with a compromise for their Balkan related wishes. Russia would support Austria in the annexation of Bosnia, whereas Austria would support Russia in opening up the Busporus Strait by Constantinople.

Free Gift

When the clergy would give the king a large, free, sizeable gift of money in place of paying the taille. This amount of money was large, but it would not be as much as what the church would pay if they followed the tax.

Annates

When the first year's salary of a bishop or cardinal is given to the Pope for good fortune.

Planned Economy

When the government directed all resources towards war. They regulated wages, prices, production, labor, and foreign trade.

Liquidation of the Kulaks

When the kulaks who refused to pool their property into collective farms were ruthlessly tortured, killed, or sent to prison camps. Many kulaks died from this.

Protectorate

When the native ruler was maintained and guaranteed against upheaval or external conquest. A European "commissioner" would tell the ruler what to do and protected European interests through indirect rule.

1524 Peasant Revolt

When the peasants revolted against the government due to Luther's opinions. They were stirred by his religious ideas and Luther did not accept them.

Great Fear of 1789

When the peasants, in fear of what was happening in Paris, rebelled against their nobles and forced Louis XVI to join the first and second estates with the rest of the national assembly, giving the third estate what they originally wanted.

Battle of Sedan

When the principle French army surrendered to the Prussians in the Franco-Prussian War. This allowed for the capture of Napoleon III and the creation of the third French Republic.

June Days Revolt

When the workers in Paris responded to the closing of national workshops by launching a revolt. This was squashed by the government.

Opportunism

When the workers were able to make wages rise and increase working conditions through unions, thus gaining power in parties and rising in government and society just a bit. This happened more and more each time. It was what eventually befell society, even though Marx advised against it.

Countercyclical Measures

When there were signs of a decline in the business cycle, governments would increase their spending, following a plan of Keynesian economics.

Flight From the Pound

When, after the gold reserve supporting the pound sterling was slowly diminishing because Great Britain sold it to pay for imports, people in England converted pounds into other currencies for which they thought the gold basis was more secure

Gold Dollar Standard

When, for a short amount of time, the dollar in the US was accepted as the equivalent of gold itself. Eventually the dollar was devalued and this no longer existed.

Dunkirk

Where there was an epic evacuation of 300,000 British and French troops after the Germans invaded France. Civilian boats also helped them evacuate.

Grand Alliance of 1701

William III's last attempt to stop France during the War of the Spanish Succession. It was an alliance created with many of the same countries as the League of Augsburg, and was not in action before William's death. They did, however, ultimately stop French control of Spain.

Iron Curtain

Winston Churchill's term for the line in Europe between the western and eastern or Soviet and capitalist countries.

Compagnonnage (not a term)

Worked outside guilds, illegally. They were clubs that acted like trade unions, keeping certain people away from what they were doing.

Stakhanovites

Workers who increased their daily production and wages by improving methods of work. This provided competition, and it was promoted by the gov't.

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (not a term)

World Bank. This made long term loans to the governments of poorer countries for economic development. (not a term)

On the Revolution of the Heavenly Orbs

Written by Copernicus. Included his ideas on a heliocentric universe.

"Reflections on the Revolution in France"

Written by Edmund Burke in reaction to the revolution in France. He didn't like it and thought the French were moving too fast. He encouraged the English to slow down and not take as drastic of measures.

"Closed Commercial State"

Written by Fichte. He proposed a plan to take down the new economic system by closing all trade with other nations and focus on an international building nation.

History of the Czech People

Written by Francis Palacky, who first published it as "History of Bohemia" in German to raise pride for the past and because German was the common reading language. Later, with the Slavic Revival, he translated it to Czech and renamed it.

Grimm's Fairy Tales

Written by the Grimm brothers who were the founders of the modern science of comparative linguistics and traveled through Germany to study popular dialects. This was their collection of local folktales. They also wanted to collect these to find the native spirit of Germany.

Thomas R. Malthus

Wrote Essay on the Principle of Population. An economist who studied Great Britain's booming population and believed that most populations tend to grow faster than the food supply, which could lead to war, famine, and disease.

OECD

The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. It promotes the economic and social wellbeing of everyone around the world.

Long Parliament

The Parliament that lasted for 20 years because there was no new elections and they were at war with the King for a long time.

Revolt of the Vendee

The Peasants (under British, clergy, and noble influence) revolted against the French military draft

Lech Walesa

The Polish Solidarity found a militant leader and national symbol of protest in him. He was later elected president.

Szlachta

The Polish nobility who held a considerable amount of power in the country, preventing both kings and parliamentary governments from gaining power

Pius VII

The Pope that Napoleon imprisoned when he objected to the annexation of Rome as a French state and the way that Napoleon advocated for religious toleration and repressed the clergy.

Pobiedonostsev

The Procurator of the Holy Synod under Alexander III. He was the philosopher and leader of Russification. He saw Europe as doomed and wanted to turn Russia into a churchly community with a disciplined clergy who would protect the people from European influences.

Church of England/Anglicanism

The Protestant Church that evolved with Queen Elizabeth. There was a very broad dogma and protestant views, with a stately head, bishops, and increasingly Calvinist views.

Elizabeth I

The Protestant Queen of England, who possessed a deep dislike for Spain and Philip II. They fought throughout their reigns.

Russian Federation

The Russia that emerged from the USSR. There were 21 "federated republics" within it, and they were all controlled by Russia. Most of them wanted independence.

Curzon Line

The Russian-Polish boundary decided upon at the Yalta conference.

South Slavs

The Serbs, Bosnians, Croats, and Slovenes who felt united because of the linguistically focused Slavic Revival. They wanted their own state.

Jacobins

The Society of Friends of the Constitution. They used the group to help discuss what was going on in the Assembly and how to fix problems.

Conquistadores

The Spanish and Portuguese sent to the new world to find and explore what they could. Their ultimate goal was to find more money, and in the process destroyed many different native peoples.

Armada Catolica

The Spanish fleet of ships designed to attack the English that ultimately was destroyed in a major defeat and the beginning of the demise of the Spanish.

National Assembly

The Third Estate who created their own convening body. They were fed up with the nobles and separation of the Estates and wanted more power, so they formed their own assembly that met to discuss what was going to happen to the nation.

Social Market Economy

The West German economy, which had broad social services.

Edict of Potsdam (not a term)

The act of Frederick William the Great Elector which allowed a large amount of Huguenots to move into and live freely in Prussia, increasing their religious toleration. (not a term)

Act of Emancipation

The act passed by Alexander II that abolished serfdom. It gave roughly half of the arable land to peasants, and half to the gentry. The gentry gained more from this because they got redemption money while the peasants had to live in mirs.

The English Navigation Act of 1651

The act saying that all exports and imports coming or going from England had to be carried by English ships or ships of the respective trading country. This angered the Dutch

Act of Union 1801

The act that brought Ireland into the United Kingdom, much to the dismay of the native Catholic Irish people. It dismantled the government which they had held previously and united it with the British Parliament.

Usury

The action of lending money at an unreasonably high rate of interest.

Age of the Atlantic Revolution

The age of many revolutions. It was called this because countries on both sides of the Atlantic were affected/involved.

Age of the Democratic Revolution

The age of many revolutions. It was called this because in all revolutions, certain principles of modern democratic society were affirmed.

Gosplan

The agency that administered the First Five Year Plan (1928-1932). Within the frame of general policy set up by the party, it determined the quantity of goods the country should produce, wages, and prices.

Solidarity

The aggressive independent trade union federation in Poland. It grew in strength very quickly (many workers joined) and called for free elections and for a role in the government. Eventually, in the first open elections, it gained a huge majority and promoted liberalization which ended the party-state dictatorship.

Encomienda

The agreement between the Spanish government and the peoples inhabiting the new world that they could enslave any of the natives. Many times these people worked the lands for the Spaniards during the day, so that they could afford to home to work their own land afterwards.

Rome-Berlin Axis

The agreement/alliance between Hitler and Mussolini. This was the diplomatic axis around which they hoped the world might turn.

Anglo-Japanese Alliance

The alliance Great Britain had with Japan that brought them out of their diplomatic isolation in 1904

Triple Entente

The alliance between GB, Russia, and France that was looser than the Triple Alliance because Great Britain made no great or significant military promises or commitments.

Dual Alliance of 1879

The alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary in order to help protect Germany.

Anglo-Japanese Alliance

The alliance between Great Britain and Japan which allowed Great Britain to return from isolation and gave Japan much needed European support.

Pan-Serb Ambitions

The ambition to create an all-Serbian state. This led to war in the Balkans.

Kosovo

The area of Serbia that had strong Albanian ties and wished to be independent from Serbia. The Serbs however, saw this land as a holy land and held on to it. Milosevic violently suppressed the nationalist/independence movement, which led to NATO military intervention. In 2008 they were liberated to form their own country.

Neo-mercantilism

The attempt of governments to incorporate a partial role into the economy by direct meddling and interference in affairs.

Sieyes

The author of "What is the Third Estate?" He started to try and form a new government and wanted "confidence from below, and authority from above". He wanted a stronger executive branch and was influential in forming the Consulate.

Battle of Waterloo

The battle at which Napoleon was defeated by the British and his second attempt at ruling Europe was squashed.

Battle of Narva

The battle between Charles XII of Sweden and Peter the Great over a part of the Baltic sea. In this battle Charles' army of 8,000 crushed the army of Peter, who had nearly 40,000 men. This caused Peter to rethink his army and military strategy.

Omdurman

The battle between Kitchener's army and Muslims, which was a virtual slaughter due to the rise of the machine gun. It was a major British victory.

Battle of Mukden

The battle in which more troops than ever before in human history fought and it was a decisive Japanese victory.

Battle of Tsushima Strait

The battle when the Japanese fleet surrounded and beat a Russian fleet. This broke Russian sea communications and allowed Japan to win the war.

Trafalgar

The battle where British naval ships took on the French navy and won. This was after Napoleon won many victories and it brought the indestructible French down a peg. It also established the British Naval supremacy that was to last.

Borodino

The battle where Napoleon refused to call in the Old Guard and still won the battle far from home, but left the Russian army in pretty good shape.

Magenta and Solferino

The battles decisively won in Italy by the French and Piedmontese armies against the Austrians in the War of 1859.

Realism

The belief in reality, fact, hardened soul, and science. An unreasoning faith in the constructive value of struggle and tough-minded rejection of ideas and ideals.

Agnosticism

The belief that anything unknowable to science remain unknowable forever. It was an acknowledgment of ignorance.

Skepticism

The belief that there's no true/certain knowledge

Toussaint L'Overture

The black military commander who was once enslaved and helped lead the revolution in Saint-Domingue. He became a general in the French army and drove away the British and Spanish.

"Origin of Species"

The book by Charles Darwin highlighting his theory of evolution, natural selection, and survival of the fittest.

"Imperialism, The Highest State of Capitalism

The book by Lenin that highlighted the same ideas as Hobson regarding imperialism and how it is highly unnecessary and is the prime example of capitalists working to increase their wealth selfishly.

"The True Law of Free Monarchy"

The book written by James I. It highlighted his ideas about royalty's power and divine right to control their people.

Black Legend

The book written telling the horrible tales of how the native peoples in America were treated. This spread wildly throughout Europe, especially in those countries that disliked the Habsburg Supremacy and the Spanish crown.

Oder-Neisse Boundary

The boundary between Poland and Germany that was more westward then the Allies had originally anticipated.

Leopold

The brother of Joseph II of Austria, who succeeded him and repealed many of Joseph's reforms.

Count of Artois

The brother of Louis XVI that fled France with the first round of emigres. Many nobles favored him over Louis XVI and the Revolutionaries. They wanted him in power.

Leopold II

The brother of Marie Antoinette who issued the Declaration of Pillnitz and wanted to protect his sister (Marie) from the revolutionaries in France.

Gregorian Calendar

The calendar established by the Catholic Church and is accepted globally today. It's important for global coordination, communication, and economic exchanges.

Revolutionary Calender

The calendar the Hebertists wanted and the Convention adopted to get popular backing. It banned religious holidays, got rid of the sabbath, renamed the months, and organized a week into a ten day decade.

Careers Open to Talent

The career was not determined by wealth or hereditary means--it was based on skill. This was what the third estate had been pushing for since the beginning of the revolution.

David Lloyd George

The chancellor of the English national treasury. He was a Liberal and put through a program of social welfare: adopted sickness, accident, old-age, unemployment insurance, enacted a minimum wage law, established labor exchanges, removed restrictions on strikes and union activities. His budget also called for progressive taxes to "wage war against poverty" which was opposed by the aristocracy and the House of Lords, which led to the Parliament Act of 1911.

Charter of 1814

The charter that King Louis XVIII made and it consolidated his rule and confirmed some of the reforms that the Revolution had established.

Guizot

The chief minister to Louis Philippe who was disliked by the French people. Louis Philippe kicked him out of office during the February revolt.

St. Petersburg

The city of Leningrad that was renamed to its pre-1917 original name.

Geneva

The city where John Calvin set up his church. It became the version of Rome for Protestants, and eventually fell to Catholic militant pressures.

Versailles

The city where Louis made his new and magnificent palace. Many nobles flocked to this city and palace for Louis's strange traditions and to earn upstanding in noble court that they couldn't earn elsewhere.

Nonjuring Clergy

The clergy that refused to take the oath under the new constitution, and were supported by the Pope but not the French Government. They still practiced religion and worshiped with many French people.

First Estate

The clergy; they held 5-10% of the land in France at the time.

Collective farm

The combination of the lands, fields, and livestock from several peasants. These were made from the collectivization of agriculture.

Dual Monarchy

The combined leadership of the Empire of Austria and the Kingdom of Hungary. They shared a hereditary Habsburg leader and a common ministry for foreign affairs and finance, but otherwise had separated parliaments and constitutions.

Social Structure

The composition, functions, and interrelationships of social classes

Reagan-Gorbachev Summits

The conferences between Reagan and Gorbachev that spoke of reducing the nuclear arms buildup, military conflict, and extreme spending. They mingled with each other's peoples a lot and Gorbachev committed to withdrawing troops from Afghanistan and encouraged reforms in eastern Europe while Reagan spoke of repression in Soviet society.

Metternich

The conservative man who was in charge of the political authority in Austria. He resigned because he had many opponents within the government.

Prussian Constitution of 1850

The constitution awarded to Prussia after the 1848 revolutions that was rather illiberal and had a 3 class voting system. The Prussians remained under this in the new German Empire.

Prussian Constitution

The constitution established and issued by royal decree by Frederick William IV. It granted a parliament, universal male suffrage, and an absolute veto to the king.

Constitution of 1791

The constitution established by the National Assembly that tore the Old Regime apart and brought a completely new government to France.

Constitution of 1936

The constitution that granted the usual civil liberties of modern democracies, along with rights to steady employment, rest, leisure, economic stability, and comfortable old age. It condemned all racism, reorganized the Soviet republics, and granted equal and direct universal suffrage.

Anglo-Russian Convention

The convention in 1907 in which representatives from England and Russia settled their differences and made the alliance of the triple entente.

Rationalization

The coordination of production in the interests of the country as a whole. There was less focus on profit, and it resulted in more economic equality.

Council of Trent

The council that convened in 1545 in which a section of bishops redefined the Catholic doctrines. They reaffirmed justification by faith and works, defined the sacraments, priesthood as separate/holy, confession, transubstantiation, scripture and tradition, Vulgate, Latin, celibacy/monasteries, purgatory, indulgences, veneration of saints/virgin/use of relics. They also got rid of abuse of indulgences, a stupid clergy, pluralism, and bishops that owned land.

Council of Constance

The council that was arranged to end the Great Schism of the West. They elected Martin V and placed him back in Rome, they got rid of heresy (John Huss), and made a prominent movement to share control with the pope (Conciliar Movement). They were ultimately unsuccessful in this matter.

Aragon

The country of Spain ruled by King Ferdinand. It was joined with Castile to help create national unity, but was unsuccessful in a political, economical, and linguistically pertaining sense.

Piedmont

The country ruled by Victor Emmanuel II and was free from the rule of other nations. It became the driving force in the unification of Italy. Its prime minister was Cavour.

Prerogative Courts

The courts such as the Star Chamber that were where the privileges and immunities of the sovereign were exercised. They were the places of marshall law and were discontinued by the Petition of Right.

Duke of Orleans

The cousin of Louis XV who was acting regent for him and who increased the power that the nobles held in France.

Simony

The crime of buying or selling a church office.

Higher Criticism of the Bible

The critical, textual, and historical analysis of the Bible. It was seen more as evidence for the history of humankind, not a holy text.

Popular Culture

The culture of the masses. What most people in Europe felt or participated in. They were often illiterate, poor, and hungry.

Maria Theresa

The daughter of Charles VI that took over Austria after her father's death and was attacked by nobles. Fredrick II of Prussia was the first to strike, taking a lot of land.

Pragmatic Sanction

The deal Charles VI made with the rest of the European nations for his daughter to remain on the throne of Austria and for their lands to not be partitioned. This was disregarded by Fredrick II and then the rest of Europe.

House of Orange

The decedents of William of Orange, who often held a certain grip on the Dutch people. They acted as stadholder in times of need.

Nihilists

The dissatisfied intelligentsia who thus decided that they were going to believe in "nothing" but science and reason.

Vaclav Havel

The dissident writer whose ideas and activism led and inspired many reforms in Czechoslovakia. He became the provisional president and eventually was elected the president of the new republic.

Divine Right of Kings

The doctrine of Bossuet, which was taught in Churches and spread through France, bringing support to Louis XIV. It stated that kings were God's representatives in political affairs on earth, and that royal power is absolute. Therefore the will of kings is equal to the will of God.

Crown Domain

The domain set by lords either inherited or conquered, which was not always close to other domains, but was still property of the Crown. These lands were then passed down through hereditary means.

Risorgimento

The dream of the resurgence of Italian Renaissance and supremacy. Many Italians wanted to see this and there was a nationalistic drive to get it accomplished.

500-Day Plan

The economic plan that Gorbachev abandoned. It would have freed prices and helped the USSR move swiftly towards a market economy. It would have curtailed military budget and given broad economic powers to the republics.

Keynesian Theory

The economic theory that called for deficit government spending in slow times to stimulate the economy and to keep employment stable. It lost support during the recession.

Benelux (not a term)

The economic union including Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg that expanded free trade in their areas and provided economic growth.

Bailouts

The emergency loans the European Central Bank and other agencies provided during the sovereign debt crisis to avoid defaults that would threaten the collapse of major European banks and the entire euro system. They were provided with the condition that countries receiving them must introduce austerity measures to lower their debts.

Francis Joseph

The emperor of the Austrian Empire. He was focused on his royal life, disliked liberalism and modernity, and was not a strong leader.

Hundred Days

The episode following Napoleon's return from Elba

Thermidorian Reaction

The events following the execution of Robespierre and the new changes people made to the constitution and the rule of the Convention.

Vladimir V. Putin

The ex-KGB operative/head who was elected to be Yeltsin's prime minister, and eventually the President of Russia. He made autocratic reforms and a growing anti-Putin movement thought that he would not willingly relinquish power like older Russian leaders. He is currently in power.

European Commission

The executive and administrative branch of the European Union located in Brussels. It had the right to initiate proposals for legislation.

The August Coup

The failed attempt of hardliners in the Communist Party to get rid of Gorbachev. They attempted to send in the military, but the assault never came because the military was unmotivated. There was some sporadic fighting, but it ended within 4 days.

Habsburgs

The family in the Holy Roman Empire that had a lot control over everything. They were elected to be the HRE every time an election was held except for once. They were originally from what is now modern day Austria, and obtained a good chunk of their land by marriage.

Medici Family

The family that held an aristocracy over Florence for centuries. They got rid of all other people that could affect their ruling.

Simone de Beauvoir

The feminist who wrote "The Second Sex"

Sergei Eisenstein

The film director who used innovative editing and directing techniques. He made a famous, innovative film about the Russian Revolution of 1905 called "Potemkin" (1925).

Colbert

The financial advisor to Louis XIV that helped reform the economy of France and obtain more government money by having everyone conform to a commercial code. He also established the Five Great Farms.

Robert Walpole

The first "prime minister of England". He kept England at peace for a while and tried to keep everything calm internally as well. He helped create the idea of cabinet government, with his most trusted advisors always around him and always agreeing with him.

Paul III

The first Pope after the Renaissance Popes. He was the beginning of the Reformational Popes. He called the Council of Trent, approved the Jesuits, and basically started the Papal reformation.

Rocket

The first effective locomotive function on railroads, making it faster and better equipped to carry goods across sections of land.

Pacem in Terris

The first encyclical (papal letter) addressed to Catholics and non-Catholics alike. It appealed for peace and human rights.

The thaw

The greater measure of cultural and intellectual freedom Khrushchev allowed during his reign. However, this wasn't systematic or thorough (Pasternak and Solzhenitsyn). He put some restraints on the political police.

Procurator of the Holy Synod

The head of the government office tasked with making sure the church did nothing to displease the tsar.

Rasputin

The holy man who was regarded very highly by tsarina Alexandra because he "cured her son of hemophilia". He therefore had much influence in the government and appointments. While tsar Nicholas II went to the battlefront, he was put in charge of the country with Alexandra. He was later assassinated by nobles.

Peter III

The husband of Catherine the Great who was assassinated (probably by Catherine herself) because he deemed incompetent and unable to rule. This caused Catherine to rise to power.

Charles I

The king that came after James I. He repressed all other religious movements, making Anglicanism the only religion people in England could have, and got rid of Parliament, only to end up going to war with them, and was eventually beheaded.

Galicia

The land given to Austria after the first partition of Poland.

Tuscan

The language of the region of Florence. It was a "courtly language" and many people used it. The spread of it contributed to Florence's success.

Chinese Eastern Railway

The large and very advanced railway that the Chinese had agreed to let the Russians build. This upset the Japanese because they felt that the fruits of their successful war against China were being enjoyed by Russia. This led to the Anglo-Japanese Alliance.

Eurodollars

The large dollar reserves the Western Europeans had accumulated so that the amount of dollars abroad exceeded the American Gold reserves, causing many to view the dollar as overvalued. As a result, there was much speculation against the dollar and currency reserves dropped, so President Nixon devalued the dollar.

Sarajevo

The largest city of Bosnia-Herzegovina. A prolonged siege took place there in which people went through horrors due to the struggles between Serbia and Croatia.

Weimar Republic (not a term)

The new, more democratic Germany (not a term)

The New Left

The new, more radical liberals of the youth activists of the 1960s. They attacked materialism, affluence, conformity, and the power structure of contemporary society. They believed in military confrontations and called on each other to transform/destroy various social, political, and cultural traditions to overcome social hierarchies and injustices.

Creoles

The nickname given to the Spaniards living in the new world by those who lived in the home country. They were thought of as lowly.

Signoria

The nine members of the government elected by the guilds to run Florence. They administered the city, proposed laws, and conducted foreign affairs.

Declaration of Indulgence

The non enforcement of laws against the Dissenters that Charles II established. It gave religious toleration to Catholics and Calvinists alike, and was viewed as a general push to Catholicism which was not well received by the English subjects.

Pagan Humanism

The nonreligious humanism that told the old stories and didn't write much about religion that took place in Italy.

Ulster (not a term)

The northern part of Ireland where people are mainly Protestant and decided to abstain from becoming a part of the Republic of Ireland. They instead formed Northern Ireland and stayed with the UK. (not a term)

General Secretary

The office that dominated the entire structure and apparatus of the party with authority over appointments, assignments, and decisions at all levels. Stalin held this position, which is how he came into power.

Old Regime

The old institution of government. In France, this was the king, parlements, and the three estates in the Estates General

Muscovy

The old tsardom that evolved into the Russian Empire.

Habsburg Hereditary Provinces

The oldest territories belonging to the the Habsburg family that weren't already partitioned in the he HRE or Spain. These areas contained Austria and parts of Germany, Bohemia, and Hungary.

Archangel (not a term)

The one port that the Russians held before Peter the Great, and they valued it greatly. It was their only way of transporting goods and their only connection to the other countries by water. They were landlocked. (not a term)

Alexander Kerensky

The one socialist that was admitted into the Provisional Government. He was a moderate, legal minded Social Revolutionary. He eventually was put at the head of the Provincial Government to unify moderate socialists and liberals

Battle of Jutland

The only great naval battle of the war. This was when the British fleet attacked the Germans, but they were able to withdraw into mined waters and had lost less tonnage and men than the British. This proved that they were strong in naval combat. However, they had failed to undermine British sea domination.

Tories

The opposing party, that controlled the House of Commons (which had more power). They aided the Stuart kings in their uprisings against the parliament and George I.

Ecumenical Movement

The organized effort/movement to unite the branches of Protestantism and eventually all of Christianity.

Russian Congress of People's Deputies

The parliamentary institution in Russia before 1993. Yeltsin wanted it to approve a new constitution, but when it didn't, he dissolved it and called for new elections. When the lawmakers refused to leave and people threatened to revolt, Yeltsin ordered tanks to fire upon the building, causing the lawmakers to be evacuated and arrested, and for some civilians to die. The new constitution was approved, and it was replaced by the new Duma.

Radical Socialists

The party in France that represented the moderate left. They advocated for progressive social legislation as long as taxes didn't have to be increased, but still held ties to private property and private enterprise. They held control of the French Republic for a short time.

German Social Democratic Party

The party in Germany that was revisionist (socialism). They took control of the Weimar Republic in its early years.

Sinn Fein Party

The party that led the Irish Nationalists in their uprisings and fought a war to gain Irish independence.

Peace of Hubertusburg

The peace treaty that ended the conflict between Austria and Prussia. It kept things as they were before, securing Prussian control of Silesia even further than before. It made their standing as an international power very strong, and kept the French and Austrians from gaining more land.

Electors

The people chosen by able voters to decide what happened at the local courts and to chose delegates to go to the national law courts and decide what happens in the nation.

Emigres

The people that had fled France (usually nobles) because they did not like the changes the revolutionaries had made to France. Usually these were nobles whose feudal rights had been stripped from them.

Notables

The people the citizens voted for by voting. They were general acceptances--just meaning that the person was voted in and would then be placed into a post by one of the Consulates.

Tax Farmers

The people who made their living as tax collectors but received some revenue from the taxes they collected, taking away government money.

Patriots

The people who wanted less power for the king (suspensive veto) and one legislative body to make laws. They opposed the other side, which wanted the king to have authoritative veto and two legislative bodies like they did in England. The people were afraid of nobility control.

Electors of the Holy Roman Empire

The people who were in charge of electing the Holy Roman Emperor, often going with the Habsburg family. They were from the 7 most powerful states in the HRE.

Prague Spring

The period of liberalization in Czechoslovakia (but it was suppressed by the Soviet army)

"They Shall Not Pass"

The phrase used by the French during the battle of Verdun. It showed determined French resistance.

New Weapons

The pike and the longbow enabled a soldier to stand and fight against horsemen. There was also an increase in the use of footmen to fight, which allowed the leader to use a large army.

Dawes Plan

The plan by an American which called for the French to leave the Ruhr, lower reparations for Germany, and for Germany to receive foreign funds to help pay off their war debts.

Politburo

The political bureau within the Central Committee. It held about a dozen members and dominated discussions of policy and personnel.

Pius IX

The pope who was wrote the Syllabus of Errors and convened the Vatican Council of 1870. He was anti-liberal.

Duma

The popularly elected lower house under the new constitution in Russia. It voted for amnesty to those arrested in the October Days and the plotters of the failed August coup. This undermined Yeltsin's authority.

Hereditary Stadholderate

The position of King in the Netherlands, but under a different name. This was held by the House of Orange, specifically William III at the time.

United Nations

The postwar international organization which would act as an international police and preserve peace and security.

Hindenburg

The president of the Weimar republic who appointed Hitler as chancellor, thinking he could be controlled and manipulated.

Father Gapon

The priest who led St. Petersburg factory workers in a peaceful demonstration in January, 1905 at the Winter Palace to state their grievances and ask for reforms (minimum wage, 8-hour work day, democratically elected Constitutional Assembly, etc.)

William Pitt

The prime minister of England who saw the revolutions as a threat but was more concerned with the internal affairs of his own country to assist the coalition against the French.

Hunting Rights

The privilege of keeping game preserves and of hunting on his peasants land that a lord preserved in France (resembles feudalism).

Agadir Crisis

The second attempt to break up the British-French alliance. A German warship went to the Moroccan coast to "protect German interests". They offered to make no more trouble in Morocco if they got the French Congo. This did little, and Germany was given minor African concessions but it made Great Britain and France ever more angry.

Dutch War

The second war Louis raged in an attempt to take the Spanish Netherlands, this time with England on their side. This was opposed by Austria, Brandenburg, Denmark, and the United Dutch Republic. Ended by the Treaty of Nimwegen.

People's Will

The secret terrorist society that eventually assassinated Alexander II.

Franco-Russian Alliance

The seemingly impossible treaty singed by France and Russia after the one with Germany collapsed.

Ursuline Sisters

The sisters who established over 350 schools for young girls to learn about their faith and be educated. Similar to the Jesuits.

Plantation Economy

The slave, lord, profitable land, and product economy that was taken up by many people in the Americas. It started by making sugar and then progressed to making cotton.

Price Revolution

The slow moving, high rate of increasing inflation that occurred in Europe at this time.

Final Solution

The solution to the "Jewish problem," which was systematic genocide.

Alexander III

The son of Alexander II who took over after his father's death and was against liberals and revolutionaries, so there was no more liberal progress under his reign.

Ismail

The son of Ali who was Prince of Egypt. He wanted to use European technology to modernize Egypt. He sent the country into huge debt by doing so.

Charles II (England)

The son of Charles I, who took over after his beheading and the death of Cromwell's son. He worked with Parliament to make laws (unlike his father), but wanted to make the conversation to Catholicism.

William II

The son of Frederick III (William I's grandson) who kicked Bismarck out of office and proceeded to actually run Germany by himself. He was the last king of Prussia and the last German kaiser.

Louis XIII

The son of Henry IV and Marie de Medici. He was not of age to become king when his father died.

Tewfiq

The son of Ismail who fled when riots against Europeans broke out in Alexandria.

James III

The son of James II, the pretender. He tried to take control of the English throne with a rebellion and invasion in Scotland.

Emmanuel II

The son of King Charles Albert who took over Piedmont and was favored by the people of Austria.

Alexis

The son of Peter the great who claimed that he would bring the old way to the throne when he father died. Peter didn't want such old fashioned ideas to take the crown, so he executed his son.

Boy Kings

The sons of Henry II and other kings that were not old enough to lead their countries and therefore required regents to rule for them.

Political Theory

The theory on what is truly right in politics

The Regency

The time in which someone acts as king in place of the true heir because they are unable to reign. Usually, this was a time when the nobles attempted to gain more power. In the case of Louis XV, the nobles did.

King in Prussia

The title of the first king of Prussia (Fredrick III). It was granted to him by the Holy Roman Emperor in return for military assistance in the War of the Spanish Succession. "In" vs. "of"; of is more respectable and powerful.

East India Compaines

The trading companies founded by the Dutch, French, and English that traded with the East Indian islands. They were copied but most other established companies fell.

Reinsurance Treaty

The treaty Bismarck somehow finessed his way into keeping with Russia to ensure Germany protection from that side as well. It was eventually dissolved when Bismarck was kicked out.

Treaty of Portsmouth

The treaty arranged by Teddy Roosevelt that gave Japan many territories and proved that a non European country can be successful.

Treaty of Nimwegen

The treaty ending the Dutch War. It gave Louis the French Comte and parts of Flanders, but forced him to give up the Spanish Netherlands for the time being.

Maastricht Treaty

The treaty that created the EU in 1991.

Treaty of Frankfurt

The treaty that ended the Franco-Prussian War, annexed Alsace and Lorraine to the German Empire, and demanded France to pay a huge war indemnity.

Treaty of Nystatdt 1721

The treaty that ended the Great Northern War between Sweden and Russia. It opened land on the east in the Baltic to the expansively minded Russians (warm water port). Through the end of this war, Sweden was destroyed as a political power, with their soldiers nearly all dead thanks to Russian winter.

Union of Utrecht

The treaty that set the northern seven provinces of the Netherlands free from the southern ten and from Spanish control.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

The treaty that the Bolsheviks were forced to sign that gave independence to Poland, Ukraine, Finland, and other Baltic provinces. It was the peak of German power during WWI and neutralized Russia, making the war no longer be a two front war for Germany.

Treaty of Tilsit

The treaty uniting Russia with France against Great Britain and finally bringing the two big powers and powerful leaders together. From the treaty Alexander wanted French support in his endeavors in Poland and the Balkans, and Napoleon wanted to get Russian support in his wars.

Secret Treaty of London in 1915

The treaty where Italy joined the Allies. It stated that if the Allies won the war, then Italy would get more territories, giving it an incentive to join the Allies.

Alexander II

The tsar of Russia after Nicholas I. He introduced some liberal reforms throughout his reign as tsar. He was assassinated for his changes.

Nicholas I

The tsar of Russia who offered assistance to Austria and gave them troops to repress rebellion and keep the empire alive.

Behaim and Schoner

The two men who made maps of the world, or what they could to their knowledge. This is why Europe is centered in most modern day maps.

European Union

The unified political and economic organization of Europe.

Anschluss

The union of Austria and Germany, which was completed in 1838 by Hitler. Mussolini backed down from his opposition of German occupation of Austria and Hitler was allowed to move in his troops.

Federal Republic of Germany

The united Germany. Its capital was Berlin. Kohl was its first chancellor.

Liberum Veto

The veto anybody in a diet could use if they disagreed with a decision. This would then explode the diet and end it immediately. This was called into use often, with only little more than five diets actually lasting for their entirety.

Squadristi

The vigilante fascist squadrons who broke up strikes, demolished labor union headquarters, and drove elected Socialist and Communist town officials from office.

Potemkin Villages

The villages near the Black Sea that Potemkin (Catherine's advisor and lover) made that were said to just be set up to impress Austria and not actually real, functioning villages. This term now refers to something that is fake or without merit. Austria, however, did join Russia's efforts in the war.

Saar Plebiscite

The vote in Saar in 1955 that surveyed if the people wanted to be a part of Germany or be independent. There was an overwhelming majority in favor for reunion with Germany.

War of 1859

The war between France/Piedmont and Austria for Italian unification.

Danish War

The war between Prussia/Austria and Denmark over Schleswig and Holstein. Prussia and Austria won and occupied Schleswig and Holstein, which created conflicts.

Peninsular War

The war between the people on the Iberian Peninsula (and Great Britain) against the French, who had disrupted the monarchy and Catholicism in Spain. Napoleon surrendered at the Capitulation at Bailen, which set him back in conquering Europe and gave the rest of the continent hope.

War of Jenkins Ear

The war cause by Captain Jenkins, who convinced the parliament that they needed to go to war with the Spaniards, much to the dismay of Robert Walpole. This war was to take place in the American colonies and it ended Britain's long peace, turning into an international war overseas.

Seven Weeks War

The war that Bismarck waged on Austria and the rest of the German territories, kicked many of the German leaders out and lessening the power of Austria. He then made the North German Confederation.

The Wars of Polish Succession

The wars fought between many countries for who they wanted to be the next king of Poland.

Cold War

The widening diplomatic, geographical, ideological clash of interests between the US and USSR. It never resulted in any direct military hostilities.

Catherine de Medici

The wife of Henry II who ruled as regent after he died because her children were all too young to rule. In the French war, she hated the Huguenots but feared the Guises.

Marie de Medici

The wife/widow of Henry IV, daughter of Catherine de Medici. She dismissed the Estates General after Henry's death because it wasn't making any progress.

Olympe de Gouges

The woman who wrote the "Rights of Woman", gaining prominence before as a playwright. She believed in gender equality.

Suffragettes

The women following Emmeline Pankhurst in her protests. When arrested, they went on hunger strikes and were force fed. These were also generally people who fought for women's suffrage.

Diggers

They proceeded to occupy and cultivate common lands, or lands privately owned, in a general repudiation of private property.

Habsburgs

They were in charge of the HRE but eventually lost most of their power to individual states, creating their own country, Austria.

Boris Yeltsin

This Russian was a blunt and outspoken man who originally not an intellectual. After denouncing the party, he was dismissed from his position as a party boss in Moscow and a member of the Politburo. Humiliated, he found allies among democratic reformers who saw him as a populist figure who could rally support, so they educated him and converted him into a good opposition leader. He was elected to the Soviet Legislature where his new power base was the Russian Legislature in which he became its chairman and attacked the government. He was elected as president of the Russian republic (the first president in Russian history to be elected by popular vote). Here, he demanded independence for the 3 Baltic states and self-government for the other republics. Gorbachev then began negotiations, and 9 republics signed the union treaty. This led to the August coup, which eventually led to him denouncing the Communist Party and causing the downfall of the USSR.

Containment

This US policy aimed to contain the Soviet communist offensive.

Indemnity Act of 1867

This act legalized the disputed taxes/constitutional struggles from before. This was in view of the victory over Austria, and it showed that nationalism prevailed over liberalism.

Ten Hours Act of 1847

This act was passed by the Tories, and it limited the factory work of women and children to ten hours a day maximum.

Battle Of Tannenberg

This battle ended with a huge German land victory on the Eastern front against Russia. 225,000 Russians were captured.

The Corporation

This became the usual form of organization for industry and commerce. It was a large company.

European Parliament

This body was elected by a European-wide electorate. It supervised the budget and debated Commission proposals. However, it never aroused much enthusiasm and voter turnout remained low.

Dadaism

This came about from 1916-1920s and was publicized by Charles Duchamp. It was an attack on all standards of art and behavior and possessed a disgust for bourgeois values. It emphasized that reality can be found by abolishing traditional values. Examples of this are "EHOOQ" by Duchamp and "Fountain" by Duchamp

Surrealism

This came about from 1920s-1930s and was publicized by Salvador Dali and Joan Miro. They portrayed the world of dreams and the subconscious. They also possessed a fascination for the grotesque. There were no rules, and there was an absolute freedom of form and in dreams. Examples of this are "The Ploughed Field" by Joan Miro, "The Persistence of Memory" by Salvador Dali, and "Fish Magic" by Paul Klee.

Atlantic Charter

This charter was issued by Roosevelt and Churchill before the end of the war. It pledged that self-government would be restored to those who were forcibly deprived of it. All nations would have equal access to world trade and world resources. All people would work to achieve improved living standards and economic security. It pledged that the postwar peace would assure all people freedom from fear and want and it would end force and aggression in international affairs (Four Freedoms).

Ausgleich

This compromise created the Dual Monarchy.

Vatican Council of 1870

This council proclaimed the dogma of papal infallibility. It helped grow Catholicism as an international force because Rome was seen as the protector of Catholics everywhere against alien and anticlerical forces.

Bosnia-Herzegovina

This country had long had a mixed population of Serbs, Croats, and Muslims. Under Tito, the Muslims were given equal status to Serbs and Croats. The Muslim leaders later voted for Bosnian independence from Yugoslavia, which provoked a bloody war. Serbians took a lot of land during this war, and the Muslims suffered from bloody "ethnic cleansing". At the end, they agreed to create a Muslim-Croat federation in what remained after the Serbian conquests.

Finland

This country refused to cede its border territories sought by the USSR or to yield military rights within their country. This caused the Soviets to attack. The resistance was at first effective, but was eventually crushed. This caused the USSR to get kicked out of the League of Nations. The Soviets still won, though, and Finland had to yield more land than originally demanded, but it remained independent.

Greece

This country suffered from a huge debt in the sovereign debt crisis.

Ukraine

This country was one of the original founding states of the USSR who proclaimed independence right after the August coup. After this, Yeltsin announced that Russia wouldn't remain in the union without Ukraine. This led to Russia, Ukraine, and Byelorussia dissolving the USSR.

India Act of 1784

This created an India office in the British Parliament, so the governor general ruled supreme in India, but was subordinate to Parliament.

Dreyfus Affair

This debacle crushed hopes for French Catholics to rally to the republic, and it gained lots of attention. When Captain Alfred Dreyfus (Jewish army officer) was found guilty for leaking French secrets to Germans. But evidence accumulated that showed his innocence, but the army refused to reopen the case. This split the country between supporters, who wanted to discredit anti-republican adversaries and have justice, and the opposers, who believed it was unpatriotic to go against the army and wanted to disgrace the republic regime. Dreyfus was later pardoned, and the republican majority in the Chamber got revenge by blocking the promotion of anti-republican officers and by anticlerical legislation (Laic laws of 1905)

Declaration on Liberated Europe

This declaration, which was instated at the Yalta conference, promised sovereign rights of democratic self-determination (free elections). It provided a false sense of agreement because there were actually no free postwar elections in Soviet controlled eastern Europe.

Trades Disputes Act of 1927

This declared all general or sympathy strikes illegal and forbade unions from raising money for political purposes.

Economic Liberalism

This economic ideology promoted free trade, laissez-faire, and an international economic system.

Trickle Down Theory

This economic theory emphasized increased production instead of increased consumer demand as the most important factor for economic growth. The results of this would trickle down and reach everyone with a safety net in place for the truly disadvantaged.

Treaty of Paris of 1763

This ended the 7 years war between England and France. It gave all French holdings in North America (i.e. Louisiana and Quebec) to the British. It secured the British standing in India and their trading relationship. It gave the British better trading and access to slave shipping. In Europe, it secured Prussian control and left the Austrians at bay. It dissolved the idea of the universal monarchy surrounding France and kept them away from Belgium.

March Laws

This established an elected parliament to replace the Hungarian Diet and abolished serfdom. It was accepted by Austria, but only for a short time.

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes

This got rid of the Edict of Nantes and from this many Protestants fled France and or were heavily prosecuted if they chose to stay. This was very similar to the Penal Code in Ireland.

Welfare State

This grew and included more people (not just the disadvantaged) and expanded social insurance/security. It also included free/subsidized health care and the redistribution of wealth through progressive taxes. It was achieved because of collaboration between the government, management, and labor, which all wanted investment and growth.

Central Committee

This group dominated the Communist Party and consisted of 70-140 members.

Fabian Society

This group included English middle class critics of capitalism. It was un-Marxist and held that socialism was the social and economic counterpart to political democracy and was inevitable, but no class conflict or revolution was needed. It was content with small and immediate satisfactions/changes, and was part of the English Labour Party.

Spanish Inquisition

This happened in all countries controlled by Spain at the time. They searched for heresy, or people who were Protestant, using torture to do so.

Empiricism

This idea was advocated by Francis Bacon. It was the belief that reliable knowledge must be based on observation and experience only (no preconceptions)

French East India Company

This increased French presence in trading with India and other countries in similar areas. It increased their revenue and expanded their empire because colonies were established around that area.

Second International

This international Marxist organization held a postwar meeting at Berne in which a small minority demanded Marxism as in Russia, but they were overruled. This caused them to go to Moscow and establish the Third International in conjunction with the Russian Communist Party with the party dominating it.

"Nuclear Winter"

This is a theoretical concept where during a nuclear war, lots of soot would accumulate in the atmosphere and spread by winds across the planet. This would block out the sun and cause death for most, if not all life.

Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenians

This is also called Yugoslavia. It was dominated by the Serbs and existed under the Serbian monarchy. The creation of this fulfilled the aims of South Slavs.

"Windows on the West"

This is another name for the ports that Peter the Great wanted to establish on the Baltic and Black seas to increase Russia's access to the West and westernization. To create these he increased naval power immensely. St. Petersburg became the major window on the west.

"Utopian Socialism"

This is not Marxism. It involved planning ahead for a socialist future that seems ideal, but may not work in reality. Marx didn't like this and thought it was based on romantic ideals, not facts.

Postindustrial Age

This is the age when data processing, information storage and retrieval, and more sophisticated communication capabilities were keys to competitive success.

Ultramontanism

This is the strong emphasis put on the Pope's powers, especially in other parts of Europe besides Rome.

"Scientific Socialism"

This is what Marxism was. It was all based on facts and historical events and provided a realistic view of what socialist society will look like.

Mir

This is what the peasant land, when redeemed, became. It was the collective property of an ancient village peasant assembly. It provided many restrictions for the peasants who lived in it, and it was responsible for repaying redemption money to the government.

Cohabitation

This is when the popularly elected president and the prime minister are of different parties. This was the legacy of Mitterand and shows the resiliency of the Fifth Republic.

Fascism

This ism was created by Mussolini. It was a form of radical authoritarian nationalism that was advanced by national syndicalism.

Parliament Act of 1911

This law deprived the House of Lords of the veto power in financial matters, and allowed them only a two year delaying veto on all other legislations.

Codetermination Law

This law gave workers seats on the boards of directors of larger firms in Germany. It helped bring labor and capital together.

Zinoviev Letter

This letter from the Third International had secret instructions for the British Labour group to prepare for a Communist uprising in Great Britain. It was published in the newspapers, and led to a Conservative majority in 1924.

Proletarian Literature

This literature focused on the struggles of the lower classes during the Great Depression

Statute of Westminster

This made all British dominions legally equal to each other and Great Britain. It also said that no law passed by British parliament was required to be passed by the other dominions.

Congress of People's Deputies

This new legislative body in the USSR was voted for and chose a smaller legislative body to meet more often. Both could initiate legislation and freely debate issues. It created a presidency with broad executive powers. Here, the public heard critiques of Soviet society for the first time, including poverty, corruption, crime, alcoholism, drugs, shortcomings in health, medicine, housing, etc.

Petrograd Soviet's Army Order No. 1 (not a term)

This order granted military power to committees of common soldiers, leading to a total collapse of discipline in the Russian Army (May 1917) (not a term)

Christian Democrats

This party governed for 20 years in West Germany It appealed to businessmen and the middle classes and sought to infuse politics with morals.

Nationalist Party

This party had wealthy conservative, nationalist, and anti-republican elements who gave money to the Nazi party because they believed they could control Hitler and therefore the national and mass discontent he was leading. They led the cabinet for a while, and then were in a coalition cabinet with the Nazi party.

Doctors' Plot

This plot was made up by the political police to justify anti-Semitism. Apparently, Jewish doctors plotted to poison Stalin and other Kremlin leaders so were arrested. However, one month after Stalin died, his successors withdrew the charges and freed them.

Brezhnev Doctrine

This proclaimed the Soviet right to intervene in the name of "proletarian internationalism" in any communist country to protect socialism and prevent the restoration of a capitalist regime.

Strength Through Joy

This program provided entertainment, travel, and vacations to those with small incomes who wouldn't be able to afford them otherwise. This was a propaganda technique.

Balfour Note 1917

This promised Great Britain's support for a Jewish homeland in Palestine, which started the clash between Arab and Jewish nationalism that still continues today.

Eisenhower Doctrine

This promised military/economic aid to any Middle Eastern country needing help in resisting communist aggression.

India Act of 1773

This put British people in India under the control of the British government by establishing a governor general to watch over the political affairs of the East India Company.

National Labor Front

This replaced labor unions. Strikes were forbidden, and employers were given extensive, almost dictatorial, control and were subject to close government supervision.

Chamber of Fasces and Corporations

This replaced the Chamber of Deputies. It represented the corporations and the Fascist party. All of its members were selected by the government and not subject to popular ratification.

General Maximum

This set ceiling for wages and prices. It helped check inflation but didn't work out that all that well.

Spirit of Camp David

This spirit was created when Khrushchev and Eisenhower met and spoke of peaceful coexistence and even of mutual disarmament at Camp David. However, it was broken when Khrushchev, upset because of criticism at home and from Mao, bragged about Soviet arms production and denounced the US.

Polish Corridor

This strip of land gave Poland access to the sea and blocked most of Germany from Eastern Prussia.

Zimmerman Telegram

This telegram sent from the Germans to Mexico stated that if the US went to war with Germany, Mexico should form an alliance with Germany, which would enable it to get back territories lost in the Spanish-American War if they won. This was intercepted by the British and published in America, which shocked and angered the public.

Feudal

This term refers to not only nobles, but all groups of people who had privileges.

Treaty of Rastadt

This treaty ended the War of the Spanish Succession. It gave the Habsburgs the Spanish Netherlands, Milan, and Naples, which expanded their empire eastward and prompted Prince Eugene to try to expand westward.

Anglo-French-American Treaty

This treaty promised that Great Britain and the US would immediately aid France if Germany attacked it again.

Peace of Karlowitz

This treaty pushed the Ottoman Empire back to Romania and the Balkans, and gave the Austrian Habsburg family most of Hungary, along with Transylvania and Croatia.

Peace of Belgrade

This treaty was at the end of the last attempt of the Austrians to expand westward into the Ottoman Empire. It drew new boundaries for Austria and Turkey, pushing Turkey back out of most of Europe and giving the Habsburg family more land. This barrier was to exist for a long time.

Berlin Wall

This wall barred free movement into West Germany. People were able to evade it by traveling through Hungary, and it was eventually torn down.

Revolutionary Syndicalism

This was French of "trade unionism". It was the idea that the unions might one day become the supreme authoritative institutes in society. It called for a vast general strike, which was result in this new society.

Louis XVIII

This was Louis XVI's brother. He established himself in Verona, Italy and stated that he would aim to restore the Old Regime with support from right wing royalist people in France.

Caporetto

This was a battle between Italy and Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary and Germany streamed into northern Italy, but the Italians, which the help of the British and the French, were able to hold the line. However, the Austrian forces were able to defeat the Italians.

Passchendaele

This was a battle between the Germans and the British. The British penetrated deep into German lines with a raid, but they had to withdraw because they had no reserve of soldiers to exploit their success.

French Popular Front

This was a coalition of Radical Socialists, Socialists, and Communists that pledged to defend the republic against fascism, take measures against the Great Depression, and introduce labor reforms. It grew popular and got the majority in the legislature.

Stagflation

This was a combination of stagnation and inflation, which was seen in the recession of the 1970s.

Hegelian dialectic

This was a philosophy about history: the tendency of the Universal Spirit and human mind to move forward by the creation of opposites.

Plot of July 20, 1944

This was a plot by an underground German group to assassinate Hitler by exploding a bomb at Hitler's military headquarters in East Prussia. Hitler was only injured and he brutally took revenge.

Open Door Policy

This was a policy held by the US that said it was opposed to formal occupation and annexation of the whole Chinese territory. This allowed all foreigners the right to trade in China and have spheres of influence.

Mutiny at Kiel

This was a revolt of sailors which led to the abdication of William II and the establishment of the Weimar Republic

Taff Vale Decision

This was a ruling in England that held a union responsible for the financial loss of an employer during a strike. This threatened the existence of unions and caused them to unify, which precipitated the formation of the Labour Party. This party elected members to Parliament who overruled this decision.

Osborne Judgement

This was a ruling in England that held that trade unions couldn't collect a tax for political purposes/fund political parties.

German Social Democratic Party

This was a socialist party formed by Marxian and Lasallean socialists in Germany. It grew quickly despite the efforts of Bismarck to stop it.

Concordat of 1801

This was a treaty between the Vatican and the French Republic. It allowed the clergy to be controlled by the Vatican, and the French gave up their Gallican Liberties. It also surrendered the Catholic church to the Vatican, and allowed worship to be common through France (but there needed to be toleration). In turn, the French put the Church on their payroll and had their annexation of Argon and other church lands recognized. This also RECOGNIZED THE FRENCH REPUBLIC AS A POWER IN EUROPE.

Sphere of Influence

This was a very vague section of imperial control. It left the country independent, but each sphere undermined the sovereignty/local power. It was in regions where a single European power couldn't dominate, so they divided the country into spheres. Each power had advisory privileges and investment and trade opportunities within its own sphere.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

This was adopted by the UN and it stated the fundamental human rights.

Lateran Treaty of 1929

This was an agreement where the papacy recognized the Italian state and Italy conceded the existence of a Vatican City as an independent state.

Frankfurt Assembly (not a term)

This was an convened to write a federal constitution and declaration of rights to unify the German states without Austria. (not a term)

Bretton Woods

This was an international conference held in 1944. 44 nations met in New Hampshire and pledged to reduce trade barriers and work for stable currencies (for convertibility and fixed exchange rates) in the postwar wold.

New Model Unionism

This was an ism about craft unions in England. Its policy was to take the unions out of politics and to concentrate on advancing the interests of each separate trade. It aimed to be reasonable with employers, avoided strikes, accumulated union funds, and built up their membership. This proved to be a successful strategy because workers were given the right to vote because of how peaceful they were.

European Stability Mechanism

This was an organization that would collect money from member nations (and raise money by selling ESM bonds) and then provide loans for indebted governments or for government-funded bailouts of struggling major banks. In return, a national government had to show that it was adopting fiscal reforms to ensure that its annual budget deficit remained below 3% of GDP. This was created to defuse debt crisis, restore financial stability, avoid deeper recession, and create a more reliable euro zone system.

Levee en Masse

This was called by the committee and forced all able bodied men to join the French Army. They also added that all others should help the cause in any way possible.

March of Brandenburg

This was how Brandenburg was founded: as a mark or match of the Holy Roman Empire to fight against the Slavs on their boarders. Eventually this grew into a country of itself.

Council of State

This was imitated from the Old Regime. It made significant legislation, but the first council (Napoleon) always had extreme influence over which legislation was addressed and passed.

Confederation of the Rhine

This was in place of the Holy Roman Empire. It was when Napoleon gathered Germanic states into a confederation, of which he made himself the "protector".

Code Napoleon

This was one of the new five Codified Laws. Civil Code: France was legally and judicially uniform. There were new was on property and new legal framework for economic interactions. There were no guidelines--law was law and the rules applied to everybody.

Vatican II

This was the council that shaped contemporary Catholicism and revitalized and updated church practices. It accepted religious pluralism (abandoned the Catholic monopoly on religious truth), affirmed collegiality (pope must share authority with prelates, so national churches had more authority), allowed Masses to be in the vernacular, relaxed dress restrictions for priests and nuns, absolved Jews of the deicide (killing of a god) that had inflamed anti-Semitism, and confirmed celibacy for clergy and that women still couldn't be priests.

Cameralism

This was the form of mercantilism in central Europe. Maria Theresa encouraged this and developed the largest tariff union in Europe in Bohemia.

First International

This was the international Marxist organization led by Marx himself.

Radical Socialists

This was the most important single party of the French Republic. They were actually radical republicans who were patriotic, anticlerical spokesmen for the lower classes. They were actually against social legislation and even took steps to prevent unionization and suppressed strikes.

Bank of Amsterdam

This was the most internationally recognized bank in the world, and was founded and backed by the Dutch gov't. It allowed deposits of mixed currencies, and with fixed rates of exchange, converted them to the internationally set and recognized gold florin that was minted by this bank. Depositors could draw checks from their accounts, and their deposits were guaranteed by the Dutch gov't. It made the Dutch a good amount of their money and caused them to be the financial center of Europe.

Third Section

This was the name for the secret police established by Tsar Nicholas I in Russia. A great many people feared it, and it was disbanded by Alexander II as part of his liberal reforms.

United Kingdom of Great Britain

This was the name of what was the union between England and Scotland. The Scots still had their own legal system and Presbyterian church, but were under Parliamentary law.

Brandenbrug-Prussia

This was the uniting of Brandenburg and Prussia though the inheritance of their crowns by the Elector of Brandenburg.

Sinking of the Lusitania

This was when a German submarine torpedoed a British ship, which killed a large number of Americans and made the US very angry. Wilson said that a similar attack would be considered "deliberately unfriendly," so the Germans refrained from using submarines to avoid trouble.

Federalist Rebellions

This was when counterrevolutionaries in the countryside revolted against the centralized power of Paris; wanted it to be more decentralized

Calonne

an economic advisor to Louis XVI who proposed a plan to make one general tax, take away church land, abolish internal tariffs, and give propertied classes an interest in government by creating local assemblies in which they have a say.

Italia Irredenta

"An unredeemed Itlay" ; the regions that people thought should be part of Italy but hadn't been unified.

Kulturkampf

"Battle for modern civilization". This was Bismarck's anticlerical campaign.

Mary

"Bloody Mary." The daughter of Henry VII. She was a very devout Roman Catholic and when she married Philip of Spain, was greeted with disapproval. Together they persecuted Protestants.

Drang Nach Osten

"Drive to the East". The Germans had not just taken out the Slaves on the boarders of Brandenburg, they eliminated them, driving further east and gaining more territory. In doing this they absorbed the Slaves through marriage or territory gains.

Wirtschaftswunder

"Economic Miracle". This term was used in West Germany to describe their "economic revival". It was due to the currency reform of 1948, the Marshall Plan, and economic opportunities during the Korean War.

Invisible Exports

"Exports" that included shipping and insurance services rendered to foreigners, and interest on money lent out or invested

Carnival

"Farewell to Meat" The way that the peasants and elite celebrated before lent, engaging in dancing, eating, plays, and games. It was their way of celebrating.

Festung Europa

"Fortress of Europe". This was the area the Germans controlled.

Cogito Ergo Sum

"I think therefore I am." The belief Descartes held that he couldn't doubt his own existence because he could think.

Laissez-Faire

"Let it be." This was a policy of the Physiocrats which embodied their stance against government interference in the economy.

Blitzkrieg

"Lighting Warfare" conducted by the Germans. It utilized speed and surprise.

Bolsheviks

"Majority". This faction within the Social Democratic Party was led by Lenin and Trotsky. They believed the party should be small, elite, centralized, control doctrine, and use purges. They believed in the dictatorship of the proletariat, and that the party provides leadership for those who "can't see". They were disgusted with trade unionism.

Mensheviks

"Minority". This faction within the Social Democratic Party believed in an open party that was influenced by all members. It was open to cooperation with the bourgeoisie and liberals. It believed that parliamentary methods could bring about socialism.

Garibaldi's Thousand

"Red Shirts," the thousand or so men that helped and followed Garibaldi invade the kingdom of the Two Sicilies and unite the land they captured with northern Italy.

Siglo de Oro

"Spanish Golden Age". The time of flourish and extravagance in Spain that was brought and ended by Philip II (Well, it lasted a bit longer than he did but that's basically what happened).

Perestroika

"Structural reforms". Gorbachev's drastic reform program for the economy. It included decentralization, self-management for industry and agriculture, ending the rigidity imposed by the bureaucracy, and giving incentives for productivity. Private enterprise and state industries were to be integrated into a market-based economy linked to the outside world, but most of these reforms were only on paper and the system remained unchanged. It called for glasnost to win the support of the country to make this plan succeed.

Kristallnacht

"The Night of Broken Glass". When a young Polish Jew shot a German diplomat in Paris because he was upset about the mistreatment of his parents. This caused Nazi storm troopers to destroy Jewish shops, businesses, and synagogues, beat up Jews, and round up many to be sent to concentration camps. Gov't leaders took control of the situation and used it to heavily fine the Jewish community of provoking the assault and collected insurance payments for the damage. This caused Jews to try to flee, but they couldn't find places of refuge.

Mary Wollstonecraft

"Vindication of the Rights of Women"-- she was an english woman that wrote this book raising support for gender equality.

Louis XI

(1461-1483). The man who took over the French throne in Paris and slowly expanded it to what we know as France today. He established greater taxation powers for the monarchies.

Maximilian I

(1493-1579). Because the HRE was organized into small administrative circles all around, he tried to organize it into one large imperial chamber and council, but this ultimately failed. He created the Habsburg family's large fortune and vast amounts of lands.

Prince of Parma

The man who led the Spanish in the Netherlands. United Catholics and moderates in the south who were sick of the fighting.

Louis Blanc

The man who led the socialists in France and saw the republic as a means to the end goal of making an equal and socialist society. He established the National Workshops.

William III

The man who married Mary Stuart, becoming king of England, and was rivaled only by King Louis XIV of France. He was Dutch, a Calvinist, and a simple man, who didn't care for extravagance. During the War of the Spanish Succession, he gathered countries to create the Grand Alliance of 1701, which defeated Louis XIV.

Vidkun Quisling

The man who organized a fascist party in Norway and was the Norwegian premier from 1942-1945. He was the prototype for "quislings" who were sympathizers/collaborators with Germany.

General Jaruzelski

The man who replaced Gierek in Poland as party head and premier. When strikes continued to mobilize wide popular support for liberalization and raised the threat of Soviet military intervention, he imposed martial law, banned Solidarity, and arrested its leaders. After the power of Solidarity was curbed and the Soviet threat passed, he lifted martial law and initiated a reform program to placate the workers, but these reforms failed to improve the economy or calm resentments. International pressures caused him to permit parliamentary elections in which Solidarity and other groups were free to put forward candidates. This eventually ended the party-state dictatorship.

John Law

The man who rose to control the French economy by obtaining land and trading routes for his company, the Mississippi Company. He ended up controlling the French trade and finances.

General Evelyn Baring

The man who ruled Egypt (under Great Britain's control). He reformed tax and gave better positions to peasants. He started the model for European imperialism and expansionist culture spread.

Baron Haussmann

The man who served as Louis Napoleon's city planner. He created railway stations, public squares, and many large buildings and monuments. He basically transformed Paris into what it is today.

Janos Kadar

The man who took control of the Hungarian government after Nagy was hanged. He and the party kept a monopoly on political control, but attempted to move away from an inflexible centrally planned economy, and even encouraged private enterprise and turned to the West for investments. This caused the economy to expand and the standard of living to rise, but there was no fundamental change. He was eased out of office by his party as Gorbachev made new reforms in the USSR because it wanted to show support for the change and to maintain power.

Cardinal Richelieu

The man who took over as acting regent after Henry IV's death. He united the country as it was again on the brink of civil war by getting rid of all Lordly and Protestant military power. He was a cardinal but more of a politique.

Francis Joseph

The man who took the throne over after Ferdinand I was kicked out. He was the nephew of Ferdinand and was not required to take any of the reforms he made.

Cardinal Mazarin

The man who was acting regent for Louis XIV. He was not a very effective ruler, and was rebelled against during the Fronde.

Erich Honecker

The man who was in charge of East Germany. He agreed to closer economic and political relations with West Germany, but refused to relax controls at home. The party eventually forced him to resign due to demonstrations.

Archbishop Laud

The man who was in charge of the Anglican Church at the time of Charles I. He was charged with being an Arminian and was beheaded.

William Pitt

The man who was in charge of the British army and navy during the 7 years war. He was a military genius and won them many battles, specifically in North America, abolishing nearly all French holdings there.

Admiral Darlan

The man who was in charge of the French navy. He then worked with the Vichy government when the Nazis took over, and then was proclaimed head of French North Africa and told his troops to cooperate with the Allies.

Diderot

The man who was the co-creator and editor of the encyclopedie, to which he was editor in chief and and collected/contributed information into. He encouraged others to build onto what he had already established.

Solzhenitsyn

The man who wrote "One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisonvich" and was allowed to publish it, even though it spoke of the harsh conditions in forced labor camps.

Hugo Grotius

The man who wrote the "Law of War and Peace". He wrote pioneering words on international laws.

St. Francis Xavier

The man who, by 1550, had baptized a ton of people, including Indians, Indonesians, and Japanese. He was a Jesuit and carried their influence far and wide.

Boris Pasternak

The man, who in 1958, was not allowed to accept the Nobel prize in literature because his novel, "Dr. Zhivago," stressed individual freedoms and implicitly condemned the oppressiveness of Soviet society.

Roman/Papal Inquisition

The search for those who were not Catholic living in Rome. This never made it out of Italy for very long, and their goal was to protect the purity of faith.

"Socialist Emperor"

The term the Saint-Simonians used to describe Louis Napoleon because he legalized unions.

Louis Kossuth

A Hungarian nationalist who demanded self government for Hungary. He was very radical.

Spartacist Movement

A Marxist revolutionary movement organized in Germany during World War I.

Hindenburg

One of the German Generals who prepared to launch the final assault on France to end the war.

Social Democrats

Orthodox Marxists (refer to Social Democratic Labor Party)

"Led Demoiselles D' Avignon"

Picasso, Cubism

Pan-Slav Congress

A congress that convened and tried to promote anti-Austrian causes and gain independence for the countries with participants.

Illyrian Provinces

Trieste and Dalmation coasts where the governments were administered like departments of France for a while, but then became less dependant on France.

Congress of Troppau

A congress/meeting between Alexander I of Russia and Metternich that proclaimed the principle of active intervention to maintain all autocratic regimes whenever they're threatened.

Disraeli (not a term)

A conservative minister in the House of Commons that made significant changes in England. (not a term)

Slavic Revival

The most influential of the East European movements. It was when all branches of Slavs (Russians, Poles, Czechs, etc) began to develop new nationalisms. It focused on native languages and history.

Potosi

The mountain where one of the most successful silver mines was established. Much of this money was sent back to Europe, adding to the inflation that was on the rise, and the economic standing of Spain.

Episcopal Movement

The movement of the bishops to have control of parts of the Catholic Church that they believed the Pope could not handle.

Mestizos

The name for people that had mixed white and native blood. Because so many of the people that came over from Europe were men, there were little women to breed with so they mixed with the natives.

the Rump

The name for the 50-60 members of the Long Parliament left after Pride's Purge. They eventually dissolved or died, leaving Cromwell in charge.

Victorian Era

The name for the 60 year reign of Queen Victoria in England. This was a time of material progress, literary accomplishments, and political stability.

Manchu Dynasty

The name for the Chinese imperial government that highly regulated trade with Europe and forbade the opium trade.

Weimar Republic

The name for the government that was established after WWI and until Hitler's established control.

Velvet Revolution

The name for the peaceful revolution in Czechoslovakia.

"Bloody Sunday"

The name for the slaughter of the peaceful demonstration led by Father Gapon at the Winter Palace in January 1905 by the troops. They did this because the tsar wasn't there and they didn't know what else to do.

Puritan

The name of Calvinists in England who pushed for more Parliamentary interference. They were the people who mainly controlled parliament.

Presbyterian

The name of the Calvinists in Scotland. They rebelled against England when the Anglican church was pushed upon them.

Anglican

The name of the church of England established by Queen Elizabeth I.

West Prussia

The name of the lands Prussia gained from the first partition of Poland.

Magyars

The name of the native peoples living in Hungary. They protested often about Austrian rule and laws, retaining their traditions.

Streltsi

The name of the nobility who held high positions in the Russian military. They were constantly active in politics and rebelled against the Tsar while he was away on a tour of Europe. Peter then got rid of them.

Junkers

The name of the wealthy Prussian nobility and landed aristocracy who were encouraged to join the army (awarded general status) and in return for this service held strong control of their serfs. They had little power elsewhere in Prussia.

White Armies

The names for any army that fought against the Red army in an attempt at counterrevolution. They were unable to unite and lost to the red army in the civil war.

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte

The nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte who won the presidency in the French Republic and sought to make another dictatorial regime.

Constitution of 1793

The new Constitution that held the government to be a republic and provided universal suffrage for all people. It was suspended from action by the Convention though, until the country was in order.

Red Army

The new army which was led by Trotsky. It was very well trained and disciplined, and it was the main reason that the Reds won the civil war (1918-1921).

Vichy France

The new authoritarian French government with its capital in the southern city of Vichy that was established during the occupation of Germany in the northwestern 2/3 of France.

St. Petersburg

The new capitol that Peter created near the Baltic sea by Finland. He encouraged new centers of learning to be formed there and for nobles to move there as well. He brought the Russian government with him. The City was facing the West, as to show new Russian Europeanization and promise.

Directory

The new government that was established and aimed to be expansionist. It took the place of the Convention and functioned under the new Constitution.

Louis XVIII

The new king of France (Brother of Louis XVI). He adopted most of the reforms of the revolution and reinstated the Bourbon's.

Catholic Reformation/Counter Reformation

The new measures the Catholic Church took to get new people to join them, recruit old members back, and reform themselves into a respectable institution again. They also prosecuted Protestants during this time.

Commercial Code

The new mercantilism laws that Colbert passed to help reform France. He got rid of some feudal laws that interefered with such innovations as making new roads and increasing taxes.

Bourgeois

The new middle class that emerged during this time period. They usually lived in towns and weren't aristocracy but had just as much money as they did.

Romanticism

The new movement in Germany taking on some of the opposite views of the Enlightenment--nationalistic views, uniqueness, and genius.

Escorial

The new palace Philip II built as not only a fortress, but also a Catholic Church for people to worship in.

Humanism

A form of writing that brought human traits and thought back into the world. It was when the greco roman idea of telling stories was brought back and the focus on the church was not brought into writing.

Detente

A formal relaxation of tensions. This was especially prevalent in the 1970s.

Estates General

A general assembly representing the French States of the realm in Council. Called by nobility and clergy after Henry IV was killed to reestablish order.

Plebiscite

A general referendum--the voters are forced to make a decision. In the case of Napoleon, they were forced to either adopt the new constitution, or have no constitution at all.

Presbyteries

A governing body of elders, who, in the Calvinist Church, were not bishops or trained priests, but laymen.

Senate (not a term)

A government establishment that was dependent on Peter, and was in place for advisement and gaining nobility support. (not a term)

Three Mile Island

A partial nuclear meltdown accident that occurred in Pennsylvania.

White Man's Burden

The term used in England that referred to the burden of the westerners for bringing civilization and enlightenment to backwards countries. It was also a famous poem.

Mme. De Geoffrin

A French hostess for her salon. She played a very important mediating role in her salon to help different writers share ideas.

Georges Sorel

A French philosopher and theorist of revolutionary syndicalism. He wrote Reflections on Violence.

Auguste Comte

A French philosopher who published books on his ideologies and came up with positivism. He saw history in three phases: theological, metaphysical, and scientific. He found that the previous revolutions were in the metaphysical stage, and that people should strive for and move towards the science phase.

Jean Jaures

A French socialist leader who held that social reform was linked to the revolutionary tradition in France and the defense of republican institution.

Alexandre Millerand

A French socialist who accepted a position in the cabinet ministry of France. He was criticized by Karl Kautsky and the Second International for this, and from then on no socialist took a position in a cabinet (until WWI).

Realpolitik

A German term meaning "politics of reality". It focused on the idea of applying realism to politics, stating that people should give up on utopian dreams and focus on reality and facts. If they wanted something changed they should take a rational and thorough means of doing so.

David Friedrich Strauss

A German theologian and critical scholar of the Bible. He wrote the "Life of Jesus" explaining most of the miracles in the Bible as nothing more than myth.

Alexander Ypsilanti

A Greek patriot and general in the Russian army who led the Greek revolt.

Fugger

A German banking family equal to the Medici family in Italy. They financed many of the merchants, and many countries in war. They were the bankers in charge of the continent with a very large influence over the world and the Holy Roman Empire especially. They set the model for modern economic models.

Friedrich Engels

A German friend of Karl Marx who wrote the "Communist Manifesto" with him. He lived and worked in England running a textile factory and saw the horrors of working conditions first hand. He wrote these in his book, "Condition of the Working Classes in England".

Karl Kautsky

A German orthodox Marxist who criticized revisionists. In the Second International, he condemned the behavior of Alexandre Millerand.

Fredrich Nietzsche

A German philosopher who came up with the "Superman theory" (emphasized courage, excellence, independence), rejected Christian morality (kindness, sympathy for the weak, etc.), and held that humans were more driven by instinct than by reason.

Yeoman

A class of small free land workers that developed in England.

Committee of General Security

A committee set up by the the Convention to serve as a political police that executed many people who they felt were threats to the country. One of these people was Marie Antoinette.

Holy Alliance

An alliance formed by the conservative rulers of Austria, Russia, and Prussia that became a symbol of repression towards liberal and revolutionary movements

Councils of State

A convening of all of these intendants in France to speak of their problems and make laws. Louis would often sit in on these meetings himself.

Duma

A council of retainers and advisors to the Tsar that was demolished when Peter the Great came to the crown and made administrative reforms.

Worship of the Supreme Being

A cult that was created by Robespierre to create a deistic religion based on reason. He wanted to satisfy everyone, but all parties were displeased with the outcome.

King's Friends

A faction in parliament that supported George III because they were bribed. This was how George kept influence in Parliament and increased his power.

Wilfred Owen

A famous English war poet who condemned the horrors of a senseless war and mocked government propaganda.

Mayakovsky

A famous Russian poet who wrote an "Ode to Revolution" and many other literary works that used innovative new literary and poetic techniques. He later committed suicide under the Stalinist era of rigid social control.

Grand Monarque

A favorable nickname given to King Louis XIV of France.

The Sun King

A favorable nickname given to King Louis XIV of France. In reference to his grandeur.

Mississippi Bubble

A financial scheme led by John Law which ended in financial collapse. It was a series of laws that gave Law complete control of foreign trade and French finances, which caused the debasing of currency and paper money. This was then "broken" and trade and the economy went back to normal.

Fundamentalism

A form of a religion, most well known in Islam, that emphasizes a belief in old values in traditions. They were militant reform movements by extremists who were against secularism.

Brauch Spinoza

A man from a Portuguese/Jewish family and turned out works of philosophy, examining reality, human covenant, and the role of church and state. To make a living he grinded lenses.

Alexander Herzen

A man who believed and wrote that the true future of socialism was in Russia because there was weak capitalism and it already had collectivism in the mirs.

Ferdinand Lassalle

A man who led the socialist faction in Germany. He believed it was possible to improve working class conditions through the acts of the existing governments.

Maximilien Robespierre

A man who was the leader of the mountain and wanted to make a republic of honest citizens. He was on the Committee of Public Safety and helped run the Convention/Government during the Terror.

Indian National Congress

A meeting of educated Indians (mainly Hindus) who called for equality, independence, and home rule through an elected parliament.

Credit Foncier

A national mortgage bank of France that was created during the reign of Louis Napoleon.

Austerlitz

A naval victory won against the Russian and Austrian armies decisively by Napoleon.

Canton System

A new training system developed by Fredrick William I that was district based and lasted for long periods of time.

Gulag Archipelago

A novel by Solzhenitsyn that gave people a name and view of Stalin's horrible labor camps. This book was allowed to be published because of glasnost.

Jan Vermeer

A painter that coined works such as the "Geographer" and "The Milkmaid". Helped start the baroque style of painting.

What is the Third Estate?

A pamphlet written by Abbe Sieyes. It declared that the nobility should be abolished and that only the Third Estate should be left. He argued that because the Third Estate was the majority of the people, they represent what is in the best interest of the country.

Savoy

A part of southern France, just to the north of Italy. It was annexed to France in exchange for Napoleon's support of Piedmont.

"Addresses to the German Nation"

A series of addresses Fichte held that preached about German dominance and importance of culture. They wanted to be different from France, but these were considered to be too intellectual to be threats to the French.

English-Dutch Wars

A series of three wars fought between the English and Dutch. They took a break between 1652-1674 to fight against France and the universal monarchy. The English won New Amsterdam from the Dutch, renaming it New York, and claiming themselves to win the war.

Spinning Jenny

A simple, inexpensive, and hand powered cotton spinning machine.

James Watt

A skilled engineer who made the steam engine more efficient and turned it into a practical and commercial success.

Free Democrats

A small liberal centralist party. It joined with the Christian Democrats and Social Democrats in a grand coalition, and later supported the Social Democrats in another coalition without the Christian Democrats.

Twenty-One Demands

After taking over German lands in China, Japan issued a secret ultimatum to China demanding more territories in China. The Chinese were obliged to accept, and Japan proceeded to turn Manchuria and northern China into an exclusive protectorate.

Mozart

An Austrian child prodigy composer. His music was graceful and beautiful, but dramatic and serious as well. He struggled with financial stability, so showed the impermanence of happiness through his operas.

Edwin Chadwick

An English government official who believed that conditions were improving for the working class and were increasingly able to buy more necessities and minor luxuries.

John Wilkes

An English journalist and member of Parliament. He was against party corruption and George III's policies. He thought that people in parliament should voice the ideas of the people.

Herbert Spencer

An English philosopher who popularized agnosticism and pictured a universe governed by Darwinian evolution. He applied this theory to sociology, government, and economics. He believed that society was leading toward more individual freedom, and that the role of the gov't was to maintain freedom and justice, but not to interfere in social and economic processes or help the weak (welfare). However, he believed that charity and goodwill was ethical.

Sir Roger Casement

An Irish nationalist that worked with Germany and landed in Ireland to try and start a nationalist uprising which was crushed by the British.

Chernobyl

An accidental explosion of a nuclear core in Ukraine.

Toleration Act

An act stating that Dissenters could practice their religion, but weren't allowed to have a political or social aspect to life. The measures taken against this weren't very strong though, and created a feeling of religious toleration (as long as they weren't Catholic).

Test Act

An act stating that all people working for the government (parliament, military officials, etc.) had to take communion in the Anglican Church. This was Parliament's action against the declaration of indulgence. It made it impossible for Catholics to serve in the government.

Friedrich List

An economist who wrote the National System of Political Economy. He believed that economic theories developed according to the unique characteristics of a nation. He also believed that each civilized and nationalistic nation must have cities, factories, industries, and capital of its own, so it needs temporary high tariffs for protection.

Jeremy Bentham

An elderly sage who led English radicals. He wrote to reform English criminal and civil law, church, Parliament, and constitution.

Kingdom of Westphalia

An entirely new state made from Prussia and Hanover and from parts of Old Germany in the Treaty of Tilsit. It was part of the Grand Empire and was led by Napoleon's brother, Jerome.

Capitulations

An example of this is extraterritorial changes. They effected the king's ability to rule over the foreigners and were made through treaties. They were a problem in the Ottoman Empire

International Council of Women

An international feminist organization. It spread information and political ideas.

Sardinia

An island off the cost of Italy that was a part of Piedmont.

Kirov

An old friend of Stalin who was a member of the Politburo. He showed signs of leading the dissatisfied, so was assassinated by Stalin's police agent.

"Order of Council" of 1807

An order issued by the British that ruled that the neutral ships could only enter Napoleonic ports if they first stopped in England.

Charter '77

An organization of intellectuals formed after the Helsinki accords that became a rallying point in the struggle against dictatorship in Czechoslovakia.

Black Death

Another name for the plague. It was spread by rats all around Europe and knocked out nearly 30 million people in the process. It caused many changes in trade, wages, and currency, as well as starting many rebellions.

Positivism

Another term for realism and the new attitudes people had--coined by the French philosopher Auguste Comte. It also emphasized facts.

Coup D'etat of Brumaire

Armed soldiers drove the legislatures out of the chambers and established a new government--the consulate, in which Napoleon Bonaparte was in the first consulate and had a strong influence.

Third World

Developing countries

"EHOOQ"

Duchamp, Dadaism

"Fountain"

Duchamp, Dadaism

Council of Seventy

Elected committees responsible for domestic and foreign affairs and helped the Medici family secure its control on the Florentine republic.

Irrationalism

Embodied by thinkers such as Georges Sorel, who thought that violence was a good means to an end, and that it was a way to keep people agitated and excited. It didn't have to achieve any correspondence with rational or objective truth.

Treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt (Peace of Utrecht)

Ended the War of the Spanish Succession. Partitioned the Spanish Empire. It gave England a lot of land, and helped in their rise as a world power. It gave France the throne of Spain, but they couldn't have a French king be king of Spain. It kept the Dutch safe, and Savoy and Brandenburg became Sardinia and Prussia respectively. The Austrian Habsburgs got the Spanish Netherlands and Milan, Naples, and Sicily in Italy. England got the asiento and had a presence in Gibraltar, increasing their mediterranean influence.

Bubble Act

English act after South Sea Bubble that forbade all companies (except those chartered by the government) from raising capital by sale of stock

"Withering Away" of the State

Eventually, with time, the state will be gone because there would be no classes to drive it and there will just be one united proletariat. The working class has no state, so therefore it cannot be protected.

Third Estate

Everyone else. This includes the peasants, and the wealthy bourgeoisie.

Capital

Examples include house, workbench, tools, exc. The things you need to make your product and run a business.

Enrages

Excited militants that contributed new ideas and enthusiasm to the sans-culottes and the revolution.

Feudal Dues

Fees and taxes that could be paid off in 3 forms: money, in kind, and with labor. Taxes were paid to the lord of the mannor.

Banalites

Fees collected by the lord due to his monopoly on things such as mills, bakeshops, and wine presses.

George Sand

Feminist; most influential literary women of 1840s. Her works portrayed independent women. She was mocked for being radical and unconventional, but was also admired and seen as a model for new forms of female cultural and political expression.

Austrian Habsburgs

Ferdinand of Austria was given the German part of Charles V's land, creating this family, which was Catholic and tried to regain much of their power during the 30 years war.

Henry of Bourbon/ Henry of Navarre

Helped the Huguenots. He was a noble that was their main Protestant leader.

Edward VI

Henry's son, who took over England after his death. He allowed Protestantism to gain more popularity.

Sir James Frazer

His works showed that some of the most sacred practices of Christianity were not in fact unique and that there was only a thin line between magic and religion.

"Wealth of Nations"

In this book, Adam Smith argues that the best way to increase national wealth is by promoting a free market and limiting mercantilism and government involvement in trade. He also believed that the natural laws of supply and demand, self-interest, and competition would guide the economy as an "invisible hand"

Battle of Valmy

Induced the Prussian commander to not invade parts of France and gave the French the military confidence to invade Belgium soon after.

Treaty of Campo Formio

October 17th, 1797. This was a treaty between France and Austria incorporating Napoleon's ideas. In this treaty Austria recognized France's right to occupy Belgium (Austrian Netherlands) and the French right to be in the Left Bank of the Rhine. In return Austria could annex Venice and mainland Venetia.

OEEC

Office for European Economic Cooperation. This was located in Paris, which worked closely with the Americans to identify projects, coordinate planning, and allocate funds of the Marshall Plan.

Tithes

One 10th of annual produce or earnings taken as a tax for the support of the church and clergy.

General Augereau

One of Napoleon's generals that he sent to Paris to oversee the council's annulling of its elections from the previous spring.

OPEC

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. A combination of 14 oil-exporting countries in the Middle East, Africa, and Latin American joined together to curb monopoly concessions enjoyed by foreign companies and to assume a larger share of authority over production and prices.

Intendants

People representing certain areas that helped control their towns, make laws, sit in on meetings, and brought problems to the councils of state to come up with ideas to fix some of these problems.

Slavophiles

People who believed that Russia had a unique destiny of its own, which would weaken with the imitation of Europe

Westernizers

People who believed that Russia was destined to become more like western Europe.

Hebertists

People who followed Jacques Hebert and wanted there to be no religion and were reactionary sectors of the Terror. They were some members of the Convention and believed that religion was counter revolutionary.

Lollards

People who followed people such as John Wyclif, who held ideas that there was corruption in the church and that it needed to be fixed.

Trotskyists

People who sided with Trotsky after Stalin's death. many were killed during the purges and trials.

Tories

People who supported the king in England during the Glorious Revolution. They usually came from the lower aristocracy and some upper middle class men.

Legitimists

People who thought that Charles X had a legitimate claim to the throne. They were monarchists that sided with Louis Napoleon in the repression of socialism.

Orleanists

People who thought that Louis Philippe had a legitimate claim to the throne. They were monarchists that sided with Louis Napoleon in the repression of socialism.

Whigs

People who were against the King in his position. Backed by the middle class, merchants, and upper aristocracy.

Women's magazines

Periodicals specifically addressed towards women

Spanish Habsburgs

Philip II, given Spain, the Netherlands, and other parts of Charles V's land, creating this family. They participated in many of the explorations and wars of the time, and even held control of England for a point in time. Extremely Catholic.

Tudors

The English family that took over after the War of the Roses. They held their dynasty until Queen Elizabeth I, and created a national love and respect for the monarchy.

J.A. Hobson

The English socialist who wrote a book on imperialism, which said that imperialism was mainly caused by the accumulation of surplus capital. He condemned imperialism on socialist grounds.

Vesalius

The Flemish physician who published "The Structure of the Human Body," which held modernized and more accurate ideas of human anatomy

Huguenots

The French Calvinists. They were largely persecuted.

Joffre

The French commander who launched a counterattack on Germany with British support. This was the battle of the Marne.

French Empire

The French country and parts of Holland, Belgium and Italy. These states were all directly controlled by Napoleon and were subject to his reforms and participating in his wars.

Nivelle

The French general who launched a bloody and unsuccessful French offensive, causing mutiny to spread through the French army

Petain

The French general who replaced Nivelle and restored discipline to the tired and disillusioned soldiers. But he had no thought of further attack and wanted to wait for US reinforcements, so Britain assumed the main burden of the war.

Huguenots

The French people who chose to break away from the Galician church and adopt Calvinism.

Cardinal Fleury

The Frenchman who took to parliament and kept peace internally and externally. He didn't initiate programs for France's future, and ultimately sent it on a track for nobility control.

Baruch Spinoza

The Jewish man from Poland who wrote about questioning Christianity and believed that God only exited in the material world, not in a heavenly sense. His works were banned by all churches and was considered to be the first atheist.

Moltke

The German commander who withdrew some forces from France to protect the east from Russia.

George I

The German cousin of Queen Anne that became King of England after her death. He was never in England and didn't take care of his country, leading to more parliamentary power and Robert Walpole taking position as the leader.

Sudeten Germans

The Germans who were living in Czechoslovakia who wanted to unite with Germany.

Theodor Herzl

The Hungarian born Jewish journalist who was appalled by Dreyfus affair in France, so he founded political, modern Zionism. This hoped to establish a Jewish state in Palestine in which all Jews might find refuge.

Magyars

The Hungarians. Maria Theresa left alone in their traditions until Joseph II came and forced them into unity with the rest of Austria.

W.B Yeats

The Irish poet who wrote the "Second Coming," summarizing the anxiety and fearful attitude the European people possessed.

Walter Rathenau

The Jewish industrialist who launched a program for mobilization of raw materials and to find a new source of nitrogen. He was one of the first to forsee a long war.

Tennis Court Oath

The National Assembly made this pact after they were kicked out of Versailles by Louis XVI and his army. It swore that whenever the national assembly met, was a legitimate convening of the Assembly. They also swore to create a new constitution.

Philip V of Spain

The grandson of Louis XIV who became king of Spain, but could not have any claim to the throne of France. He was the first of the Bourbons to take the throne of Spain.

Louis XVI

The grandson of Louis XV, who took over after his death. He re-established the old parlements to appease the aristocracy, which made reform in France impossible.

Zinoviev

The first president of the Third International. He was executed in a show trial.

Samuel Richardson

The first significant English popular writer

Edmund Halley

The first to predict the return of a comet.

University of Lima

The first university that was established in Peru by the Spanish. It was the first one in the new world, and aimed at educating the native peoples that lived there.

Jacobites

The followers of James III who assisted him in his rebellion. They were ultimately unsuccessful.

Saint-Simonians

The followers of early socialist Saint-Simon, but they disregarded his utopian views and took on a more realistic outlook. They invented investment banking and saw Louis Napoleon as their way into government.

Slobodan Milosevic

The former communist leader and president of Serbia who, after seeing the balance of power slip away placed himself as head of the nationalist movement. He was very keen on having an all-Serbian state, which led to war. He also violently suppressed the Kosovars who wanted to be independent. This caused NATO military intervention to suppress him, and he was later indicted for war crimes.

Franjo Tudjman

The former communist leader in Croatia who rose to power and then gathered nationalists to help resist the Serbian advances and keep their independence. He encouraged nationalism and launched a bloody "ethnic cleansing" in Bosnia.

General Boulanger

The general who gathered a following of monarchists, Bonapartists, conservatives, and radical republicans together. He became popular, and it seemed like he was going to seize power in France, but failed when he lost heart and fled to exile.

Oliver Cromwell

The general who was in control of the Ironsides in the New Model Army. He attacked Parliament, got Charles I beheaded, and then took over as ruler, holding the throne for eleven years. He established a Puritan Republic.

Fredrick II

The king of Prussia following Fredrick William I. He disregard the Pragmatic Sanction and attacked Austria, gaining Silesia.

Predestination

The idea Calvinists possessed, stating that all events are already predetermined. Only select people were chosen to go to heaven and they were already chosen by God. There was not anything a person could do to change that.

"Surplus Value"

The idea of Marx's that workers were being robbed because they only received a small fraction in wages of what they actually made in the factories. He blamed the bourgeoisie for this disgrace.

A "Single Europe"

The idea of a more integrated Europe without economic borders. The Single European Act, which was passed by the EC, provided for common production standards, the removal of impediments to the flow of capital, uniform taxes, for all participants to recognize each other's professional and commercial licensing, and common labor rights.

Pluralism

The idea of occupying more than one office at once. This was a big problem within the church.

Peaceful Coexistence

The idea of the US and the USSR/capitalism and communism to peacefully coexist in the same world.

Slavophilism

The idea that Russia possessed a distinctive way of life different from and not to be corrupted by Europe. It was the Russian version of Volksgeist and developed more slowly.

Favorable Balance of Trade

The idea that a country is doing well in trade when they export more good than they import.

Materialist Concept of History

The idea that all of history is a product of material/economic conditions.

Revisionism

The idea that socialists could work through the state to improve workers' conditions.

"Dictatorship of the Proletariat"

The idea that the proletariat would rule for a while before the withering away of the state.

1576 Don Juan

The illegitimate son of Charles V who won a naval victory at the battle of Lepanto against the Ottoman Empire. Plotted to overtake the English throne by conquering the Netherlands to use to invade England, put Mary Stuart on the throne and marry her to rule a re-Catholicized England.

Tito

The independently-minded Yugoslav Communist leader who resisted the Soviets. He kept a tight grip on the state but loosened controls over the government and abandoned collectivization. He pursued an independent foreign policy and was the first major communist figure to declare his independence from Moscow. This established a model of national autonomy for other communist leaders and parties to follow.

Mercantilism

The interest of governments portrayed in the economy. Favorable balance of trade. Make as much money as possible for government with government backing.

Nuremberg Trials

The international trials against war crimes and the Holocaust.

Mongol Invasions

The invasions of the mongols that kept Russia under Asian rule for almost 250 years, until Ivan III came and threw them out, taking back Moscow.

Leopold II

The king of Belgium who wanted colonies so he sent out an explorer into the Congo Basin to make connections with the natives.

Victor Emmanuel

The king of Piedmont under a constitutional monarchy.

Charles I

The last Habsburg emperor; he abdicated

Charles VI

The last King of Austria, who left the position to his daughter Maria Theresa. He issued the pragmatic sanction and through treaties and promises tried to get Austrian supremacy to remain, and for Habsburg blood to retain the crown.

Queen Anne

The last Stuart to take the British throne. After her reign ended there was a large dispute as to who was take control of the country.

Charles II of Spain

The last king of the Spanish Habsburgs. He was mentally ill, impotent, and lived a much longer life than all expected him to. His deficiencies were the result of inbreeding.

Nicholas II

The last tsar of Russia. He believed in autocracy, Orthodoxy, and Great Russian nationalism. He was very against liberalism and democracy.

Le Chapelier Law

The law that renewed the prohibition of of the compagnonnages and restated the abolition of guilds and special economic groups.

Maria Theresa

The leader of Austria who was thought to be incapable but actually proved to be a very successful leader. She fought Fredrick II off and engaged in treaties with France.

The Assumption

The literal or bodily ascent of the Virgin Mary into heaven. This was proclaimed by Pope Pius XII. It was the only new Roman Catholic dogma to be promulgated in the 20th century.

Commonwealth of Independent States

The loose economic organization of Russia, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Belarus, Azerbaijan, Tajikistan, Moldova, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and Armenia.

Reichstag (not a term)

The lower parliament of the German nation that was elected by UMS and was responsible to the kaiser. (not a term)

T. H. Huxley

The main defender/spokesperson of Darwin.

Janissaries

The main forces of the Ottoman Empire's army

William of Orange/William the Silent

The main leader of the Dutch revolt against Spain.

Social Democrats

The major opposing party to the Christian Democratic Party and got the majority in the government after them. They abandoned Marxism to appeal to students and middle class peoples. They openly criticized Adenauer because he was close with the US and wasn't very nationalistic.

Albert of Wallenstein

The man commissioned by Emperor Ferdinand to raise his own army of people and fight the Danish Protestants. This army was ruthless and powerful.

Metternich

The man in charge of diplomatic affairs in Austria, who was very conservative and tried to repress liberalism. He called the Congress of Troppau.

Gomulka

The man in charge of the Polish government after and during the revolts in the 1950s. He disappointed reformers because after initially leading reforms, he used troops to put down strikes, persecuted church leaders, and permitted an anti-Semitic campaign. After riots over food prices, the party replaced him with Gierek.

Bishop Bossuet

The man who advanced Christian teachings in the path to favor Louis XIV. He practiced the doctrine of the divine right of kings.

Warren Hastings

The man who became the first governor general of India. He had so arrogant and inconsiderate that he was acquitted and put to trial, but he was acquitted. He pioneered British supremacy in India.

Stephen Razin

The man who began peasant and Cossack revolts in Russia against the harsh conditions under which the serfs had to endure. His rebellion lasted for four years and during this time he made considerable dents in the Russian army and oppressive force.

John Knox

The man who brought Calvinism to Scotland in 1550. He basically started the presbyterian church.

Ignatius Loyola

The man who had a revelation much like Luther/Calvin's and started the Jesuits. He wrote the Spiritual Exercises for them to follow.

Cecil Rhodes

The man who led the British in the Cape Colony. His goal was to conquer land along the Nile from Cape Colony to Egypt.

Wannsee Meeting

The meeting where high-level Nazis made plans for genocide of the Jews ("Final Solution")

Ship Money Case

The method Charles I used to get money from people. Before this only the cities by the sea had to pay money to the navy, but Charles wanted more money to have a navy in peacetime, so he partitioned that all people pay taxes in order to maintain this navy. Parliament didn't think this was a good idea (they didn't want to pay) so they vetoed it.

Tonnage and Poundage

The method James I used to get much of his money because it could not be regulated by Parliament. It was the method of weighing exports to see how they should be taxed. This wasn't fair because, for example, a pound of hay should not be the same price as a pound of gold.

Transformismo

The method of making a flexible, centrist coalition of government which isolated the extremes of the left and the right in Italian politics after the unification

Mediocri

The middle class, which usually consisted of smaller merchants and master artisans.

Talleyrand

The minister of foreign affairs to Napoleon who told Alexander that he thought Alexander should wait to offer Napoleon support because he believed in the balance of power.

St. Vincent de Paul

The missionary that did work among the poor people in the Ruins of France.

War Debts

The money many countries owed to others, mainly the US, for shipping them war materials during WWI. The US wanted the Allies to pay them back, but the Allies said they couldn't do that without the payment of reparations by Germany.

Reparations

The money that Germany was forced to pay the allies because under the war guilt clause they "started" the war. These were impossible amounts and the Germans refused to pay them until the Dawes Plan.

Redemption Money

The money the serfs had to pay to the landlord for the land they received from the Emancipation Act, and for lost gentry fees.

Martin Luther

The monk who started Lutheranism. He was very unsatisfied with the Catholic Church and their sacraments, nepotism, and sales of indulgences. He believed that people could attain salvation by their faith in God, and not just the Church. He believed that salvation was within the person, and that they did not earn this salvation through the Catholic Church as many others did.

Carbonari

The most famous nationalist society. It existed in Italy during Napoleon's reign.

Bohemia

The most industrially advanced part of the Austrian empire. A large tariff union was created here, which further benefited the industry.

Russification

The process of forcing many nearby peoples to assimilate to Russian culture

Dechristianization

The process of getting rid the French people of affiliation with the Catholic Church and establishing a new calender

Commercialization of Industry

The process that led to commercial capitalism. It was the result of the effects of the new commercial developments.

Orlando

The professor who represented Italy at the Peace of Paris.

The German Question

The question of how the two Germanys would be united and what role they would play in European society and economy.

Schleswig-Holstein Question

The question of what was going Schleswig and Holstein and how they were going to be divided between Austria and Prussia.

The Eastern Question

The question of what was going to happen to the Ottoman Empire. Catherine wanted to occupy the Baltic and for the Greek Orthodox Church to take over the Muslims there.

Pugachev Rebellion

The rebellion led by a Pugachev, a military officer who supported the peasants and claimed to be the emperor (Peter III). The uprising was suppressed by the government and the peasants fell further into serfdom in order to protect the unity of the state.

Deductive Method

The scientific method that goes from general to specific

Duma

The representative parliament. It had very little power and was dismissed many times.

Great Famine

The result of four years of potato crop failure in Ireland. This was when many people were starving. Many died and emigrated, and the Irish population decreased immensely.

Francisco Franco

The rightist Spanish general who led a military insurrection against the republican government, which led to the civil war. He eventually became the fascist dictator ruling over Spain. He was aided by Hitler and Mussolini.

Hohenzollerns

The rulers of Brandenburg that eventually came to control Prussia and take over parts of what was left of the HRE, Austria, and Poland.

Cheka

The ruthless political police that fought against counterrevolution.

Indulgences

The sale of these was issued by the Pope to help rebuild St. Peter's Basilica. It was when people gave money to the church to have a shorter sentence in purgatory.

Inductive Method

The scientific method that goes from specific to general

Gestapo

The special secret police that Hitler had to enforce his rules and kill, arrest, and torture people. They would go after anyone who showed any sign of opposing Hitler.

Grand Empire

The states such as the Kingdom of Italy, Spain, Confederation of the Rhine, Grand Duchy of Warsaw. These states were dependent on Napoleon, but were not directly controlled by Napoleon and were their own kingdoms (though usually controlled by Napoleon's family). They were subject to Napoleon's reforms and fought with him in wars.

Paleography

The study that deals with the deciphering, reading, dating, and authentication of manuscripts.

Emperor Ferdinand

The successor of Matthias as Holy Roman Emperor. He was elected King of Bohemia and then gave all lands possessed by Protestant nobles to Catholics.

Nation of Shopkeepers

The term Napoleon used to describe Great Britain, which he thought fought wars with money and goods and not blood--as the rest of Europe did.

Thirty Glorious Years

The term the French had for the years from 1948-1974, when there was much prosperity and economic growth for western Europe.

Lamartine

The writer/poet who was in charge of the politically aimed moderate republicans in France.

Humane Letters

The writings of the humanists. They focused more on stories than on the Church. There was an appearance of vernacular languages in writings, books on manners, and an increased taste for satire, drama, and poetry.

Heliocentric Theory

Theory that the sun is the center of the universe. Created by Copernicus.

Wars of Religion

There were the religious wars that happened as a result of the Protestant Reformation in Europe; mostly in Germany, France, and England.

Trusts and Cartels

These are the combined companies that resulted from horizontal integration. They were called trusts in the US and cartels in Europe. These were common in the steel , chemical, aluminum, and oil industries.

Mixed Economies

These economies had some nationalized industries but were still predominantly capitalist and privately owned.

Laic Laws of 1905

These laws completely separated church and state in France. It confiscated church property and left the bishops unsalaried by the government. The pope retaliated by excommunicating the deputies who voted for these laws. Compromises were later worked out and tensions eased.

Combination Acts

These outlawed unions and strikes. These were widely disregarded by workers and were later repealed.

Guest Workers

These people were invited into economically growing nations by their governments to join the labor force and promote the economy. Many stayed and maintained their own cultural traditions, creating cultural and racial tensions within the countries.

National Councils

These represented the subject nationalities from Austria-Hungary in the western capitals. They obtained recognition from the Allies and declared independence.

Industrial Unions

These unions included all workers in one industry regardless of the skill or job of the individual.

Anabaptists

These were a disliked group of Protestants. They believed in adult baptism, rejected the holy trinity, and rejected the authority of the state (refused to pay taxes, serve in army, etc.)

Dissenters

These were the English Puritans that remained from the previous civil war. They refused to join the Church of England with the rest of the country.

Parlements

These were the French courts. They were supreme courts over certain areas of France, which upheld both feudal and certain established sovereign laws.

Maupeou Parlements

These were the new parlements established under Chancellor Maupeou. Louis XV ordered Maupeou to get rid of the old, corrupt parlements. These new parlements made judges salaried officials, but were removed by Louis XVI.

Twenty-One Points

These were written by Lenin for the Third Int'l and were strict requirements that each Communist party had to follow

Stream of Consciousness Writings

These writings were piloted by Virginia Woolf and James Joyce. They had no plot, no structure, no dialogue, and no storyline.

Nazi-Soviet Pact

Treaty of nonaggression and friendship between the USSR and Germany. A secret provision said that in the future they would divide Poland, the USSR would have a big influence in the Baltic states and get Bassarabia, and the Soviets in return would stay out of any war between Germany and Poland or between Germany and the western democracies. It ultimately failed when Hitler invaded Russia.

Henry VII

(1485-1509). The first Tudor King of England. He took over after the War of the Roses with little opposition, considering the two families were so reminisced from the war they had previously fought. He established the star chamber, and outlawed livery and maintenance.

Charles V

(1519-1556). He was the man that took over the HRE. He was considered the most powerful leader of his day.

Wat Tyler's Rebellion

1381. It was a large scale rebellion in England due to the plague and the economic differences between the upper class and the poor people who were dying. Wat Tyler lead this rebellion.

John Calvin

A French Lawyer who started his own sect of Protestantism. He was also trained as a Priest, and had the knowledge of humanist writings. He could speak Latin, Hebrew, and Greek. He wrote his book, Institutes of the Christian Religion, aiming it at all people around the world.

Unam Sanctum

A bull issued by Pope Boniface VIII stating that people outside the church had no salvation, and all other religions were wrong.

Machiavelli

A man who wrote The Prince. He had very negative views of humankind and specific thoughts on how a person should lead a country. Believed that a successful leader is powerful, fierce, and cunning.

Meister Eckhart

A mystic in the Northern Renaissance.

Thomas a Kempis

A mystic in the Northern Renaissance. He wrote the Imitation of Christ.

Marranos

A name for Christians in Spain of Jewish background.

Moriscos

A name for Christians in Spain of Moorish (Muslim) background.

Grandi

A term used for wealthy merchants that governed Florence.

Hundred Years' War

A war between the French and the English over who should have control of France. England invaded, trying to take over the French crown and the province of Aquitaine. The French won.

John Wyclif

An Oxford professor that stated that the church was too obsessed with worldly possessions and wasn't focusing on what they were supposed to. He questioned the need for the clergy and Pope.

Concordat of Bologna

An agreement between Pope Leo X and King Francis I of France where the French are given control of their own clergy in return for money donated to Rome. This also increased the number of French people that became bishops and was one of the main reasons that they did not join the Protestant reformation.

Virtu

Celebration of masculine qualities and human possibilities. Men could have virtu, but women who had it were not considered to be women.

Clock Making

Clock making gave people some sense of time other than using the sun. It was also adopted from the Chinese. It allowed for merchants to make times for their meetings and created the hustle and bustle of the city that we have commonly now.

Jacqueries

From the French word Jaques, or peasant. This was a name given to the many rebellions that peasants started during the plague. They usually involved protest about inequality.

John Huss

He created a similar movement to the one that Wyclif did in Hungary. His followers were known as Hussites. He questioned the church and was eventually burned at the stake.

Christian Humanism

Humanist literature movement in the north. They focused on religion still, but they wanted to restore a sense of moral vitality. They studied the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin works to enlighten their ideas. They dedicated their work to understanding Christianity in a new way.

95 Theses

In 1517 this was Luther's rant against the Catholic Church that he posted on the door of the Castle at Wittenberg. He explicitly stated all of the things that he believed to be wrong with the Church, organizing them into 95 points. Due to the printing press this document was wildly spread throughout Germany.

Henry VIII

In order to annul his marriage to his wife Catherine, he removed his entire country from the whole Roman Catholic Church, starting up the Church of England, which at the time held mostly Catholic views with their King as head of the Church (Act of Supremacy). However, he wanted to keep the doctrines the same (Six Articles). He confiscated church lands and sold them to the aristocracy to gain their support.

Renaissance

It means rebirth. This was when Greco-Roman culture was revived all over Italy, and great advances began to make their way into the world again. The church became obsolete.

Mysticism

Laid in the belief that the human soul could communicate with God and didn't need the Church to be religious. They didn't rebel against the church, but didn't help them either. Many mystics were eventually recognized by the Church.

Common Law

Laws of the Feudal system, usually those in which the rights of the lords are increased to some degree. These were demolished when King Henry VII took over England, due to the revival of Roman Law.

Popolo Grasso

Literally means fat people. It was the term used to refer to the upper class, who usually consisted of nobles, wealthy merchants, manufactures, cardinals, and the pope. They were the ones who wanted control and wealth and enjoyed being flattered to off their power.

Popolo Minuti

Literally means little people. The lower class. They were the bulk of the urban population, and were usually burdened by high taxes and poorer living conditions.

Leonardo da Vinci

One of the most influential artists and mathematicians of all time. He painted the Mona Lisa.

Florentine

Someone who lives in Florence, Italy or something that is from and pertains to Florence.

Quattrocento

The 1400s, considered one of the most important in the Italian Renaissance.

Habsburg Supremacy

The Habsburg family of Austria were the Emperors of the HRE for around 400 years. As Charles V was emperor there was a fear that the Habsburg's would take over all of Europe through marriage, war, and other measures. People were afraid of this, and some of them were very vocal in their disapproval.

Pazzi Conspiracy

The Pazzi family's plot to assassinate Lorenzo di Medici, or Lorenzo the Magnificent, during Mass in the cathedral, which did not kill Lorenzo, but did kill his younger brother. A couple hours later, four enemies of the Medici family were hanging upside down from a government building, and Lorenzo commissioned Botticelli to paint them. Here, Renaissance culture and the often violent political world of the city states converged.

Boniface VIII

The Pope who issues the Unam Sanctum, which stated that there was no salvation outside the church. He was eventually arrested by Philip the Fair, which led to the Pope's residence at Avignon.

Avignon

The area of France where the Papacy was to reside from 1309-1376. This was called the Babylonian captivity.

"Imitation of Christ"

The book written by the mystic Thomas a Kempis. It is a handbook for spiritual life from the ideal of Modern Devotion (taught humility, tolerance, respect, etc.)

Inquisition

The church structure that united Aragon and Castile. Moriscos and Marranos were tortured to see if they were truly Christian. This was based on Roman law.

Francis I

The king who conversed with the Pope and came up with the agreement to control the national clergy. (Concordat of Bologna)

Petrarch

The first man of (humane) letters; first humanist. He basically started humanism. He had contradictory thoughts to those of the church and he used language to convey his understanding of the natural world.

Imperial Knights

The free nobles of the HRE. They were what was left of the feudal nobility of that class, and their direct ruler was the HR emperor.

Elizabeth I

The half sister of Mary and daughter of Henry VIII. She allowed the Protestants to gain power, maintained the hierarchy of the medieval church, but adopted Protestant beliefs. Thirty-None Articles, only outward conformity required.

Justification by Faith

The idea that one's holiness and belief in God are not justified by the Church, but by inner devotion to God. Luther used this idea to enhance his belief in God and spark the creation of Lutheranism. This was found in the Bible, the book of Romans 17.1-7.

Michelangelo

The man who painted the Sistine Chapel for the Pope. It is largely revered as the most important painted work of all time. He expressed the idea that humanity was almost as good as God.

Raphael

The painter of the School of Athens, showing the importance of the Renaissance and how they thought highly of themselves. It show the elevated views the men of Italy had of humanity.

Castille

The part of Spain ruled by Princess Isabella. It was joined with Aragon to help create national unity, but was unsuccessful in a political, economical, and linguistically pertaining sense.

Martin V

The pope who was elected after the Council of Constance. He was largely against council interference with papal matters.

Printing Press

The printing press had letters that they could move again and again, allowing for more simplicity than the Chinese method of printing. It allowed for books to be wildly published and slowly increased the literacy rate throughout the world.

Peace of Augsburg

The treaty that ended the Schmalkaldic War. It stated that the leader of a state could chose its religion (this being either Lutheran or Catholic). Calvinists were not included in this.

Ferdinand and Isabella

The two rulers of Castile and Aragon that were joined together by marriage. They united the two countries in a churchly and personal sense only, there was no other sense of unity.

Conquest of Granada

This was the final push against the Moors to get them out of the Iberian peninsula. It was what helped created a national Spanish unity that they didn't have before. It was the last crusade and part of the reconquista.

Conciliar Movement

This was the movement to have councils as a permanent institution within the church, as suggested at the Council of Constance, but failed. It was a battle for power between papacy and councils.

Lay Religion

This was when non religious men with very strong ideas pertaining to the Christian religion, would gather followers and separate from the church. One famous example of this are the Sisters and Brothers of the Common Life.

Diet of Worms

When Charles V called Luther to Worms and told him that he must recant his statements about the church. When Luther refused, he was banished from the Holy Roman Empire, later to be taken in by the Elector of Saxony.

Livery and Maintenance

When King Henry VII banned the Lords from creating armies with their crest/symbol on their armor and using them to fight against other Lords inside of the kingdom of England.

Cuius Regio Eius Religio

Whose realm, His religion. This statement is what came about at the Peace of Augsburg, basically stating that the ruler of the land or state could chose what religion the people he presided over were to be. All people in this area were then to convert to that chosen religion.

"Praise of Folly"

Written by Erasmus. It made fun of worldly perceptions and ambitions of the clergy and other leaders.