AP EUROPEAN HISTORY MIDTERM (with French Revolution and No Pictures Sets)
The Medici Family
During the 15th century, beginning with Cosimo, this Florentine banking family emerged as the wealthiest in Europe and became great patrons of artists and intellectuals -- They dominated the government of Florence, and Cosimo's grandson Lorenzo supported men such as Michelangelo and Pico della Mirandola
Puritans
During the 16th and 17th centuries, these English Protestants were dissatisfied with Elizabeth I's religious settlement and the Church of England -- They hoped to remove all remaining Catholic elements from the Church of England and replace the episcopal system of church government with the presbyterian system
Amsterdam
During the 17th century this Dutch city became the most important banking and trading city in Europe
The Netherlands (the Dutch)
During the 17th century this country developed the fastest, most efficient sailing vessels and therefore came to dominate world trade
The Netherlands (the Dutch)
During the 17th century this country took over most of the Portuguese spice trade routes between Asia and Europe
The Netherlands (The Dutch Republic)
During the 17th century this northern European republic was largely controlled by its wealthy merchant class
The Netherlands (The Dutch Republic)
During the 17th century, this country's dominance of shipping and trade made it Europe's greatest commercial power
Portugal
During the Age of Exploration explorers and traders from this country became the first to establish direct contact with China and Japan
Africa
During the Age of Exploration, Portugal focused most of its initial efforts in the 15th century on locating a sea route around this continent
Pepper
During the Age of Exploration, this was the Asian spice most in demand among Europeans
Indulgences
During the Catholic Reformation it was ruled by the Council of Trent that while these could no longer be sold, they could still be issued
The Levellers
During the Commonwealth of Oliver Cromwell this movement called for freedom of religion and universal malehood suffrage; Cromwell suppressed it ruthlessly
Lord Protector
During the Commonwealth period in England, the constitution adopted by the republic granted Oliver Cromwell this title for life and the right to name his successor
The Levellers
During the Commonwealth period this group of lower class Englishmen sought to increase the degree of democracy in England, calling for annual elections to Parliament, salaries for members of Parliament, and the vote for all male heads of households -- Oliver Cromwell rejected their demands
Independents
During the English Civil War these more extreme Puritans favored executing Charles I and granting each church congregation complete control over their own doctrine and practices
Presbyterians
During the English Civil War, these were the moderate Puritans who wanted to replace the episcopal system of church government with the more democratic, decentralized presbyterian system -- They also favored sparing the life of Charles I
Monasteries
During the English Reformation Henry VIII seized the land and possessions of these Catholic institutions and sold much of it to the English nobility
The Catholic Church
During the French Revolution the new government sought to solve the country's financial problems by seizing and selling all of the land within France belonging to this institution
Olympe de Gouges
During the French Revolution this female playwright and political activist demanded that women be granted full equality with men -- Her criticism of the revolutionary government and the Reign of Terror led to her arrest and execution in 1793
Sans-culottes
During the French Revolution this term referred to the working classes of the cities who supported the most radical policies, such as a greater degree of democracy, price controls on food, and the ruthless punishment of those opposed to the Revolution -- They played key roles in such events as the assault on the Bastille and the Women's March on Versailles
Guillotine
During the French Revolution, this new method of execution was introduced as a means of making death more humane and equal for all Frenchmen, regardless of class -- It was put to regular use during the Reign of Terror
Emigres
During the French Revolution, this term was used to refer to those counterrevolutionary nobles, such as Louis XVI's brother, who had fled the country and were plotting to return with foreign assistance to restore the power of the monarchy
The Jacobins
During the French Revolution, young military officer Napoleon Bonaparte became a republican and a supporter of this radical political faction -- Robespierre's brother Augustin was his most powerful patron until he was killed in the Thermidorean Reaction
The Guise Family
During the French Wars of Religion, this family led the extreme Catholic party that refused to make compromises with the Huguenots
The Valois
During the French Wars of Religion, this was the ruling family of France -- Italian noblewoman Catherine de Medici had married into this family and become the queen of France
Ambassador
During the Italian Renaissance the role of these government officials was redefined; whereas at first they had worked for the welfare of all Christendom, in the Renaissance they began working more to advance the interests of the particular states they represented
Charles V
During the Lutheran Reformation, this Holy Roman Emperor unsuccessfully sought to suppress the new faith
The Crusades
During the Middle Ages many Europeans were exposed to the luxury goods of the Middle East as a result of these ultimately unsuccessful efforts to retake the Holy Land
The Anabaptists
During the Reformation, members of this religious group tried to return literally to early Christian teachings and practices, advocating complete separation of church and state and arguing that a true Church was a voluntary association of believers who had undergone a spiritual rebirth and had then been baptized
Olympe de Gouges
During the Reign of Terror, this woman, the author of the Declaration of the Rights of Women & a fierce advocate of women's rights, lost her head to the guillotine
Erasmus
During the Renaissance this famous Christian humanist, in such works as Praise of Folly, was highly critical of Catholic clergymen for being overly focused on ceremony, wealth, and politics -- He was therefore said to have laid the egg that Luther hatched
The Heliocentric System
During the Scientific Revolution this model of the solar system, in which the sun is at the center and all planets revolve around it, was endorsed by scientists like Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo and eventually displaced the long-accepted earth-centered model of the solar system
Cardinal Richelieu
During the Thirty Years War, this first minister of French king Louis XIII was so eager to undermine the power of the Habsburg family that he provided funds and troops to support the Protestants, even though he was a Catholic cardinal
France
During the Thirty Years' War this Catholic country pursued a policy of supporting the Protestant princes and rulers against the Habsburgs
Henry, the Duke of Guise
During the War of the Three Henries, Henry III of France had this rival assassinated because he feared that he had become too powerful and thereafter formed an alliance with Henry of Navarre
Politique
During the late 16th century, this term referred to a leader who believed that politics was more important than religion and who preferred peace and stability to religious war
Cosimo de Medici
During the mid-15th century this man used his banking wealth to establish his family's long dominance over the city-state of Florence without actually holding a formal political position -- He was also a generous supporter of the arts, patronizing great artists like Donatello and Brunelleschi
The Committee of Public Safety
During the radical stage of the French Revolution, this 12-man body ruled as the de facto government of France and presided over the Reign of Terror
The Revolutionary Tribunal
During the radical stage of the French Revolution, this court was established by the Convention to try enemies of the revolution -- The accused were denied the right to a defense lawyer and prevented from calling witnesses, and there were only two possible outcomes of every trial: acquittal or death
The Book of Common Prayer
During the reign of Edward VI this Protestant liturgy book was written and required to be used by all congregations in the Church of England
The Baltic Sea
During the reign of Peter the Great Russia acquired significant amounts of territory on this body of water
Edward VI
During the reign of this son of Henry VIII, the Church of England adopted much Protestant doctrine and practice, in contrast to the policies of his father, who had made few substantial changes in Catholic ritual and beliefs following his break from Rome
Politique
During the religious conflicts of the 16th century, this term referred to a ruler, such as Catherine de Medici or Elizabeth I, who was willing to compromise on matters of religion in order to secure peace, stability, and control over his/her kingdom
The Enlightenment
During this 18th-century movement, intellectuals attempted to apply the concepts of the Scientific Revolution to the study of man, seeking to identify the natural laws governing such realms as politics, economics, history, criminal justice, and religion
The German Peasants' Revolt
During this revolt in the 1520s, Luther surprised many by urging the nobility to suppress it quickly and ruthlessly
"The Virgin Queen"
Elizabeth I of England was known by this nickname because of her decision not to marry -- Her refusal to take a husband had many reasons, including the fear of being dominated by a male, her desire to use marriage negotiations as a diplomatic tool, and her personal memories of her father's marriages
The Spanish Armada
England's 1588 victory over Spain in this conflict was a major blow to Spanish prestige and ensured that England would remain Protestant
Christian (or Northern) Humanism
Erasmus and Thomas More are the most famous figures in this school of thought, which sought to utilize the ideas of classical civilization in reforming the Catholic Church
Game Laws
European commoners greatly resented these traditional laws that prohibited hunting on lands reserved exclusively for the use of the nobility
India
Europeans finally opened up the direct sea route to the spices of Asia in 1498 when Vasco da Gama landed on the shores of this modern country
Sugar
Europeans used slave labor to grow a wide range of profitable crops on the islands of the Caribbean; this was the most important and profitable of these crops
Gave Birth
Every time they did this, as many as 10% of women died during the Renaissance
Circumnavigate the world
Ferdinand Magellan is famous because he commanded the first expedition to do this:
Castile & Aragon
Ferdinand and Isabella were never the rulers of a unified Spain. Name the two kingdoms that they actually ruled
Giotto
First artist to imitate nature in its likeness. Early Renaissance artist.
Republic
Following the August 1792 attack on the Tuileries palace and the overthrow of the French monarchy, the revolutionaries on September 22, 1792 proclaimed that France would thereafter have this form of government:
The Glorious Revolution
Following this 1688 event, the actual power of the English monarchy began a long decline, eventually assuming its present figurehead role with little actual authority to govern
Aristotle
For over 1,500 years after his death in the 4th century BC, the beliefs of this Greek philosopher provided the basis for a wide range of scientific fields in Europe -- Only with the Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries were his ideas seriously challenged (and often overturned)
The Physiocrats
Francois Quesnay was the leader of this group of 18th-century French thinkers who believed that land was the source of all wealth and sought to reduce government regulation of the economy
Relics
Frederick the Wise of Saxony, Martin Luther's patron and protector, was said to have amassed a collection of over 5,000 of these which might reduce one's time in Purgatory by 1,443 years
Robert Walpole
From 1721 to 1742 this Parliamentary leader was the most powerful figure in British politics, and he is regarded as England's first prime minister -- He used his control over patronage to promote the interests of the Whig Party (those who favored putting the House of Hanover on the throne in 1715) over those of the Tories (who had wanted to offer the throne to the Stuart son of James II)
From African merchants
From whom did the European slave traders acquire most of their African slaves?
Copernicus
Galileo was condemned for heresy by the Inquisition in 1633 for publicly supporting this man's heliocentric system
The Prince by Machiavelli
Give the author and title of the 1513 Renaissance work that advised rulers to be prepared to do evil when necessary to maintain their power
Sweden
Gustavus Adolphus, the king of this country, intervened in the Thirty Years' War on the side of the Protestants and led them to many victories before dying in battle
Anne Boleyn
Henry VIII broke from the Catholic Church in large part so that he would be free to marry this lady-in-waiting at his court, who had promised that she could give him his much-desired son
His brother (Arthur)
Henry VIII required a dispensation from the pope before he could marry Catherine of Aragon because she had been married to ...
Gold & Silver (Bullion)
Historians long believed that it was the importation of massive amounts of this into Europe from the New World that caused the Price Revolution of the 16th century
Population increase
Historians now believe that this was the primary cause of the increased inflation rate experienced by Europeans in the 16th and 17th centuries
Seven
How many prisoners were actually liberated during the storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789?
Adoration of the Magi (1476) Botticelli Early Renaissance
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Alba Madonna (1509) Raphael High Renaissance
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Alba Madonna (1509) Raphael High Renaissance
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Arnolfini Wedding (1434) Jan Van Eyck Northern Renaissance
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Creation of Man (Sistine Chapel Ceiling) (1508-12) Michelangelo High Renaissance
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Creation of Man (Sistine Chapel Ceiling) (1508-12) Michelangelo High Renaissance
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David (1440s) Donatello Early Renaissance
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David (1440s) Donatello Early Renaissance
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David (1504) Michelangelo High Renaissance
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David (1504) Michelangelo High Renaissance
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Delivery of the Keys (1482) Perugino Early Renaissance
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Delivery of the Keys (1482) Perugino Early Renaissance
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Hunters in the Snow (1565) Pieter Brueghel the Younger Northern Renaissance
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Hunters in the Snow (1565) Pieter Brueghel the Younger Northern Renaissance
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Mona Lisa (1503-06) Leonardo da Vinci High Renaissance
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Mona Lisa (1503-06) Leonardo da Vinci High Renaissance
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Moses (1513) Michelangelo High Renaissance
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Moses (1513) Michelangelo High Renaissance
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Pieta (1499) Michelangelo High Renaissance
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Pieta (1499) Michelangelo High Renaissance
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Portrait of Erasmus of Rotterdam Writing (1523) Hans Holbein the Younger Northern Renaissance
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Primavera (1477-80) Botticelli Early Renaissance
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Primavera (1477-80) Botticelli Early Renaissance
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Sistine Chapel Ceiling (1508-12) Michelangelo High Renaissance
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Sistine Chapel Ceiling (1508-12) Michelangelo High Renaissance
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The Birth of Venus (1480) Botticelli Early Renaissance
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The Birth of Venus (1480) Botticelli Early Renaissance
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The Last Judgment (1535-41) Michelangelo High Renaissance
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The Last Judgment (1535-41) Michelangelo High Renaissance
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The Last Supper (1495-98) Leonardo da Vinci High Renaissance
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The Last Supper (1495-98) Leonardo da Vinci High Renaissance
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The School of Athens (1510-11) Raphael High Renaissance
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The School of Athens (1510-11) Raphael High Renaissance
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Virgin of the Rocks (1483-86) Leonardo da Vinci High Renaissance
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Virgin of the Rocks (1483-86) Leonardo da Vinci High Renaissance
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Vitruvian Man (1490) Leonardo da Vinci High Renaissance
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Vitruvian Man (1490) Leonardo da Vinci High Renaissance
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Arnolfini Wedding (1434) Jan Van Eyck Northern Renaissance
Identify the Artwork, the Artist, & the School of Art The Picture didn't work so this hasa pregnant woman and a man with a dog at their feet and a mirror and chandelier in the background.
Portrait of Erasmus of Rotterdam Writing (1523) Hans Holbein the Younger Northern Renaissance
Identify the Artwork, the Artist, & the School of Art This has a man with a kind of long nose writing in an erect position. It is a portrait.
Adoration of the Magi (1476) Botticelli Early Renaissance
Identify the Artwork, the Artist, & the School of Art This has the madonna and child with the wise men giving Jesus gifts. Noticeable in the painting are patrons and the painter himself.
The Hohenzollerns
In 1415, this family began to rule as electors of Brandenburg in northern Germany. They gradually increased their holdings so that by the late 17th century their domains were second in size only to those of the Habsburgs among the states of the Holy Roman Empire
Henry the Navigator
In 1419 this member of the Portuguese royal family gave his country a boost in the Age of Exploration by founding an institute for the collection of maritime knowledge on the country's southwest coast
Spain
In 1450 this country had the largest Jewish population in Europe
The Ottoman Turks
In 1453 Christian Europe was alarmed when Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire finally fell to these Muslim invaders
Constantinople
In 1453 this great city on the Dardanelles finally fell to the Turks after a siege of several months
The Wars of the Roses
In 1485 Henry Tudor was crowned Henry VII and established a new ruling dynasty in England after he emerged as the victor in this series of civil wars
Bartholomeu Dias
In 1488 this Portuguese explorer became the first known European to lead an expedition around the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa
Bartholomeu Dias
In 1488 this Portuguese explorer led the first European expedition to round Africa's Cape of Good Hope, proving that the continent had a southern limit and that Asia might be reached by sea
The Moors
In 1492 Ferdinand and Isabella captured Granada in southern Spain, bringing to an end the long domination of the Iberian peninsula by this North African ethnic group
The Jews
In 1492 Ferdinand and Isabella ordered the expulsion of this ethnic group from their countries, hoping to reduce the likelihood that conversos would secretly return to the faith of their ancestors
Spain & Portugal
In 1494, in order to reduce the chance of conflict, the Treaty of Tordesillas divided up the world's newly discovered territories between these two countries
Vasco da Gama
In 1498 this Portuguese explorer became the first European to reach India by sea, opening up direct access to the profitable spice trade of Asia
Vasco da Gama
In 1498 this Portuguese explorer led the first expedition to reach India by sea
Muslims
In 1502, ten years after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and the conquest of Granada, Ferdinand and Isabella issued a decree ordering this group to depart from their kingdoms
Rome
In 1510, during a month-long visit to this city, Martin Luther became disillusioned by the worldliness and corruption of the Catholic clergy that he claimed to have witnessed there
The 95 Theses
In 1517 Martin Luther compiled this list of arguments against the Catholic Church's sale of indulgences (and possibly posted this list on the door of Castle Church in Wittenberg) -- They initiated the conflict with the pope that ultimately led to the Lutheran split from the Catholic Church
Martin Luther
In 1517 this priest and theology professor from Saxony challenged the Catholic Church's sale of indulgences, thereby inaugurating the Protestant Reformation
Tenochtitlán
In 1519 Hernán Cortéz found the Aztec emperor Montezuma at this island city located in the middle of Lake Texcoco
Moctezuma
In 1519 this Aztec ruler at first welcomed the arrival of Hernán Cortés and his soldiers, believing him to be a representative of an Aztec god, but a conflict soon broke out that cost him his empire and his life
Ferdinand Magellan
In 1519 this Portuguese explorer departed on a mission for the Spanish king to find a westward route to the riches of Asia -- after sailing around the southern tip of South America he crossed the Pacific Ocean, whereupon he was killed in the Philippines, but his crew would complete the first circumnavigation of the world
Ulrich Zwingli
In 1529 Martin Luther met with this Swiss reformer in the town of Marburg in a failed attempt to unite the German and Swiss reformations
Ulrich Zwingli & Martin Luther
In 1529 Philip of Hesse arranged a meeting between these two men in the town of Marburg in the hope of creating an alliance between the Swiss and German reformed churches
The Act of Supremacy
In 1534 Henry VIII had Parliament pass this legislation making him the head of the Church of England
Geneva
In 1536 John Calvin established a ministry in this Swiss city that would last for nearly 30 years
Henry of Navarre and Marguerite (Margot) de Valois
In 1572, as part of her plan to make peace between French Catholics and Huguenots, Catherine de Medici arranged a marriage between these two people
Mary, Queen of Scots
In 1587, after years of refusing to do so, Elizabeth I finally authorized the execution of this person, her cousin and the heir to the English throne
The Edict of Nantes
In 1598 Henry IV of France issued this edict offering limited religious toleration to the country's Huguenots
Henry IV (Henry of Navarre)
In 1610 this first of the Bourbon monarchs was assassinated while riding in his coach through Paris -- He had brought the French Wars of Religion to an end by converting to Catholicism and granting limited religious toleration to the Huguenots
The Inquisition
In 1633 Galileo was brought before this Catholic body and found guilty of endorsing the Copernican heliocentric system -- He was forced to recant his "errors" and spent the last years of his life under house arrest
Versailles
In 1682 Louis XIV made this royal palace outside of Paris the seat of his government and court in order to remove himself from the Parisian mobs and better secure control over the French nobility
St. Petersburg
In 1703, during the Great Northern War, Peter the Great founded this city on the Baltic Sea as his "window unto the West" -- In 1712 he made it his new capital
Charles VI
In 1713 this Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor, concerned that he would not have a son, issued the Pragmatic Sanction, which permitted a daughter to inherit his lands, which had been previously prohibited -- Although the great powers accepted this edict, Frederick the Great of Prussia in 1740 would attempt to seize Silesia from Maria Theresa, Charles VI's daughter and heir
Charles VI
In 1713 this Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor, concerned that he would not have a son, issued the Pragmatic Sanction, which permitted a daughter to inherit his lands, which had been previously prohibited -- Although the great powers accepted this edict, Frederick the Great of Prussia in 1740 would attempt to seize Silesia from Maria Theresa, this man's daughter and heir
Patriarch
In 1721 Peter the Great abolished this high church position within the Russian Orthodox Church. In its place he established a synod headed by a layman, called the procurator general, to rule the church in accordance with secular requirements. This action was the most radical transformation of a traditional institution during Peter's reign
Marie Antoinette
In 1770 this Habsburg princess married Louis XVI and in 1774 she became France's queen -- She came to be disliked by the French people for her excessive spending and rumored infidelities, and during the French Revolution she was executed for treason
The Estates-General
In 1788 Louis XVI of France decided to summon this long-dormant national assembly to help deal with his kingdom's financial crisis
Dr. Joseph Guillotin
In 1789 this French physician, a delegate to the Estates-General and National Assembly, proposed that all persons sentenced to death in France be decapitated "by means of a simple mechanism"
Maximilien Robespierre
In 1789 this bourgeois lawyer was a deputy for the Third Estate in the Estates-General -- As the revolution progressed, he became a leader of the Jacobin Club and the "Mountain," and as the dominant member of the Committee of Public Safety he presided over the Reign of Terror until his own execution in July 1794
Paying interest on its debt
In 1789, when the French Revolution began, about half of government spending was committed to this expenditure:
Varennes
In 1791 the French royal family was captured in this border town while attempting to escape the country and was returned to Paris
The voting system (the Third Estate wanted to vote by head, not by estate)
In June 1789 the French Third Estate broke away from the 1st and 2nd Estates and formed the National Assembly following a dispute over this in the Estates-General:
The National Assembly
In June 1789, after Louis XVI insisted that the Estates-General vote "by order" rather than "by head," the deputies of the Third Estate adopted this name, claiming to represent not just their order, but all of the people of France -- The king eventually yielded and requested that deputies from the other two orders join this new body
Flee the country
In June 1791 it became apparent to the people of France that Louis XVI was an opponent of the French Revolution when he and his family were caught trying to do this:
Convert to Catholicism
In March 1492 Ferdinand and Isabella issued an order requiring all Jews in Spain to leave the country OR to do this
Calendar
In November 1793 the French revolutionary government created a completely new one of these that completely eliminated all religious references and holidays and replaced them with secular ones -- It would eventually be abandoned by Napoleon
Reason
In November 1793 the radicals who had taken charge of the French Revolution decreed that Notre Dame was no longer a Catholic cathedral, but rather a temple dedicated to the worship of this:
To bear children
In Renaissance Italy, this was the primary responsibility of upper class women
Castiglione
In The Book of the Courtier this Renaissance author described the characteristics of the ideal nobleman
Machiavelli
In The Prince this writer argued that rulers should do whatever was necessary to maintain their power, regardless of moral considerations, for their subjects were essentially selfish and protective of their own interests
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
In The Social Contract (1762) this thinker argued that government is necessary, but should be a direct democracy that seeks to protect the common good (the general will)
Montesquieu
In The Spirit of the Laws (1748) this philosophe argued that government power should be divided among several different branches of government
Bishop Jacques Bossuet
In a book entitled Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Holy Scripture, this man argued that because kings receive their authority from God, their power was absolute
Blaise Pascal
In a famous "wager," this 17th-century French thinker argued that it was wiser to believe in God than not to, for if he exists one wins salvation, and if he does not one has lost nothing
Martin Luther
In a pamphlet entitled Against the Robbing and Murdering Hordes of Peasants, this religious leader urged the German princes to ruthlessly suppress the peasant rebellion of the 1520s, demonstrating how much his movement depended upon the support of secular authorities
Sir Thomas More
In an effort to point out the failings of contemporary civilizations, this Christian humanist wrote a book entitled Utopia about an imaginary society governed by reason and cooperation in which all were equal
Johannes Gutenberg
In around 1456 this man from Mainz in the Holy Roman Empire printed the first true book using movable metal type, a copy of the Bible -- His invention greatly facilitated the spread of ideas in Europe and promoted scholarship and literacy
Mary Wollstonecraft
In her Vindication of the Rights of Woman this 18th-century writer asserted that women possessed the same reason as men and were therefore entitled to the same rights and education -- she is regarded as the founder of the European feminist movement
Erasmus
In his "philosophy of Christ" this thinker argued that it was more important for a Christian to live a good, virtuous life modeled after that of Jesus rather than to focus on the ceremony and rituals of the Catholic Church
John Calvin
In his 1535 book The Institutes of the Christian Religion this theologian set forth the main ideas of Protestantism
William Harvey
In his 1628 work On the Motion of the Heart and Blood, this man provided a systematic, detailed description of the human circulatory system, stating that the heart acted as a pump that propelled blood through the body
René Descartes
In his 1637 book Discourse on Method, this thinker set forth an approach to acquiring knowledge based entirely on the use of one's reason
Thomas Hobbes
In his 1651 work Leviathan this writer argued that men are naturally selfish and concerned only with fulfilling their own needs & desires
John Locke
In his 1690 work Essay on Human Understanding this Englishman argued that men are born unformed (tabula rasa - "blank slate") and are shaped primarily by their environments and societies
Pico della Mirandola
In his Oration on the Dignity of Man this Renaissance humanist argued that man, alone among the creatures of the world, had unlimited potential and could achieve any goals to which he set his mind
Adam Smith
In his Wealth of Nations (1776), this thinker rejected mercantlism and advocated free trade, with no tariff barriers between countries
Jacob Burckhardt
In his extremely influential 1860 work entitled Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, this Swiss historian argued that the Italian Renaissance, with its emphasis on secularism and individualism, had given birth to the modern mindset.
René Descartes
In his work 1637 Discourse on Method this writer advocated a process of deductive reasoning in which one used known truths to logically discover other truths with mathematic precision
Erasmus
In his work entitled Praise of Folly this Renaissance thinker satirized the failings of the Catholic clergy
Procurator
In order to secure greater control over the Russian Orthodox Church, Peter the Great created this secular government office to serve as the head of the church (replacing the traditional church position of patriarch)
The 1st Estate
In pre-Revolutionary France, this social order was made up of all clergymen, from bishops to parish priests -- It included less than 1% of the population and could not be taxed
Italy
In the 1400s this was the most urbanized, wealthy region of Europe
The Aztecs
In the 1520s this civilization centered in central Mexico was conquered by the Spanish under Hernán Cortés
Francisco Pizarro
In the 1530s this Spanish conquistador required fewer than 200 men to defeat and capture the forces of the Incan emperor and complete the conquest of Peru
Atahualpa
In the 1530s this emperor of the Incas was defeated by a small force of Spanish invaders, captured, and executed
The Incas
In the 1530s this large and flourishing empire, based largely in modern-day Peru, was rapidly conquered by Spanish invaders equipped with steel weapons, gunpowder, horses, and disease
Tycho Brahe
In the 1570s this Danish nobleman was granted possession of an island near Copenhagen by King Frederick II. On it, he built Uraniborg castle, which he outfitted with a library, observatories, and instruments he had designed for more precise astronomical observations. For twenty years he patiently concentrated on compiling a detailed record of his observations of the positions and movements of the stars and planets
Farming
In the 15th and 16th centuries the great majority of Europeans (at least 80%) made a living doing this:
Conversos
In the 15th century this term was used in Spain to refer to those recent converts to Christianity from Judaism or Islam
The Netherlands Switzerland
In the 1648 Peace of Westphalia ending the Thirty Years' War the signing powers recognized for the first time the independence of these two countries
"Cuius regio, eius religio" (Whose region, his religion)
In the 1648 Peace of Westphalia that ended the Thirty Years War, this compromise agreement, first established by the 1555 Peace of Augsburg, was expanded to include Calvinism in addition to Catholicism and Lutheranism
The Incas
In the 16th century Pizarro was the Spanish conqueror of this civilization based in modern Peru
Farming
In the 16th century approximately 80% of Europeans did this for a living
Nicholaus Copernicus
In the 16th century this Polish astronomer formulated a new, heliocentric model of the solar system that is often regarded as the starting-point of the Scientific Revolution
Bartolomé de Las Casas
In the 16th century this Spanish friar and settler in the New World became an advocate for the rights of the Native Americans who were being exploited and abused under the encomienda system, ultimately securing greater legal protections for the indigenous peoples
Marco Polo
In the Age of Exploration, much of what Europeans knew about Asia was drawn from the memoir of this 13th-century Italian explorer, who had traveled with his father and uncle to the court of the Mongol ruler Khubla Khan
Venial Sins
In the Catholic faith, these are lesser sins, such as disrespect or petty theft, which do not rupture a Christian's relationship with God and condemn him/her to Hell -- Any of these sins which go unconfessed during one's lifetime must be cleansed after death in Purgatory before one may enter Heaven
Mortal Sins
In the Catholic faith, these are serious sins, such as murder or blasphemy, which break a Christian's relationship with God and condemn him/her to Hell if they go unconfessed and if penance is not completed before one dies
Communion or The Eucharist
In the Marburg Colloquy of 1529, Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli failed to reach an agreement on the nature of this sacrament
Montesquieu
In the Spirit of the Laws this philosophe argued that no single political system is best for all peoples -- A country's ideal form of government was dependent upon its particular conditions, circumstances, and history
The Holy Roman Empire
In the early 1500s, the residents of this European state were particularly resentful of the Catholic Church because its relatively weak central government was less able to resist papal taxes and influence over its affairs than were kingdoms like France and Spain, which had strong monarchies
Johannes Kepler
In the early 1600s this German astronomer, using Tycho Brahe's data, provided precise mathematical formulas that explained the motion of the planets, thereby providing strong support for the heliocentric theory
Inertia
In the early 17th century Galileo was the first to discover this principle, which was refined by Isaac Newton and became Newton's First Law of Motion -- It states that an object at rest will stay at rest unless acted upon by some force, AND that an object in motion will continue to move indefinitely unless deflected by some force
The Netherlands (the Dutch)
In the early 17th century this European country was the first to establish settlements in the Hudson River Valley and on the current site of New York City
The Cult of the Supreme Being
In the final stage of the French Revolution, the radicals led by Robespierre unsuccessfully attempted to dechristianize the country and establish a new, deist religion known as this:
Charles V
In the first half of the 1500's this Holy Roman Emperor sought unsuccessfully to suppress the teachings of Martin Luther, both because he was a devout Catholic and because he wanted to prevent his empire from being fragmented by religious differences
Philip II
In the last half of the 1500s this powerful, devout Habsburg king of Spain (and son of Charles V) devoted himself to expanding his empire and stopping the spread of the Protestant faith -- His efforts were largely thwarted, as he would lose control of the Netherlands and fail to restore Catholicism to England
The Spanish Inquisition
In the late 1400s this special tribunal of the Catholic Church was created to investigate the sincerity of Spanish conversos, Jewish Spaniards who had recently converted to Christianity
Christopher Columbus
In the late 15th century this Italian-born explorer convinced the rulers of Spain to finance a voyage that would attempt to reach the spices of Asia by sailing directly west across the Atlantic Ocean -- in the process he would "discover" the Americas, although he would never acknowledge that he had not reached Asia
Austria Prussia Russia
In the late 18th century the country of Poland ceased to exist; what three countries participated in its partitioning?
The St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre
In this 1572 event around 3,000 Protestants were killed in Paris by Catholic mobs
The Edict of Nantes
In this 1598 edict Henry IV declared Catholicism to be the official religion of France, but granted toleration and significant rights to France's Huguenot minority
The War of the Spanish Succession
In this 1700-1714 conflict a "Grand Alliance" of European countries including England, the Netherlands, and the Holy Roman Empire united to prevent Louis XIV's grandson from inheriting the throne of Spain
The Spirit of the Laws
In this 1748 work on political theory Montesquieu argued that a country's political institutions should be determined by its unique geographic and social characteristics -- He also argues for the separation of government power among separate branches
The Flight to Varennes
In this June 1791 event, Louis XVI and his family donned disguises and attempted to flee Paris in a carriage and reach royalist supporters in the east -- After their capture and return to Paris, hostility to the monarchy increased tremendously
The Battle of Lepanto
In this October 1571 naval battle a coalition of Catholic states led by Spain defeated the main fleet of the Ottoman Empire off of the coast of Greece, eliminating the Turkish threat in the Mediterranean and allowing Philip II to focus his resources on restoring Catholicism throughout Western Europe
The Women's March on Versailles
In this October 1789 event, thousands of women upset about the high price of bread in Paris travelled the twelve miles to the king's palace to demand an end to bread shortages -- They killed several of the king's guards and forced the royal family to return with them to Paris, where they would live for the remainder of the revolution in virtual captivity
The Tennis Court Oath
In this act of defiance on June 20, 1789, the members of the National Assembly pledged not to disband until they had created a constitution for France -- This might be regarded as the opening act of the French Revolution, for it was the Third Estate's first open challenge to the authority of the king
The Great Northern War
In this conflict Russia acquired a warm-water port on the Baltic Sea and became a serious player in European affairs for the first time
The Great Northern War
In this conflict the Russians acquired the land on the Baltic Sea where Peter the Great would establish St. Petersburg
The Seven Years War
In this conflict, waged from 1756-1763, the British achieved a worldwide military victory on an unprecedented scale -- Great Britain was now a world power, not just a European one
The Great Northern War
In this conflict, which lasted from 1700-1721, Russia under Peter the Great took control of the Baltic Sea away from Sweden
"The Evening of Sacrifices"
In this event, on August 4, 1789, largely in response to the peasant uprisings of the Great Fear, the National Assembly voted to abolish all estate privileges and tax exemptions, bringing an end to feudalism and France's centuries-old class system
"Crush the infamous thing"
In this famous 4-word quote, 18th-century Frenchman Voltaire urges man to bring an end to religious intolerance and persecution
The War of the Three Henries
In this final conflict of the French Wars of Religion, the leaders of the Valois, Bourbon, and Guise families (all with the same first name) vied for control of the French throne -- The Bourbons would ultimately prevail
Deism
In this religious philosophy embraced by the philosophes, it was believed that a supreme being created the world and established the natural laws by which it operates, but then stepped aside -- He no longer intervenes in the affairs of man or the operation of the natural laws, but judges man after death
The Council of Trent
In this series of meetings in the late 16th century, the Catholic Church resolved not to make any changes in its doctrine in response to the Protestant Reformation
Presbyterian System
In this system of church government, first developed by John Calvin, each congregation chooses elders (presbyters) to represent it in an assembly empowered to make decisions for all of the congregations
The Great Northern War
In this war, fought from 1700-1721, Russia & its allies sought to acquire land on the Baltic and end Swedish domination of the region
The War of the Austrian Succession
In this war, fought from 1740-1748, Prussia acquired the territory of Silesia from the Habsburgs and consolidated its position as a powerful new state in Central Europe
The Book of the Courtier
In this work published in 1528, Castiglione described the proper etiquette for a nobleman who aspired to public service -- He was to be talented in all things and carry himself with grace and dignity
The 3rd Estate
Ironically, the great majority of the victims of the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution were members of this estate:
The Moors
Isabella and Ferdinand were not prepared to finance the voyage of Columbus until they had first completed the military conquest of the Iberian peninsula, which had been occupied by these African invaders for many centuries
Leo X
It was due to the influence of his powerful, wealthy family that this Medici pope had been made an abbot at age 7 and a cardinal at age 13 -- He was pope when Martin Luther posted the 95 Theses in 1517
A Thunderstorm
It was supposedly this frightening experience as a young man in 1505 that compelled Martin Luther to give up a career as a lawyer and become an Augustinian monk
Ellipse
Johannes Kepler's 1st Law of Planetary motion, first published in 1609, states that this is the shape of the planets' orbits as they revolve around the sun
Geneva
John Calvin long dominated life in this Swiss city-state
Geneva
John Calvin was invited to lead the Protestant Reformation in this Swiss city-state, upon which he imposed a strict moral code working in close conjunction with its secular rulers -- It became the continent's most important center for the teaching and spreading of Protestantism
The Institutes of the Christian Religion
John Calvin wrote and published the first version of this book in 1535, a defense of his theology and the most influential, comprehensive book on Protestant thought produced during the Reformation
Life, liberty, & property
John Locke argued in the late 17th century that all men, whether ruled by a government or living in the state of nature, have these three natural rights
The Balance of Power
Louis XIV instigated several wars in his efforts to expand the power of France and the Bourbon dynasty. Each military thrust was met by a coalition of European states that kept French gains minimal compared to the amount of blood spilled and treasure spent. His limited success was due to the effective functioning of this phenomenon, in which smaller powers united to keeping any one single power from dominating all of them
The Edict of Fontainebleau
Louis XIV issued this edict in 1685, revoking the religious freedoms granted to Huguenots by the 1598 Edict of Nantes -- It called for the destruction of Huguenot churches and the closing of their schools, prompting hundreds of thousands to emigrate from the country over the next few decades
The Lion and the Fox
Machiavelli advised rulers that they needed to adopt the characteristics of both of these two wild beasts
The Lion and the Fox
Machiavelli advised rulers that they needed to adopt the characteristics of both of these two wild beasts, one representing stealth and the other brute strength
The Philippines
Magellan is credited with the first circumnavigation of the globe even though he was killed by natives in these islands -- They would eventually become an important Spanish possession
The Netherlands
Many of the Portuguese possessions in Africa and Asia would eventually be taken over by this European country, which largely dominated world trade during the 17th century
Galen
Many of the longstanding ideas of this 2nd-century A.D. Roman medical authority, who taught that disease resulted from imbalances in the four bodily humors, were proved wrong during the Scientific Revolution
The Middle Ages
Many of the scholars of the Renaissance rejected this era as a period of darkness and ignorance, even though it had in fact preserved much of ancient Latin culture
Baptism & Communion
Martin Luther and John Calvin both believed that these were the only two valid Christian sacraments
Baptism & Communion
Martin Luther only found enough evidence in the Bible to retain 2 of the 7 Catholic sacraments -- name them
In the Bible
Martin Luther would accept no Christian teaching or practice as valid unless he could find sufficient evidence for it here:
The Bible
Martin Luther would not accept a Christian teaching as valid unless he could find evidence for it here
The German Peasants' Revolt
Martin Luther's condemnation of this 1524-25 event demonstrated that he only sought religious change, not the overthrow of the existing political order
Executing 300 Protestants
Mary I of England earned herself the nickname of "Bloody Mary" by doing this during her reign
Philip II of Spain
Mary I of England hoped to have a Catholic heir who would take her throne following her death; whom did she marry to make this dream possible?
The Pazzi
Members of this Florentine family, dismayed by the power and wealth of the rival Medici family, attempted to assassinate Lorenzo and his brother in the Duomo on Easter Sunday but only succeeded in killing one of them
The Anabaptists
Members of this Protestant group angered secular rulers by demanding complete separation of church and state & refusing to serve in the army or hold political office
The Anabaptists
Members of this Protestant sect believed that Christians had to voluntarily profess their faith and therefore advocated adult rather than infant baptism
The Nobility
Members of this social class in 16th-century French society were most likely to convert to Protestantism during the Reformation
Tariffs
Mercantilists liked to use this tax on imports to keep foreign goods from hurting domestic industries
Bullion (Gold & Silver)
Mercantilists were concerned above all to maximize their country's supply of this substance
Spain & France
Much of Europe united together in the War of the Spanish Succession to prevent the union of these two kingdoms
The Netherlands
Much of the energies of Philip II of Spain were expended attempting to suppress a long rebellion against his rule in this territory
Vesalius's On the Structure of the Human Body (De Humani Corporis Fabrica or Fabrica)
Name the author and title of the 1543 book in which these pages appear
William Harvey's On the Motion of the Heart and Blood (De Motu Cordis)
Name the author and title of the 1628 book in which this image appeared
Denmark Sweden France
Name three foreign countries which intervened militarily in the Holy Roman Empire during the Thirty Years' War on behalf of the PROTESTANTS
Milan Venice Florence The Papal States Naples
Name three of the 5 major powers that dominated the Italian peninsula in the 15th century
Potato Corn Tomato Sweet Potato Chocolate
Name two foods previously unknown to Europeans that were discovered in the New World during the Age of Exploration:
Livestock (Cows, Pigs, Horses, Goats) Wheat Sugar Disease
Name two things that were imported into the New World from the Old World as a part of the Columbian Exchange
Russia
Of all European countries in the 18th century, the effectiveness of the rulers of this country was most limited by their country's enormous land area
The Bastille
On July 14, 1789, the population of Paris assaulted this fortress-prison in an effort to acquire gunpowder to defend themselves against a feared attack by Louis XVI's forces -- Their successful liberation of seven prisoners after losing over 100 lives was one of the key early events in the French Revolution and is commemorated each year as France's national holiday
A Constitution
On June 20, 1789, the deputies of the Third Estate convened on an indoor tennis court at Versailles and pledged not to disband until they had created this:
Wittenberg
On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther supposedly posted his 95 Theses on the door of Castle Church in this town in Saxony where he lived and taught theology at the university
Versailles
On October 5, 1789 a group of enraged women marched 12 miles to this site outside of Paris to demand bread from Louis XVI
Jupiter
One of Galileo's most important discoveries with his telescope in the 17th century was the existence of four moons revolving around this planet:
Calvinists
One of the causes of the Thirty Years' War was the aspirations of this growing Protestant sect to be recognized as a legitimate religion within the Holy Roman Empire
The Bill of Rights
One of the conditions that Parliament insisted upon when William and Mary became the English monarchs in 1688 was that they accept this document, which listed the rights of Parliament (e.g. power of the purse, meetings every 3 years) and gave a stronger legal basis for constitutional government in England
Mary, Queen of Scots
One of the factors that contributed to Philip II's decision to launch the Spanish Armada was the execution of this woman, the heir to the English throne
Dissections
One of the obstructions to progress in European medicine prior to the Scientific Revolution was that since classical times it had been illegal for physicians and scholars to perform these:
The Netherlands
One of the reasons that Philip II sent the Spanish Armada against England was that Elizabeth I was providing aid in this country's revolt against Spanish rule
Botticelli
One of this Italian painter's most famous works is Primavera, notable for its exclusive focus on figures from Greek mythology, such as Cupid, Mercury, and Venus
Michelangelo
Painter and Sculptor. Painted the Sistine Chapel and sculpted David. Influcenced by Neoplatonism.
The Petition of Right
Parliament made Charles I accept this document in 1628 before it would grant him new taxes -- It was a reinstatement of the English rights that Charles seemed to be ignoring, including Parliament's "power of the purse" and the prohibitions against imprisonment without cause and the quartering of troops in private homes
The Table of Ranks
Peter the Great established this system to permit non-nobles in Russia to achieve noble status through service to the state
The Great Northern War
Peter the Great initiated this war in 1700 in order to bring an end to Swedish domination of the Baltic Sea
Humanism
Petrarch is called the "father" of this movement in Renaissance Italy, which was based upon the revival of the study of the classical works of ancient Greece and Rome
The Netherlands (The Dutch Revolt)
Philip II spent much of his energies during the late 16th century attempting to suppress a rebellion against his rule in this territory
The General Will
Philosophe Jean-Jacques Rousseau used this phrase to refer to the common good, or the best interests of the community as a whole
The 1st & 2nd Estates (the clergy and nobility)
Prior to the French Revolution, these two estates were largely exempt from paying taxes to the government
Bloodletting (Bleeding)
Prior to the Scientific Revolution, this was the most common medical treatment prescribed by European physicians:
Nunneries
Protestant leaders emphasized that the primary role of women was to be wives and mothers, and they left few other alternatives for women because they had shut down these Catholic institutions
Europe Asia Africa
Ptolemy's world map, which became widely available for the first time in the late 1400s, only includes these three continents
The St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre
Receiving the news of this horrific event of August 24, 1572 was rumored by his enemies to have been the only occasion on which Philip II was known to have smiled
Oil
Renaissance artists were the first to introduce this kind of paint, which enabled them to work with a wider variety of colors and to make changes to their works to create fine detail
Ancient Greece & Ancient Rome
Renaissance humanism is best defined as an educational curriculum based upon the study of the texts produced by these two civilizations:
Annulment
Strictly speaking, in the 1530s Henry VIII did not want the pope to allow him to divorce Catherine of Aragon -- He wanted one of these, a declaration that his marriage had been invalid from the outset
Documents
Strictly speaking, the academic discipline of history attempts to reconstruct and interpret the past using these
Tobacco Coffee Cotton
Sugar was the first important crop grown on the plantations of the New World; name two other high-value crops that would later be grown in the New World
Inflation
The "price revolution" of the 16th century refers to this economic problem that was caused in large part by Europe's growing population and increased demand for goods
Spain & Portugal
The 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas divided the newly discovered lands of the Age of Exploration between these two countries
"Cuius regio, eius religio" (Whose region, his religion)
The 1555 Peace of Augsburg ending the Wars of the Lutheran Reformation established this compromise through which each ruler within the Holy Roman Empire received the right to determine whether his state would be Lutheran or Catholic
The Fronde
The 1682 uprising of the Streltsy against the 10-year-old Peter the Great was reminiscent of this French rebellion against a young Louis XIV
The Seven Years' War
The 1763 Treaty of Paris that ended this war granted Great Britain most of France's possessions in North America and the West Indies
Parliament & the Monarchy
The 17th century in England was dominated by a struggle for power between these two institutions
Kepler's Three Laws of Planetary Motion
The 1st of these 17th-century laws states that planets move in elliptical orbits, the 2nd that planets' orbits carve out equal area in equal time (in other words, they speed up as they get closer to the sun), and the 3rd that there is a precise mathematical relationship between each planet's distance from the sun and the time it takes to complete one orbit
Good Works
The Catholic Church teaches that, in order to obtain salvation, one must perform certain acts known as these -- Luther and other Protestant reformers countered that only faith is necessary for salvation
Henry of Navarre Henry III (de Valois) Henry of Guise
The French Wars of Religion culminated in the War of the Three Henries; name the 3 Henries:
The American Revolutionary War
The French monarchy greatly increased its debt burden by providing financial and military support during this conflict in the 1770s and 80s, borrowing 91% of the money it spent
Charles V
The chief rival of this ruler of the Holy Roman Empire was the Valois king of France, Francis I
Gunpowder
The July 14, 1789 assault on the Bastille was motivated primarily by the desire of the Parisian mobs to acquire this:
Banking
The Medici family owed its initial wealth and influence to its success in this industry; they really hit pay dirt when they landed the pope as a client
Calvinism
The Peace of Westphalia ending the Thirty Years' War for the first time made this religion a legal option in the Holy Roman Empire
Maria Theresa
The Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 was intended to secure this woman's inheritance of all of the lands of the Habsburgs
The Presbyterians
The Rump Parliament was created in England when Oliver Cromwell had these more moderate Puritans removed from Parliament by force
Copernicus
The Scientific Revolution is usually said to have begun with the publication of this man's book in 1543
The French and Indian War
The Seven Years War, fought from 1756-1763, was known by this name by colonists in North America, where the French and British fought for domination of the continent
Conversos (Jews or Muslims whose families had recently converted to Christianity)
The Spanish Inquisition under Ferdinand and Isabella in fact had no authority to investigate Jews and Muslims - it concentrated primarily on investigating these people
The Thirty Years' War
The Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus was an important leader of the Protesant forces during this war until he perished on the battlefield in 1632
The Defenestration of Prague
The Thirty Years War began with this amusing event, in which Bohemian Calvinists threw Catholic members of the Bohemian royal council from a window and deposed King Ferdinand after he was elected Holy Roman Emperor
Silesia
The War of the Austrian Succession began in 1740 when Frederick II ("the Great") of Prussia seized this territory from Maria Theresa's Habsburg Empire (Austria), violating the Pragmatic Sanction
Silesia
The War of the Austrian Succession began in 1740 when Frederick the Great seized this Austrian province
Maria Theresa
The War of the Austrian Succession convinced this woman of the need to extend her control more completely over her domains. She succeeded in stripping the regional diets of most of their administrative functions, making German the language of administration throughout Austria, establishing state control over the Roman Catholic Church, and imposing taxes on the nobility and clergy
- The Completion of the Reconquista - The Explusion of the Jews - Columbus's "Discovery" of the New World
1492 was a critical year in the reign of Spain's Ferdinand and Isabella, for it saw these three events:
Republic
15th-century Florence claimed to have this type of government, although in fact only a tiny percentage of the population had the right to vote and political decisions were largely controlled behind the scenes by the Medici family
Social Contract
17th- and 18th-century thinkers Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau each based their political theories on this theoretical agreement through which humans left the state of nature and granted authority to a government
Tabula Rasa ("Blank Slate")
17th-century Englishman John Locke used this Latin term to refer to man's condition at birth -- He did not believe man was born with his identity predetermined, but rather was shaped by his experiences during life -- This became the basis of the Enlightenment idea that better institutions and policies could improve man's condition
Tabula Rasa (Blank Slate)
17th-century Englishman John Locke used this Latin term to refer to man's condition at birth -- He did not believe man was born with his identity predetermined, but rather was shaped by his experiences during life -- This became the basis of the Enlightenment idea that better institutions and policies could improve man's condition
Religious Intolerance
17th-century Frenchman Voltaire urged man to "crush the infamous thing" -- What was the "infamous thing"?
Religious Intolerance
17th-century Frenchman Voltaire urged man to "crush the infamous thing" -- What was the infamous thing?
Humors
The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates seems to have been the first to apply to medicine the idea that the human body contained four basic fluids known as these:
Natural Laws
A core belief of Enlightenment thinkers was that the operation of the world was governed by these, which man could discover and use to improve the world
The Netherlands
A major challenge faced by King Philip II in the late 16th century was a revolt against Spanish rule by this country
Predestination
A major difference between Calvinism and Lutheranism was this doctrine, emphasized by John Calvin, according to which a person's salvation or damnation was already decided when they were born
Last Supper
A painting done by Leonardo da Vinci. Depicts the followers of Christ at the Last Supper.
Mona Lisa
A painting done by Leonardo da Vinci. Translates to: My Lady.
School of Athens
A painting done by Raphael. Depicts the main Greek philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Pythagoras.
Bread
A primary concern of the sans-culottes at the outbreak of the French Revolution was the rising price of this good, which absorbed roughly 50% of their income
David
A sculpture done by Michelangelo. Bible figure meets Greek ideal.
Linear Perspective
A technique used to create the illusion of space and distance on a flat surface.
Ellipse
According to Kepler's First Law of Planetary Motion, first published in 1609, this is the shape of the planets' orbits
Justification by Faith
According to this Lutheran doctrine, Christians can not earn their way into Heaven - salvation may only be achieved through belief in the promise of God to redeem mankind
Civic Humanism
According to this type of humanism, a humanist scholar has an obligation to take his knowledge and use it for the benefit of his fellow man as a statesman
The Invisible Hand
Adam Smith coined this phrase to refer to the principle that society ultimately benefitted when individuals were allowed to selfishly pursue their own self-interests -- It was used to justify his laissez-faire economic philosophy (capitalism)
The Habsburgs
After 1438 this wealthy family based in Austria monopolized the position of Holy Roman Emperor and became a very important player in European affairs -- It used a series of marriage alliances to also acquire control of Burgundy, the Low Countries, and Spain
The Netherlands
After achieving independence from the Spanish, this country began its "Golden Age" of the 17th century, during which it dominated international trade and shipping
Ignatius Loyola
After being injured in battle, this Spanish nobleman and soldier founded the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits) -- He and his followers became "soldiers for God" who took oaths of obedience to the pope -- They sought to stem the spread of Protestantism and spread Catholicism around the world
The Commonwealth
After the execution of King Charles I in 1649, Parliament abolished the monarchy and established a new republican government known as this:
The Rump Parliament
After the moderate members of Parliament who wished to preserve the life and throne of Charles I were removed by force in 1648, the remaining members who voted to execute the king were known collectively by this name
The Golden Mean (or Golden Ratio)
The artists of the Renaissance revived this famous mathematical relationship first discovered by the ancient Greeks and supposedly incorporated it into such works as The Last Supper because it is so aesthetically pleasing -- It refers to the division of a line segment into two unequal portions so that the ratio of the larger part to the smaller part is identical to the ratio of entire line to the larger part (approximately 1.618)
Asia
Although Columbus made four different voyages to the Americas, he continued to insist until he died that he not discovered new territories but had in fact reached this continent
Christian Missionaries
Although Japan at first welcomed European traders in the 16th century for the technologies they were able to provide, the activities of this European group so alarmed the Japanese that they soon expelled most Europeans from their country
Alchemy
Although reknowned for his contributions to modern science, 17th-century scientist Isaac Newton spent much of his youth engaged in this pseudoscience dedicated, in part, to discovering how to turn base metals into gold
Republic
Although the Constitution of 1793 established this form of government for France, in which every man had the right to vote, it was never actually put into effect because, it was argued, the revolution first had to defeat its internal and external enemies
Brazil
Although the Spanish colonized most of South America, the Treaty of Tordesillas gave the Portuguese control of what became this modern South American country
Frederick II ("the Great")
Although this 18th-century Prussian ruler implemented many of the philosophes' recommendations for reform, he was unwilling to abolish serfdom because he was too dependent on the support of the Junkers
The Hundred Years' War
Although this conflict between England and France left France desolated and depopulated, it also developed a strong sense of nationalism that French kings used to centralize their control over the country
Ferdinand Magellan
Although this explorer died in the Philippines in 1521, he is credited with achieving the first circumnavigation of the earth
The Bourbons
Although three of Catherine de Medici's sons became kings of France, they never produced the offspring necessary to prevent the throne of France from being taken over by this family
Sistine Chapel
The building painted by Michelangelo.
Constantinople
The capture of this city by the Ottoman Turks in 1453 threatened the traditional trade routes in the Eastern Mediterranean and gave more impetus to the search for an alternate route to the spices of Asia
Leonardo da Vinci
Artist. Painted the Mona Lisa and the Last Supper. Loved to experiment to find the "science of nature." He believed that through gestures and movements, that it would reveal a person's life.
Raphael
Artist. Painted the School of Athens in the Vatican Palace.
He underestimated its size
As Columbus was planning his voyage across the Atlantic, this was the great miscalculation that he made about the world
The Peace of Westphalia
As a result of this 1648 peace agreement that ended the 30 Years' War ... - Switzerland and Holland were guaranteed independence from the Habsburgs - France and Sweden gained some territory from the Holy Roman Empire - German princes were granted complete sovereignty, including the right to raise armies and form alliances - Calvinism was recognized as a legal religion within the Holy Roman Empire
Cahiers de doleances
As part of the electoral process in France in 1789, these lists of grievances were drawn up by members of each of the three estates to inform and instruct the deputies of local views and authorize reform. They generally called for the limitation of royal power and greater tax equity.
Amsterdam
As the Dutch took over global trade during the 17th century, this Dutch city became the most important commercial and banking center in Europe
Charles V
As the Lutheran Reformation was beginning, this Holy Roman Emperor did not move quickly to suppress it because he was distracted by his campaign to secure election as emperor and by conflicts with France and the Ottoman Turks
Ulrich Zwingli
At his 1529 meeting with Martin Luther known as the Marburg Colloquy, this reformer argued that the sacrament of communion was simply a symbolic commemoration of the sacrifice made by Jesus -- Christ was neither physically nor spiritually present in the bread and wine
Henry IV (Henry of Navarre)
At the end of the French Wars of Religion, this man converted to Catholicism in order to be accepted as the king of France
The Holy Roman Empire
At the end of the Thirty Years' War this country, in which most of the war was fought, was so weakened that it really continued to exist in name only
300
At the end of the Thirty Years' War, each of the states within the Holy Roman Empire became virtually independent, as they were given the right to determine their own foreign policies -- Approximately how many states were in the empire?
The Thirty Years' War
At the end of this conflict, Calvinism was recognized as a legitimate religion within the Holy Roman Empire for the first time
The Seven Years' War
At the end of this war Great Britain received most of France's possessions in North America and the West Indies and became an undisputed world power
The War of the Spanish Succession
At the end of this war in 1714, the Bourbon Philip V was allowed to remain king of Spain, but it was forbidden to ever unite the thrones of France and Spain
The Seven Years' War
At the end of this war in 1763 Great Britain received most of France's possessions in North America and the West Indies and became an undisputed world power
The Diet of Worms
At this 1521 meeting of the assembly of the Holy Roman Empire Martin Luther famously refused the demand of the Catholics that he recant his teachings
The Diet of Worms
At this 1521 meeting of the leadership of the Holy Roman Empire, Martin Luther refused to recant his writings that challenged the sale of indulgences and papal authority -- Luther departed unharmed, but was afterwards declared an outlaw and heretic by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V
The Marburg Colloquy
At this famous 1529 meeting between Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli, the two men were unable to agree on whether Christ was actually present in the communion bread and blood -- This point of disagreement prevented any union of their Protestant movements
Africa
Bartholomeu Dias was the first European to lead an expedition to the southern tip of this continent
The Act of Supremacy
Because her sister Mary I had restored England to the Catholic faith during her reign, Elizabeth I in 1559 had Parliament pass legislation known by this name, as her father had done, to make the monarch once again the head of the Church of England
Erasmus
Because this 16th-century Christian humanist sought to reform the Catholic Church from within he is said to have "laid the egg that Luther hatched"
Poland
Because this Eastern European country had an elected monarch, and meetings of its legislature could be stopped by a single dissenting member, government was often reduced to chaos
Catholicism
Before Henry IV was crowned king of France in 1594, he decided to convert to this religion in order to better secure the allegiance of the great majority of his subjects
Venice
Before the Portuguese opened up the sea route to Asia, this Italian city largely controlled the importation of Asian spices into Europe
The Hanseatic League
Beginning in the 14th century, this commercial and political alliance of towns along the Baltic and North Seas came to control trade in northern Europe in such goods as grain and fish
The Hanseatic League
Beginning in the 14th century, this commercial and political alliance of towns along the Baltic and Noth Seas came to control trade in northern Europe in such goods as grain and fish
The Catholic Reformation (or Counter-Reformation)
Beginning in the mid-16th century, this Catholic movement sought to correct the abuses within the church, strengthen the faith of the Catholic laity, and stop the spread of the Protestant faiths
Hernán Cortés
Between 1519 and 1521 this Spanish conquistador and his men conquered the Aztec Empire of central Mexico
Austria Prussia Russia
Between 1772 and 1795 these three countries divided Polish territories up among themselves until it ceased to exist
Poland
Between 1772 and 1795 this country was partitioned, with its various territories being divided between Austria, Prussia, and Russia
Baruch Spinoza
Both Christians and Jews were threatened by this 17th-century Dutch thinker's ideas because they believed his near pantheistic position meant that human beings might not be personally responsible for their actions and that there could be no personal, individual immortality of the human soul after death
The Act of Supremacy
Both Henry VIII and Elizabeth I had Parliament pass laws called this to make themselves heads of the Church of England
Henry VIII Elizabeth I
Both of these English rulers had Parliament pass legislation known as the Acts of Supremacy making the monarch the head of the Church of England
Spain
By the 1500s this country had developed the strongest infantry in Europe and was the most formidable military power on the continent
The Mayans
By the time the Europeans arrived in the New World, this once great civilization centered in the Yucatan peninsula of Mexico had already collapsed for unknown reasons
The Declaration of Indulgence
Charles II of England issued this edict in 1672 that granted freedom of worship to non-Anglican Protestants -- Parliament, however, suspected that he planned to do the same for Catholics and therefore forced him to withdraw it and soon after passed the Test Act
Portugal
Christopher Columbus spent a number of years in this country, the first European kingdom to pursue overseas exploration in the 15th century, before moving to Spain and unsuccessfully sought its support for his trans-Atlantic voyage
Asia
Columbus continued to insist until he died that he had discovered a westward route to this continent:
1490-1527
Critical Date! These were the approximate years for the High Renaissance in Italy
1643-1715
Critical Date! These were the years during which Louis XIV ruled France
1618-48
Critical Date! These were the years of the Thirty Years' War
1453
Critical Date! This critical year saw both the end of the Hundred Years' War and the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks
1690-1790
Critical Date! This is the approximate span of years for the Enlightenment
c. 1456
Critical Date! This is the approximate year in which Gutenberg produced his first book using movable metal type
July 14, 1789
Critical Date! This is the exact date of the storming of the Bastille
1649
Critical Date! This is the year in which Charles I was executed
1555
Critical Date! This is the year in which Charles V and the other princes of the Holy Roman Empire signed the Peace of Augsburg, which granted Lutherans legal status for the first time
1543
Critical Date! This is the year in which Copernicus published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
1598
Critical Date! This is the year in which Henry IV of France (Henry of Navarre) issued the Edict of Nantes
1687
Critical Date! This is the year in which Isaac Newton published Principia Mathematica
1517
Critical Date! This is the year in which Martin Luther composed (and possibly posted) his 95 Theses against the sale of indulgences
1543
Critical Date! This is the year in which Vesalius published On the Structure of the Human Body (De Humani Corporis Fabrica) -- It was the same year in which Copernicus published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres!
1543
Critical Date! This is the year in which Vesalius published On the Structure of the Human Body (De Humani Corporis Fabrica) -- it was the same year in which Copernicus published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres!
1789
Critical Date! This is the year in which the French Revolution began
1688
Critical Date! This is the year of England's Glorious Revolution
1492
Critical Date! This was the year in which ... - Ferdinand and Isabella completed the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula from the Moors - Jews were expelled from Spain - Columbus discovered the "New World"
1789
Critical Date! This was the year in which the Bastille was stormed and the French Revolution began
1588
Critical Date! This was the year of the Spanish Armada
The Black Death (Bubonic Plague)
Due in large part to this mid-14th century event and the resulting reduction in the number of peasants, serfdom began to die out in western Europe as nobles granted the surviving serfs freedom and hired them as wage laborers or rented lands to them
France Spain The Holy Roman Empire
During the 15th and 16th centuries the Italians frequently found their peninsula serving as a battleground for conflicts between these three great powers
France and Spain
During the 15th and 16th centuries the Italians frequently found their peninsula serving as a battleground for conflicts between these two great powers
Principia Mathematica (or Principia)
The culmination of the Scientific Revolution was the 1687 publication of this work by Sir Isaac Newton
The Catholic Church
The doctrine and practices of the Church of England (or Anglican Church) established by Henry VIII remained almost identical to the doctrine and practices of this church:
Caravel
The early Portuguese and Spanish voyages of exploration relied heavily upon this type of sailing ship, which was relatively small and maneuverable, and was more easily sailed into the wind
Guilds
The economies of the 15th-century Italian city-states were dominated by these associations of craftsmen within a particular trade (e.g. goldsmiths) who sought to protect their interests, maintain quality standards, and limit competition amongst themselves
The Thermidorean Reaction
The execution of Robespierre in 1794 was the beginning of this period during which the most radical changes of the French Revolution were undone
Mary, Queen of Scots
The final straw that convinced Philip II to send the Armada against England might have been Elizabeth I's execution of this woman, her cousin and the Catholic heir to the throne of England
The Jacobins and the Sans-Culottes
The final, radical stage of the French Revolution was dominated by an alliance between these two groups: one provided the intellectual leadership and the other provided the strength and fury of the mob
The Wealthy
The first constitution written during the French Revolution, the Constitution of 1791, established a constitutional monarchy in which political power was in effect transferred from the nobility to this group:
Constitutional Monarchy
The first constitution written during the French Revolution, the Constitution of 1791, established this form of government for France -- it would only remain in effect for about a year!
Tudor
The first king of this dynasty in England, Henry VII, was the victor in the War of the Roses. His son, Henry VIII, although arguably not as good a king, is much more famous
The Tudor Dynasty
The first king of this dynasty in England, Henry VII, was the victor in the Wars of the Roses. His son, Henry VIII, although arguably not as good a king, is much more famous
Underestimated the circumference of the earth
The great error in Christopher Columbus's scheme for reaching Asia by crossing the Atlantic Ocean was that he ...
The Heart
The greatest medical contribution of 17th-century British scientist William Harvey was his work on the functioning of this human organ
Galen
The ideas of this 2nd century AD Greek physician and surgeon were the basis for much medical thought prior to the Scientific Revolution -- He based much of his thought on the dissection of pigs and monkeys, and endorsed the idea that physical and mental ailments were caused by imbalances in the body's four "humors"
St. Peter's Basilica
The indulgence being sold in 1517 that got Luther so fired up was intended in part to finance the construction of this building in Rome
Banking
The influence of the Medici family in Florence was based largely on the wealth and influence they enjoyed due to their success in this industry
Idolatry
The interiors of Calvinist churches were much simpler that Catholic churches and mostly devoid of altars, statues, and images because Calvinists believed such objects amounted to this sin:
Sugar
The introduction of this lucrative crop into the New World by the Portuguese in the 16th century did much to fuel the growth of the slave trade
Marie Antoinette
The last words of this person, traditionally regarded as the first victim of France's Reign of Terror, were supposedly an apology to the executioner for stepping on his foot
Brazil
The line of demarcation established by the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas between Spain and Portugal gave the Portuguese a claim to this part of South America
Venus
The most definitive piece of evidence Galileo's telescope generated in to undermine the geocentric theory in the early 17th century was the observation of the phases of this planet
"The Mountain"
The name of this political faction derives from the fact that its members used to sit on the highest seats in the Convention -- It was led by Robespierre, enjoyed the support of the Parisian mobs, and supported the most radical policies of the Revolution, such as the execution of the king
The War of the Austrian Succession
The outbreak of what conflict is being described in the following passage?: "In December 1740, after being king of Prussia for less than seven months, Frederick II seized the Austrian province of Silesia in eastern Germany. The invasion shattered the provisions of the Pragmatic Sanction and upset the continental balance of power as established by the Treaty of Utrecht."
The Thirty Years' War
The peace agreement ending this war granted so much autonomy to the individual German states that the Holy Roman Empire became virtually defunct
The Restoration
The period after which Charles II became king of England following the death of Oliver Cromwell is referred to as this:
Banking
The power of the Medici family in Florence was initially based largely on the wealth and influence they enjoyed due to their success in this industry
The Council of Trent
The primary purpose of this mid-16th-century series of meetings of Catholic Church leaders was to reinvigorate and strengthen the church following the Protestant Reformation
The Peace of Augsburg
The principle of "cuius regio, eius religio" was FIRST established by this 1555 peace agreement
Charles I
The reign of this English king, the son of James I, was marked by constant conflict with Parliament over his religious policies and his efforts to circumvent Parliament's power of the purse -- Indeed, he succeeded in ruling for 11 years without calling Parliament by developing creative ways to raise revenue
Inflation
The so-called "Price Revolution" that began in the 16th century was in fact this common modern economic phenomenon, which Europeans were not used to experiencing
Johannes Gutenberg
The success of the Protestant Reformation was due in part to this man's invention of a metal movable type printing press in the 1450s, which encouraged literacy and greatly accelerated the speed with which ideas could spread throughout Europe
The Moors
The term Reconquista refers to the efforts of the Spanish to expel these longtime occupiers of the Iberian Peninsula
Bishop Jacques Bossuet
The theory of the divine right of kings provided an intellectual justification for absolute monarchy. In around 1670 this French bishop set forth this theory in a treatise entitled Politics Drawn from Holy Scripture. Referring to the Bible as the authority for his arguments, he maintained that the king ruled by the will of God and was responsible only to God and not to any earthly power
Ptolemy
The world map produced by this 2nd century astronomer and geographer became more widely available in the 15th century and was the basis for the European conception of the globe
Paid a Tax
There was such resentment of Peter the Great's campaign to require all Russian men to be clean shaven that he finally relented, allowing them to keep their beards if they did this:
The Physiocrats
These 18th-century forerunners of Adam Smith, led by Francois Quesnay, argued that society prospered most when individuals were left to pursue their economic self-interest (laissez-faire) and that government should not strictly regulate the economy as under mercantilism
Intendants
These French royal officials were first introduced by Richelieu and became important instruments in the centralization of power in France -- They were responsible for ensuring that the policies and will of the king were being carried out in the provinces, supervising the court system, the maintenance of order, and the collection of taxes
- Obey 10 Commandments - Pray - Confess one's sins - Charity work - Pilgrimages to holy sites - Have contact w/ relics
These are three examples of the many "good works" that Catholics might perform to receive God's grace and salvation
"God, glory, and gold"
These are traditionally cited as the three primary motivations for the Age of Exploration that commenced in the 15th century
Lettres de cachet
These documents issued by the French king allowed a subject to be sentenced and imprisoned without a trial
The Streltsy
These elite Moscow military guardsmen rebelled against the rule of Peter the Great several times in the late 17th century -- In 1698 Peter cut short his Great Embassy to western Europe in order to brutally suppress one such rebellion
Salons
These gatherings of intellectuals during the Enlightenment were usually hosted in the private homes of aristocratic women, who served as mediators of discussions of literature, politics, and religion -- They were attended by nobles and members of the bourgeoisie, helping to break down social barriers
Junkers
These landowning nobles of Prussia and Germany long monopolized the highest positions in the army and were immune from most forms of taxation
Portolani
These medieval maps of the oceans provided sailors with the distances and compass headings between ports, but they covered relatively small amounts of territory and had little value for long-distance journeys
The Roundheads
These opponents of the English king dominated London and southeastern England. They included lawyers and merchants, as well as the country gentry of the region. Many were Puritans, and they would eventually prevail in the English Civil War
Old women
These people were the most susceptible to charges of witchcraft, in part because many of them tried to make a living selling healing remedies
"Sea Beggars"
These privateers of many nationalities were enlisted by the leaders of the Dutch Revolt to attack and plunder Spanish vessels and Spanish-controlled towns
Tariffs
These taxes on imported goods were a favorite tool of mercantilists like Jean-Baptiste Colbert of France because they discouraged people from buying foreign products
God Gold Glory
These three "G" words are often cited as the primary motives behind the European Age of Exploration that began in the 15th century
Three Laws of Motion
These three "laws" defined by Isaac Newton in the first book of the Principia (1687) not only helped explain WHY the planets moved in the manner that they did, but applied to all moving objects on Earth as well
Thomas Hobbes John Locke Jean-Jacques Rousseau
These three political theorists of the 17th and 18th centuries had widely different ideas, but each used to the concept of the social contract to explain the origins of government
Francis Bacon & René Descartes
These two 17th-century thinkers both rejected the unquestioning reliance upon the teachings of the ancients and each offered (very different) new approaches to knowledge that provided the bases for the modern scientific method
William & Mary
These two people were the Protestant daughter of James II and her Dutch husband who became the monarchs of England during the Glorious Revolution of 1688
Indulgences
These were granted by the Catholic Church to worshippers to reduce or eliminate the punishment for their venial (minor) sins -- They were usually issued in exchange for services or payment to the church, a practice that Martin Luther would condemn in the 95 Theses
"Paris is worth a mass"
These were the famous words supposedly uttered by Henry IV in 1593 when he decided to convert to Catholicism to better win the allegiance of his subjects, the majority of whom were Catholic
"Here I Stand"
These were the first three words of Martin Luther's famous refusal to recant his teachings at the Diet of Worms
Cahiers de doléances
These were the lists of grievances (written down in notebooks) that the deputies brought with them to Versailles in 1789 for the convening of the Estates-General -- The two most common demands found in them were for a more fair system of taxation and greater limitations on the power of the king
Spain Portugal Kingdom of Naples (southern Italy) The Netherlands The New World
These were the primary territories directly governed by Philip II as king of Spain from 1556-98
The Anabaptists
These were the radicals and outcasts of the Protestant Reformation who believed that only true believers could be members of the church and therefore that baptism should be delayed until one reached adulthood -- They were persecuted by all governments for their insistence on the complete separation of their communities from state control, refusing to pay taxes or serve in the military
1. National Defense 2. Justice System 3. Infrastructure
These were the three basic functions which Scottish philosophe Adam Smith believed it was appropriate for a government to perform -- Government had no other roles to play in people's lives
Catherine II ("the Great") of Russia Frederick II ("the Great") of Prussia Joseph II of Austria
These were the three enlightened monarchs of the 18th century:
Edward VI Mary I Elizabeth I
These were the three legitimate children of Henry VIII
Edward VI Mary I Elizabeth I
These were the three legitimate children of Henry VIII who each ruled England in turn following their father's death
Martin Luther Ulrich Zwingli John Calvin
These were the three most important 16th-century reformers, whose ideas became the basis for the doctrine and practices of most Protestant churches
Joseph II (Austria) Frederick II ("the Great") (Prussia) Catherine II ("the Great") (Russia)
These were the three most prominent enlightened monarchs (or despots) of the 18th century:
Michelangelo Leonardo da Vinci Raphael
These were the three most prominent painters of the High Renaissance in Italy (1490-1527)
The Guise The Valois The Bourbons
These were the three noble families who sought control over France in the French Wars of Religion
The Valois (moderate Catholics) The Bourbons (Huguenots) The Guise (arch Catholics)
These were the three primary families who vied for control over France during the French Wars of Religion
Gold Slaves Ivory
These were the three primary products that the Portuguese began acquiring in Africa during their first decades of exploration in the 15th century
- A constitution (limits on king's power) - An end to 1st and 2nd Estate privileges (esp. tax exemptions)
These were the two most common demands contained in the cahiers de doléances (lists of grievances) prepared by representatives of each estate prior to the meeting of the Estates-General in May 1789
Ferdinand and Isabella
These were the two parents of Catherine of Aragon
King Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn
These were the two parents of Elizabeth I
- High taxes - Suppression of Protestantism
These were the two primary Dutch grievances that provoked their revolt against Spanish rule in the late 16th century:
The Ottoman Empire and Sweden
These were the two primary countries against which Peter the Great waged war during his reign
- Philip II's efforts to suppress Calvinism in the Netherlands - Excessive Spanish taxation of Dutch industry and trade
These were the two primary reasons that the Dutch revolted against Spanish rule in the late 16th century
Pepper Ginger Cinnamon Cloves Mace
These were two of the specific Asian spices that were so sought after by Europeans during the Age of Exploration
Catherine of Aragon Anne Boleyn Jane Seymour Anne of Cleves Catherine Howard Catherine Parr
These were, in order, the six wives of Henry VIII
Lady Jane Grey
This "Nine Day Queen" was a Tudor relative of Henry VIII placed on the throne of England by the advisors of Edward VI following the boy king's death -- She was soon thereafter deposed by supporters of Mary I and eventually executed for treason
Petrarch
This "father of humanism" was among the first to dismiss the Middle Ages as a time of barbarism and ignorance and to idealize the civilizations of Ancient Greece and Rome
The Law of Universal Gravitation
This "law" identified by Isaac Newton during the 17th century explained WHY the planets remain in orbit around the sun -- It states that every object in the universe is attracted to every other object with a force directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distances between them
Julius II
This "warrior pope" was ridiculed by Erasmus for his lack of piety, his deep involvement in worldly affairs, and his willingness to lead troops into battle
The Committee of Public Safety
This 12-man body effectively governed France during the most radical stage of the French Revolution
David
This 14-foot high statue was the largest sculpture produced in Italy since the Roman Empire; although of a religious figure, it also celebrates the beauty and glory of humanity
Treaty of Tordesillas
This 1494 agreement between the Spanish and the Portuguese divided the rights to all newly discovered lands according to a north-south demarcation line through the Atlantic Ocean -- the Portuguese were to control everything to the east of the line and the Spanish everything to the west
Prince Henry the Navigator
This 14th century Portuguese prince was an important early advocate and patron of European exploration, financing numerous Portuguese voyages down the western coast of Africa in order to advance maritime knowledge and acquire profits through trade
The Praise of Folly
This 1509 work by Erasmus was one of history's first bestsellers -- It used satire to criticize the abuses and corruption of the Catholic Church
The Praise of Folly
This 1509 work by Erasmus was one of history's fist bestsellers -- It used satire to criticize the abuses and corruption of the Catholic Church
The German Peasants' Revolt
This 1524-25 uprising of peasants in the Holy Roman Empire was inspired by the Reformation -- The main peasant grievances were high taxes and the restrictions placed on their lives by serfdom -- Martin Luther, needing the support of the German nobility, condemned the uprising
The Peace of Augsburg
This 1555 peace agreement ended the religious wars brought on by the Lutheran Reformation and gave each leader the right to decide the religion of his people
The Peace of Augsburg
This 1555 peace agreement ending the Wars of the Lutheran Reformation legitimized Protestantism for the first time in Europe
The Peace of Augsburg
This 1555 peace agreement established the compromise between Lutherans and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire that allowed the rulers of the various territories to decide the religion within their realms
The Act of Uniformity
This 1559 legislation, part of Elizabeth I's efforts to bring an end to religious conflict in England, reinforced the use of the Book of Common Prayer in every English church and required all Englishman to attend Church of England services every week or pay a fine
The Edict of Nantes
This 1598 edict issued by Henry IV recognized the rights of France's Protestants
Discourse on Method
This 1637 work by Rene Descartes advocated a mathematical approach to acquiring knowledge, in which one rejects all ideas and facts that can not be verified using one's own reason
The Peace of Westphalia
This 1648 peace agreement ending the Thirty Years War recognized for the first time the independence of Switzerland and the Netherlands
Leviathan
This 1651 work by Thomas Hobbes was written during the English Civil War -- It was one of the first to discuss the concept of the social contract -- It argues that a strong central government is necessary to protect man from the chaos and violence of the state of nature
Principia or Principia Mathematica
This 1687 work by Isaac Newton is considered perhaps the most important scientific book ever published -- It contained his three laws of motion and his law of universal gravitation, explaining the movement of all bodies in the universe and ending all doubts about heliocentrism
Two Treatises of Government
This 1689 work by John Locke rejects rule by divine right and promotes the idea of government by the consent of the people -- It argues that all men are equal in the state of nature, but create a government in order to better protect their natural rights to life, liberty, & property
Tycho Brahe
This 16th-century Danish nobleman designed and built new astronomical instruments and over twenty years compiled accurate data on the movements of the heavenly bodies -- His discovery of a new star and comet called into question Aristotle's conception of the universe as unchanging, and his data was used by Kepler to develop his three laws of planetary motion
Charles V
This 16th-century Holy Roman Emperor led the Catholic states of the Empire against the Lutheran states during the Wars of the Lutheran Reformation
Paracelsus
This 16th-century Swiss physician was a pioneer in the use of chemicals (drugs) to cure medical problems
Émile
This 1762 novel by Rousseau is actually a treatise on education -- It urges educators to allow children to pursue their natural interests and to learn from their experiences rather than confine them in a disciplined classroom environment
The Social Contract
This 1762 work by Rousseau helped inspire the political reform efforts of the Enlightenment and of the American and French Revolutions -- It argues against the divine right of monarchs, stating that all authority derives from the people being governed, and that government must act to fulfill the "general will" of the people (that which is in the best interests of society as a whole)
On Crimes and Punishments
This 1764 work by Cesare Becarria was a call for reforms in the legal system, including consistent punishments designed to deter others from committing crime and an end to the death penalty and torture
The Wealth of Nations
This 1776 book by Adam Smith is the first great modern work on economics -- It argued that a free market economy with minimal government interference best promotes the prosperity and well-being of a state
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy
This 1790 legislation introduced in France during the French Revolution made Catholic priests employees of the French state elected by the people
Vindication of the Rights of Woman
This 1792 book by Mary Wollstonecraft is regarded as one of the earliest feminist works -- it argues that women should receive the same educations provided to men of their social class, and that the two sexes are entitled to the same basic rights
Benedict de Spinoza
This 17th-century Dutch thinker argued that all matter is a part of God -- God did not just create the universe - he was the universe (pantheism)
William Harvey
This 17th-century English scientist is best remembered for discovering that the human heart was responsible for the circulation of the blood
Thomas Hobbes
This 17th-century English thinker argued that, in a social contract, it was best to give power to an absolute sovereign who was to maintain order & protect people from the chaotic state of nature -- People had no right to rebel against their sovereign, for that would simply return them to the state of nature
Thomas Hobbes
This 17th-century English thinker had a pessimistic view of mankind and argued that the state of nature is a "war of every man against every man"
Francis Bacon
This 17th-century Englishman argued that scientific knowledge could best be acquired inductively, using careful observation and experimentation to collect data and arrive at general principles
John Locke
This 17th-century Englishman believed that people choose to enter a social contract to form a government which establishes and enforces laws to protect their natural rights (life, liberty, and property) from possible infringement by others -- If the government fails to protect those rights, people have the right to rebel!
John Locke
This 17th-century Englishman believed that the state of nature is not completely lawless -- It is governed by natural law (reason), and that men in the state of nature have the natural rights to life, liberty, and property
Thomas Hobbes
This 17th-century Englishman believed that the state of nature, prior to the formation of government, was essentially lawless -- Life was therefore "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short"
Francis Bacon
This 17th-century Englishman famously urged scientists to conduct carefully-organized experiments and make systematic observations to develop correct generalizations about the world
Francis Bacon
This 17th-century Englishman was the Scientific Revolution's most famous proponent of empiricism, in which knowledge is basely solely upon what one has actually observed and experienced
Blaise Pascal
This 17th-century French scientist and mathematician sought to reconcile science and Christianity and demonstrate that Christianity was not contrary to scientific reason
Blaise Pascal
This 17th-century French thinker argued that reason applied only to matters of science, not religion, and that a "leap of faith" was necessary for men to believe in God
Johannes Kepler
This 17th-century astronomer was the first to discover the mathematical formulas that explained the motion of the planets in the heliocentric system
Blaise Pascal
This 17th-century thinker argued that reason applied only to religion, not science, and that a "leap of faith" was required for men to believe in God
René Descartes
This 17th-century thinker determined that the universe was composed of two basic substances, mind (the thinking, spiritual world) and matter (the physical world, which could be understood using reason)
Francis Bacon
This 17th-century thinker, the most famous advocate of empiricism, argued that man could identify nature's laws through observation and experimentation
Montesquieu
This 18th-century Frenchman praised England's government for separating power among three branches (executive, legislative, and judicial) and for providing a system of checks & balances
Catherine II ("the Great")
This 18th-century German-born ruler of Russia was attracted to the ideas of the Enlightenment, counted several of the philosophes among her friends, and pursued a number of reforms, such as a new code of laws and limits on the use of torture -- Few significant changes were enacted, however, and Russian serfdom became even more oppressive during her reign
Adam Smith
This 18th-century Scottish professor believed that government should not interfere in the operation of a country's economy -- prosperity would be achieved by "the invisible hand" when each person was free to do what was in his/her best interests economically
Thomas Cranmer
This Archbishop of Canterbury helped build Henry VIII's case for breaking from the Catholic Church and annulling his marriage to Catherine of Aragon -- During the reign of Edward VI he introduced major Protestant reforms within the Church of England and wrote the Book of Common Prayer -- He would be executed during the reign of Mary I
Archbishop William Laud
This Archbishop of Canterbury under Charles I was an opponent of English Puritans, insisting upon the maintenance of the episcopal system and many elements of Catholic ritual -- In 1644 he was executed by order of Parliament
Japan
This Asian country at first welcomed the Europeans who began arriving in the 16th century, especially because they were able to import goods such as firearms; they became alarmed, however, by the success of Christian missionaries and took steps during the 17th century to expel nearly all Europeans
Erasmus
This Christian humanist from the Netherlands argued that Christianity should be a guide for everyday living rather than a system of dogmatic beliefs and practices
Erasmus
This Christian humanist sought to correct the errors in the standard Latin Vulgate Bible by editing and publishing a version of the New Testament in the original Greek as well as a new Latin translation
Johann Tetzel
This Dominican friar made a living using the jingle, "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs" -- It was his 1517 campaign to sell indulgences that compelled Martin Luther to write the 95 Theses
Johann Tetzel
This Dominican friar was an infamous indulgence seller whose efforts in 1517 to sell indulgences in the Holy Roman Empire in order to raise funds for the reconstruction of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome prompted Martin Luther to write the 95 Theses
Erasmus
This Dutchman was the most important of all the Christian (or northern) humanists
William of Orange ("the Silent")
This Dutchman was the most prominent leader of his country's revolt against Spanish rule in the late 16th century
Henry VII
This English king, the first of the Tudor monarchs, established a stable and prosperous government while reducing the power of the English nobility
Sir Isaac Newton
This English mathematician, astronomer, and physicist developed calculus in his efforts to identify the natural laws that govern the movement of bodies on Earth and throughout the universe -- His work 1687 Principia is considered the culmination of the Scientific Revolution
Henry VIII
This English monarch ruled from 1509 to 1547 and is best remembered for breaking with the Catholic Church and establishing a Church of England under his direct control in order to secure the annulment of his first marriage so that he might produce a legitimate son
Sir Francis Drake
This English sailor was the most famous of the Sea Dogs enlisted by Elizabeth I as privateers to harass and seize Spanish shipments of gold and silver from the New World -- In 1588 he served as one of the commanders of the British fleet that defeated the Spanish Armada
Mary Wollstonecraft
This Englishwoman argued in the 18th century that the Enlightenment was based on an ideal of reason innate in all human beings, and that if women have reason, then they too are entitled to the same rights that men have
Machiavelli
This Florentine diplomat is considered the father of modern political science because of his efforts to explain how rulers should acquire and maintain their power
Montesquieu
This French aristocrat wanted to limit royal absolutism, and urged in his book The Spirit of the Laws (1748) that power be separated among three branches of government: the executive, the legislative, and the judicial
The Guise Family
This French family was opposed to any compromise with the Protestants in 16th-century France and actually hoped to seize the throne for itself
Jean-Baptiste Colbert
This French finance minister was the main proponent of mercantilist policies during the reign of Louis XIV
Henry III
This French king of the House of Valois was the favorite son of Catherine de Medici -- During the War of the Three Henries he had Henry de Guise assassinated and, as he himself was dying from a subsequent assassin's attack, named Henry of Navarre the heir to his throne
The Guise
This French noble family was opposed to any compromise with the Huguenots and exerted great influence over the sons of Catherine de Medici during their reigns -- They even hoped to take the throne for themselves
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
This French philosophe believed that human beings had been most free and happy in the state of nature (the "noble savage"), but had been corrupted by civilization
Laissez-faire
This French phrase is best translated "let it be" or "leave it alone" -- It refers to the principle, embraced by the Physiocrats and Adam Smith in the 18th century, of minimal government interference in the economy
"Laissez-faire"
This French phrase, which refers to the strictly limited government role in the economy favored by most philosophes, is loosely translated "let it be" or "leave it alone"
Philosophe
This French term refers to any of the thinkers of the Enlightenment who sought to discover and publicize the natural laws that governed human societies
John Calvin
This Frenchman converted to Lutheranism as a young man and was forced to flee the persecution of Protestants by the French king -- He would end up in Geneva, which he would make into the most influential Protestant center in Europe
Johannes Kepler
This German mathematician and astronomer and one-time assistant to Tycho Brahe was a supporter of heliocentrism -- In the early 17th century he used Brahe's data to develop his Three Laws of Planetary Motion
Immanuel Kant
This German philosopher famously claimed that the motto of the Enlightenment was "Dare to know! Have the courage to use your own intelligence!"
Charles VI
This Habsburg emperor spent much of his reign negotiating the Pragmatic Sanction (1713) to ensure that his daughter would inherit all of the family lands
Coligny
This Huguenot leader and advisor to the young French King Charles IX was resented and mistrusted by the king's mother, Catherine de Medici -- Her failed attempt to have him assassinated led to a widespread attack on France's Huguenots remembered as the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre
Castiglione
This Italian Renaissance author argued that, to better serve his prince, a nobleman had to develop a wide range of abilities, including military prowess, athletic talent, musical skills, and a knowledge of proper etiquette
Florence
This Italian city-state is commonly regarded by historians to have been the birthplace, or "cradle," of the Renaissance
Catherine de Medici
This Italian noblewoman was a French queen in the late 16th century who played an important role behind the thrones of her three sons when they ruled France -- Her main objectives were to keep the throne in the Valois family and to bring an end to the destructive conflict between France's Catholics and Protestants
Giotto
This Italian painter of the late 12th and early 13th centuries is regarded by many as the first artist of the Renaissance, because he made a concerted effort to base his frescoes on nature, creating three-dimensional figures that seemed to have form and weight
Cesare Beccaria
This Italian philosophe opposed capital punishment and torture, and argued that the criminal justice system should be designed only to deter crime, not inflict brutality
Galileo
This Italian physicist and astronomer used a telescope to generate evidence that supported the heliocentric theory -- In 1633 he was forced to appear before the Inquisition for challenging the Catholic Church's authority by teaching that the Earth moves -- To avoid torture and possible death, he recanted
Cardinal Mazarin
This Italian-born cardinal was the first minister of Louis XIV during the king's youth -- His unpopularity contributed to the outbreak of the Fronde
"Cuius regio, eius religio" (Whose region, his religion)
This Latin phrase refers to the compromise, first established in the 1555 Peace of Augsburg, by which princes of the Holy Roman Empire were permitted to choose the religions of their individual states
"The Priesthood of All Believers"
This Lutheran idea eliminated the clear distinction between the clergy and the laity that existed in the Catholic Church -- It claimed that all baptized members of the church had the right and responsibility to preach the Christian faith
The Incan Empire
This Native American empire was located primarily in modern Peru, but extended as far as Ecuador in the north and central Chile in the south
The Anabaptists
This Protestant group often antagonized secular authorities by refusing to recognize their jurisdiction over them; they would often refuse to take oaths, serve in the military, or pay taxes
The School of Athens
This Raphael fresco is found in the papal apartments at the Vatican; it depicts an imaginary gathering of ancient philosophers, scientists, and mathematicians, but also includes the likenesses of a number of Renaissance artists, including Raphael himself
Raphael
This Renaissance artist produced many paintings of the Madonna and Jesus as well as a fresco called The School of Athens
Raphael
This Renaissance artist produced many paintings of the Madonna with the baby Jesus, as well as a large fresco in the pope's library that depicted the great philosophers, scientists, mathematicians, and rulers of Ancient Greece known as the School of Athens
Machiavelli
This Renaissance figure is best remembered for teaching that leaders of countries do not have the luxury of ruling according to some moral code; they must do whatever is necessary to protect their states and achieve their objectives
Machiavelli
This Renaissance figure was a diplomat in the Republic of Florence for nearly 15 years before he was exiled, during which time he wrote The Prince
Sfumato
This Renaissance painting technique, associated primarily with Leonardo da Vinci, involves blending multiple layers of paint to make it appear as if a veil of smoke separates the viewer from the painting -- This hazy effect is apparent in the ambiguous expression of the Mona Lisa
Leo X
This Renaissance pope, the son of Lorenzo de Medici, was made a cardinal at age 13. He was a great patron of Renaissance artists such as Raphael , and was also pope in 1517 when Martin Luther launched the Protestant Reformation
Pico della Mirandola
This Renaissance thinker famously argued in his 1486 Oration on the Dignity of Man that man has the potential to figuratively become whatever he wants, whether it be one who soars with angels or one who crawls with insects
Machiavelli
This Renaissance thinker was much dismayed by the divisions and warfare between Italian city-states that prevented them from uniting, and hoped that a strong leader would emerge to restore unity and stability to the Italian peninsula
Peter the Great
This Romanov ruled Russia from 1682 to 1725 -- He focused on transforming his country into a powerful, modern state, travelling to western Europe to acquire technology and experts -- He remade his army on the western model and, in the Great Northern War against Sweden, succeeded in establishing Russia as the strongest power on the Baltic Sea
Francisco Pizarro
This Spanish conquistador was responsible for conquering the mighty Incan Empire and putting its emperor, Atahualpa, to death
Ignatius Loyola
This Spanish founder of the Society of Jesus required all members to take a vow of absolute obedience to the pope
The Reconquista
This Spanish term refers to the centuries-long effort by the Spanish to expel the Moors from the Iberian Peninsula that began in the 11th century
Catherine of Aragon
This Spanish-born woman, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, was the first wife of England's King Henry VIII -- When she failed to provide him with a son, Henry became convinced that their marriage was cursed and sought to have it annulled by the pope
James II
This Stuart king reigned for three short years (1685-88) -- He pursued pro-Catholic policies and violated the rights of Parliament in an effort to return to absolutism -- He was forced to flee England in 1688 when, after his wife gave birth to a son who was to be raised Catholic, Parliament invited his Protestant daugher Mary and her husband William of Orange to take the throne
Gustavus Adolphus
This Swedish king and military innovator was one of the most successful leaders of the Protestant forces in the Thirty Years' War
Gustavus Adolphus
This Swedish king was a military innovator, developing more flexible infantry and cavalry tactics that he employed when he intervened in the Thirty Years' War on behalf of the Protestants
Charles XII
This Swedish king was the primary opponent of Peter the Great in the Great Northern War of the early 1700s
Ulrich Zwingli
This Swiss theologian launched his own reformation in Zurich at the same time that Martin Luther was challenging the pope's authority in Saxony -- His teachings closely matched those of Luther, except when it came to the presence of Christ in communion bread and wine
The Hanseatic League
This alliance of towns along the Baltic and North Seas long dominated trade in northern Europe before beginning to decline in the 15th century
Ptolemy
This ancient astronomer and geographer had dramatically underestimated the circumference of the earth, leading Columbus and other adventurers to believe that it would be possible to sail west from Europe to reach Asia
Paracelsus
This arrogant 16th-century physician challenged Galen when he stated that disease was not caused by an imbalance of the four humors, but by chemical imbalances that could be treated with chemical remedies
Botticelli
This artist and resident of Florence, a member of the court of Lorenzo de Medici, had a deep interest in Greek and Roman mythology, reflected in one of his most famous works, set in the garden of Venus and entitled Primavera
Michelangelo
This artist from Florence, who had received the patronage of Lorenzo de Medici, claimed to be primarily a sculptor, not a painter -- During the Renaissance he produced the Pietà, the Sistine Chapel ceiling, and a huge marble statue of David
Giotto
This artist is regarded by many art historians as the first, during the 14th century, to try to imitate nature in his paintings
Linear perspective
This artistic technique employs lines that converge at a vanishing point in order to create a 3-D effect and an illusion of depth in a painting
Linear perspective
This artistic technique, developed by the painters of the Renaissance, employs lines that converge at a vanishing point in order to create a 3-D effect and an illusion of depth in a flat painting
Chiaroscuro
This artistic technique, developed during the Renaissance, uses contrast between light and dark areas (shading) to give a 3-dimensional appearance to objects like the human body
Linear Perspective
This artistic technique, rediscovered during the Renaissance, uses intersecting "parallel" lines and vanishing points to give a 2-dimensional artwork a 3-dimensional appearance
Ptolemy
This astronomer, geographer, and mathematician lived in Egypt in the 2nd century A.D. -- His geocentric model of the universe was the accepted standard prior to the Scientific Revolution
Voltaire
This author of Candide (1759) advocated deism, according to which God created the world and the natural laws by which it operated, but no longer had direct involvement with it
Castiglione
This author's most important work, The Book of the Courtier, served as a handbook for European nobles for centuries
Henry of Navarre (Henry IV)
This beloved French king from the House of Bourbon was long the leader of the Huguenots -- With his accession to the throne in 1594 following the deaths of his rivals in the War of the Three Henries, he decided to convert to Catholicism to better secure the loyalty of the French people
Bishop Jacques Bossuet
This bishop and supporter of absolute monarchy under Louis XIV argued that because God established kings and endowed them with power, they were responsible to no one and could not be challenged (divine right)
The Council of Trent
This body of Catholic clergymen met from 1545 to 1563 to consider the reform of the church -- It corrected a number of church abuses (indulgences could no longer be sold) and introduced better training for Catholic clergy, but refused to make any changes in Catholic doctrine
Christian (or Northern) Humanism
This branch of humanism emphasized the study and analysis of the earliest Christian texts to reform the Catholic Church and society
Civic Humanism
This branch of humanism emphasized the use of the knowledge contained in the ancient texts to better serve and improve one's own society (rather than simply study the classical authors for one's personal benefit)
The 17th Century (1600s)
This century, during which the Dutch finally secured their freedom from Spain, witnessed the Golden Age of the Dutch Republic
Amsterdam
This city was Europe's most important center of trade and banking in the early 17th century
The English Civil War
This conflict between the supporters of Parliament and the supporters of Charles I lasted from 1642 until 1649, ultimately ending with the execution of the king and the establishment of the Commonwealth
The Thirty Years' War
This conflict from 1618 to 1648 began as a civil conflict between different religious faiths in the Holy Roman Empire - over the course of the war numerous outside powers would intervene in the conflict
The English Civil War
This conflict lasted from 1642-49 -- it was a struggle for power in England between the supporters of King Charles I and the supporters of Parliament
The Seven Years' War
This conflict that began in 1756 cost France most of its North American possessions and made Great Britain the world's greatest colonial power
The Thirty Years' War
This conflict, waged from 1618-1648, was in many ways a resumption of the Wars of the Lutheran Reformation that had ended in 1555
Hernán Cortés
This conquistador was responsible for the conquest of the Aztecs in central Mexico
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy
This controversial 1790 legislation passed during the French Revolution made all clergymen employees of the French government -- It tested devout Catholics' loyalty to the revolution by undermining the authority of the pope
Portugal
This country situated on the Atlantic Ocean took the lead in the Age of Exploration and was responsible for the first significant new discoveries
Poland
This country's political and military strength could not match that of its stronger, more ambitious neighbors. Its partitioning in the late 18th century clearly demonstrated that any nation that had not established a strong monarchy, bureaucracy, and army could no longer compete within the European state system
Mary, Queen of Scots
This cousin of Queen Elizabeth aspired to take the throne of England and return the country to Catholicism; in 1587 she was finally executed by Elizabeth after many years of imprisonment
Marguerite (Margot)
This daughter of Catherine de Medici was forced to marry Henry of Navarre as part of her mother's efforts to secure peace between France's Catholics and Protestants
Mary I ("Bloody Mary")
This daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon restored the Catholic faith to England when she became queen in 1553 -- She would marry the future Philip II of Spain, and she earned her infamous nickname for having around 300 Protestants executed for heresy during her reign
Lorenzo de Medici
This de facto ruler of Florence from 1469 to 1492 presided over the peak of the city-state's artistic achievements, patronizing such artists as Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci
The New Model Army
This disciplined military force, made up largely of devout Puritans, was led by Oliver Cromwell during the English Civil War and was largely responsible for the defeat of the king's forces
Divine Right
This doctrine, embraced by rulers like James I and Louis XIV, holds that monarchs are appointed by God and are therefore accountable to no earthly authority -- Because a king has been chosen by God, those who challenge him are guilty of sacrilege
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
This document was approved by the French National Assembly in August 1789 as the basis for the new French constitution -- It stated the rights possessed by all men (e.g. liberty, property, freedom of speech) and declared that all men were equal (but not women)
The Instrument of Government
This document, the first written constitution England ever had, took effect in 1653 during the Commonwealth period and created the position of Lord Protector, an executive position to be held for life -- The first Lord Protector was Oliver Cromwell
The Hohenzollerns
This dynasty long provided the electors, kings, and emperors who ruled Prussia and unified Germany until the end of World War I
The Tudor Dynasty
This dynasty was established in England in 1485 when Henry VII of the House of Lancaster defeated the last Yorkist king, Richard III, at Bosworth Field
The Tudor Dynasty
This dynasty was established in England in 1485 when Henry VII of the House of Lancaster defeated the last Yorkist king, Richard III, at Bosworth Field during the Wars of the Roses
Mercantilism
This economic doctrine, embraced by European states from the 16th-18th centuries, holds that the prosperity and well-being of a country depends upon the amount of bullion (gold and silver) it controls -- It emphasizes maintaining a favorable balance of trade by maximizing exports and minimizing imports
Mercantilism
This economic philosophy under which governments carefully regulate their economies to maximize their control of gold and silver dominated the Age of Exploration
Mercantilism
This economic theory held that there is a limited amount of wealth in the world, and that governments therefore needed to carefully regulate their economies to maximize their access to precious metals
Mercantilism
This economic theory, dominant during the Age of Exploration, held that a country's political and economic well-being was determined primarily by its supply of precious metals -- It was believed that the government needed to play a heavy role in regulating the economy, especially in maintaining a favorable balance of trade (more exports than imports!)
The Pouf
This elaborate hairstyle, popularized by Marie Antoinette, was much emulated by other women, but also became a symbol of the decadence and corruption of the French court on the eve of the Revolution
Tricolor Cockade
This emblem worn by supporters of the French Revolution was a combination of the colors of Paris (red and blue) with the color of the Bourbon monarchy (white)
The Geocentric System
This erroneous conception of the universe originated with the ancient Greeks -- It holds that the Earth is at the center of the solar system and that all other heavenly bodies (sun, planets, moon) revolve around it
The Great Fear
This event swept much of the French countryside in the summer of 1789. It saw the burning of chateaux, the destruction of records and documents, and the refusal to pay feudal dues. The peasants were determined to take possession of food supplies and land that they considered rightfully theirs
The Habsburgs
This family was based in the lands along the Danube River known today as Austria; its holdings were greatly expanded through marriage alliances, and members of this family were traditionally elected Holy Roman Emperor
Sir Thomas More
This famous Christian humanist and friend of Henry VIII refused to acknowledge his king as the head of the Church of England and paid for it with his life
"Cogito Ergo Sum" ("I think, therefore I am")
This famous Latin phrase represented 17th-century philosopher Rene Descartes's resolution to reject everything he been taught to be true and to reconstruct all of his knowledge using only his REASON
The Last Supper
This famous da Vinci fresco depicts exactly 13 people and actually began peeling and flaking during da Vinci's lifetime because of an experimental technique he used in its creation
The Mercator Projection
This famous map projection was of great value to explorers and sailors because, despite its great distortions of the size of the land masses, it accurately depicted the line of direction between points on the map
Jean-Baptiste Colbert
This finance minister of Louis XIV and ardent mercantilist improved the collection of taxes in France, built up the French navy, promoted the development of French industry, and used high tariffs to make imported goods more expensive to purchase
Cardinal Richelieu
This first minister of France sent troops to help the Protestants in the Thirty Years' War despite the fact that he was a Catholic cardinal
Ignatius Loyola
This former Spanish soldier established the Society of Jesus which became the most important Catholic organization established during the Counter-Reformation
Sir Thomas More
This friend and advisor of Henry VIII served as Lord Chancellor of England but was executed for refusing to acknowledge the king as the head of the church
Leonardo da Vinci
This genius seemed to embody the ideal of the Renaissance Man, for he was a scientist, an inventor, and an artist who used his knowledge of human anatomy and mathematics in his work -- His most famous pieces are the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper
Louis XV
This great-grandson of Louis XIV ruled France from 1715-1774 -- He was an ineffective ruler who engaged in financially-ruinous wars, including the Seven Years War in which France lost most of its overseas empire -- The French nobility also began to reclaim some of the power it had lost under Louis XIV, resisting his efforts to impose taxes upon them
The Physiocrats
This group of 18th-century French thinkers argued that land was the only source of wealth and that agriculture and mining the only means of increasing wealth, rejecting the mercantilist idea that gold and silver were the main determinants of wealth
Sophia
This half-sister of Peter the Great served as his regent when he was a boy and on several occasions plotted to remove him from power -- Peter eventually had her confined to a convent
The Spanish Armada
This ill-fated 1588 expedition was the culmination of Philip II's efforts to restore Catholicism to England during the reign of the Protestant Elizabeth I
Prince Henry the Navigator
This important Portuguese sponsor of exploration along the coast of West Africa during the 15th century actually spent hardly any time at sea himself
St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre
This infamous event in Paris began on August 24, 1572, as an effort by the Valois family to eliminate the Huguenot leadership following the marriage of Princess Margot and Henry of Navarre -- They soon lost control of events, and many thousands of Protestants were killed in Paris and throughout France
The Bastille
This infamous fortress and prison fell to the mobs of Paris on July 14, 1789
Jacques-Louis David
This influential neoclassical painter was a supporter of the French Revolution, immortalizing its major events in works like The Tennis Court Oath and The Death of Marat -- He would later become an ally and admirer of Napoleon, creating some of the most famous images of the emperor
Inductive Reasoning
This intellectual approach, advocated by Francis Bacon in the 17th century, involves moving from the specific to the general -- By observing and experimenting in the physical world (empiricism), one might identify general patterns in the way the world operates
Deductive Reasoning
This intellectual approach, advocated by Rene Descartes in the 17th century, involves moving from the general to the specific -- Starting from established, known truths, one can use reason to establish new truths and make predictions without relying upon one's senses (rationalism)
Cartesian Dualism
This is 17th-century French thinker Rene Descartes's idea that the world is made up of thinking things (the mind) and things that occupy space (matter) -- The mind can use reason to understand matter
J-C-C-C-J
This is a handy little mnemonic device for remembering the order of the Stuart monarchs in England
Social Contract
This is a theoretical agreement through which man agrees to leave the state of nature and empowers a government to rule
Epicycle
This is a type of motion in which heavenly bodies supposedly move in an orbit within an orbit -- This does not actually occur, but was used by Ptolemy (and later by Copernicus) to explain the apparent retrograde (backward) motion of the planets
Purgatory
This is actually a process (rather than a place) in the Catholic faith in which those bound for salvation are purified of the effects of the sins committed in one's lifetime so that they might be worthy of Heaven -- Indulgences issued by the church were believed to reduce or eliminate the time one would have to spend undergoing this process
Transubstantiation
This is the Catholic belief (rejected by most Protestants) that, during the sacrament of communion, ordinary bread and wine literally become the flesh and blood of Christ
Consubstantiation
This is the Lutheran belief that, during the sacrament of communion, although Christ is spritually present in the bread and wine they are not actually physically transformed into the flesh and blood of Jesus -- It was Luther's adherence to this doctrine that prevented the union of his movement with that of Ulrich Zwingli
Predestination
This is the Protestant idea, emphasized particularly by John Calvin, that the gift of faith had only been granted to some ("the elect") and that each person's fate had been determined prior to their birth
Rebirth
This is the literal translation of the word "Renaissance"
Mercantilism
This is the name given to the set of economic policies followed by the European states in the 16th and 17th centuries; they were designed to ensure that a country exported more goods than they imported
The Columbian Exchange
This is the name given to the transfer of plants and animals between the New World and the Old as a result of European exploration and colonization
Lateen Sails
This is the name of the triangular sails used on caravels to better allow these ships to sail against the wind
Nepotism
This is the practice, common among Renaissance popes, of advancing one's relatives to high positions in the Catholic Church regardless of their suitability for the jobs (from the Greek word for "nephew")
(J)ames I (C)harles I (C)ommonwealth (or Cromwell) (C)harles II (J)ames II
This is what J-C-C-C-J stands for:
Frederick William I
This king of Prussia (and father of Frederick II) from 1713-1740 focused all of his energies and resources on building up his army, doubling its size during his reign, but he fought practically no wars himself
Frederick II ("the Great")
This king of Prussia ruled from 1740-86 -- He was a proponent of enlightened absolutism and a great patron of artists and writers, including Voltaire -- He modernized his kingdom's bureaucracy, introduced greater religious toleration, and promoted economic development -- In the year he took power he invaded Silesia, starting the War of the Austrian Succession
Renaissance Man (l'uomo universale)
This label refers to the ideal person of 15th-century Italy, one with a wide range of talents and skills capable of achievements in many areas of life -- Castiglione's The Courtier sets forth the criteria for such a person
The Taille
This land tax paid by all members of the 3rd Estate in France prior to the Revolution was heavily resented by landowners
The Law of the General Maximum
This law was passed at the insistence of the sans-culottes in September 1793, who were concerned to maintain regular access to cheap food -- It set limits on the prices of goods, esp. bread, and punished price-gouging
Gustavus Adolphus
This leading Protestant ruler was king of Sweden from 1611-1632 -- He introduced important innovations in battlefield tactics and intervened in the Thirty Years War to protect the northern Protestant states within the Holy Roman Empire -- He won significant victories for the Protestants before perishing in the Battle of Lützen
Georges Danton
This leading figure in the early stages of the French Revolution, a master orator and supporter of the creation of the Republic, was executed in April 1794 by the Committee of Public Safety for turning against the violence of the Reign of Terror
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy
This legislation, passed by France's revolutionary government in July 1790, was intended to subordinate the Catholic Church to the French government -- It provided for the election of bishops and priests, and required all clergymen to swear loyalty to the French state above all else -- Nearly half of all priests refused to take this oath, and this legislation caused considerable resentment among the French peasantry
The Act of Supremacy
This legislation, passed by Parliament in 1534, made Henry VIII the head of the Church of England and created a permanent spilt with the Catholic Church based in Rome -- Decades later, his daughter Elizabeth I would have Parliament pass a similar act
The Test Act
This legislation, passed by Parliament in 1673, sought to keep Catholics out of high positions by requiring all government and military officers to swear an oath that they did not believe in transubstantiation
The Toleration Act
This legislation, passed by Parliament in 1689, granted freedom of worship to all non-Anglican Protestant groups in England -- Catholics did not receive this right, but in fact were allowed to worship privately
The Index of Forbidden Books
This list of publications that Catholics were prohibited from reading was introduced by the pope in 1559 during the Catholic Reformation -- It was intended to protect Catholics from immoral and heretical works
"Divorced, Beheaded, Died, Divorced, Beheaded, Survived"
This little phrase is useful for remembering the identities and order of the six wives of Henry VIII
The Book of Common Prayer
This liturgy book, introduced in the Church of England in 1549, during the reign of Edward VI, was written by Thomas Cranmer and contained largely Protestant doctrine and rituals -- It would be suppressed during the reign of Mary I and revived during the reign of Elizabeth I
The War of the Spanish Succession
This long war, fought in the early 1700s, helped to check the expansion of French power under Louis XIV and marked England's emergence as the strongest power in Europe
The Dutch Revolt
This long, costly uprising against the rule of Spain occupied much of the energies of Philip II during his reign -- It was driven by the rebels' resentment of high Spanish taxes and Philip's efforts to suppress Calvinism -- Elizabeth I provided aid to the rebellion
The Dutch Revolt
This major revolt in the late 16th century was motivated by both excessive taxation by the Spanish and Philip II's brutal efforts to suppress Calvinism
Francisco Pizarro
This man had only 180 troops at his disposal when he landed on the Pacific coast in 1530 and began the conquest of the Incan Empire
Prince Henry the Navigator
This man is responsible for sponsoring and encouraging the first European voyages down the coast of Africa; by the time he died the Portuguese had made it as far as modern Liberia
Gutenberg
This man perfected the process for which he is famous in Mainz in the 1450s. It involved printing multiple copies of books using movable metal type
Oliver Cromwell
This man rose to prominence as a leader of the Parliamentary forces during the English Civil War -- He was an independent Puritan who supported the execution of King Charles I in 1649, after which he ruled the Commonwealth largely as a military dictator until his death in 1658
Andreas Vesalius
This man used actual dissections of cadavers to prepare his 1543 masterpiece on human anatomy, On the Structure of the Human Body
Louis XVI
This man was king of France from 1774-1792 -- During the French Revolution he was weak and indecisive, at times yielding to the will of the people but also seeking to preserve France's traditional institutions -- In January 1793 he became the only French king to ever be executed
Frederick William the Great Elector
This man was the Great Elector of Brandenburg-Prussia in the mid-17th century -- He developed an army that became one of the most feared in Europe and an efficient bureaucracy that provided the foundation for Prussia's rise as a great power
Charles V
This man was the grandson of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. As king of a united Spain and the Holy Roman Empire, he was the most powerful ruler in Europe during the first half of the 16th century. He controlled lands in Spain and its colonial empire as well as the Netherlands, Southern Italy, Austria, and other lands in central Europe
Cardinal Richelieu
This man, the first minister under Louis XIII, focused on building up the power of the French monarchy at the expense of the nobility and keeping the power of the Habsburgs in check
Leo X
This man, the son of Lorenzo de Medici, was pope when Luther posted his 95 Theses; he said that Luther was just a drunken German and that he would feel differently once he sobered up
Scholasticism
This medieval method of learning held that all knowledge had already been acquired, and that it was only the duty of scholars to defend it and resolve apparent contradictions between different authorities -- This approach was rejected by both Bacon and Descartes, who argued that men should challenge the authorities and generate new knowledge
The Thirty Years' War
This mid-17th-century conflict is often called "the last of the religious wars" -- Hereafter, the countries of Europe would virtually never again go to war over matters of religious doctrine and practice
The Thirty Years' War
This mid-17th-century conflict left much of the German states devastated -- 1/3 of the population had died and much of the economy was in ruins
Madame de Pompadour
This mistress and friend of Louis XV was an important adviser to the king who enjoyed a great deal of informal political influence at court in the mid-1700s -- She became involved in military and foreign affairs, and patronized artists and writers (including Voltaire)
The Girondins
This moderate political faction within the Jacobin Club dominated the early years of the revolution -- They supported war against Austria and Prussia as a means of exporting the revolution, but were concerned to preserve order and prevent mob rule -- Robespierre's faction eventually displaced them and had them executed after they opposed the execution of the king
Louis XIV
This monarch, who ruled France from 1643-1715, was the dominant ruler of his era -- He sought to establish absolute monarchy, expand the borders of France through constant warfare, and restore Roman Catholicism as the only religion permitted within his realm
Voltaire
This most beloved and celebrated of the philosophes was a prolific author of novels (such as Candide), plays, histories, letters, & pamphlets and a great admirer of English institutions and freedoms
Erasmus
This most famous of the Christian humanists was a staunch critic of the Catholic Church; he is said to have "laid the egg that Luther hatched"
Maria Theresa
This mother of Joseph II and Marie Antoinette was the only woman to ever rule the Habsburg lands -- She was opposed to many Enlightenment ideas, such as religious toleration, but she did introduce reforms such as improved tax collection, the abolishment of capital punishment, and mandatory education for all Austrian children
"One king, one law, one faith"
This motto of Louis XIV is a declaration of his intention to be the uncontested ruler of a French kingdom united by a single religion
The Metric System
This new system of weights and measures, believed to be more rational than its predecessors, was developed by France during the revolution and officially adopted in 1799
"The Sun King"
This nickname for Louis XIV indicated what a central, indispensable role he believed he played in the governing of his kingdom and in the lives of his subjects
William of Orange ("The Silent")
This nobleman became a leader of the Dutch Revolt against Spain in the 1560s -- He led the Dutch to a number of victories against the Spanish before he was assassinated in 1584
Isabella d'Este
This noblewoman from Mantua was one of the great patrons of Renaissance art and often ruled Mantua in the absence of her husband
Isabella d'Este
This noblewoman from Mantua, dubbed "the first lady of the world," was one of the great patrons of Renaissance art, attracting many artists and thinkers to her court and often ruling Mantua in the absence of her husband
Erasmus
This northern humanist wrote new versions of the New Testament to make the Christian texts available in their original form and correct the errors that he believed to be found in the standard Latin Vulgate version of the Bible
Sir Thomas More
This northern humanist's most famous work described an imaginary community in which there was no private property or competition and everyone worked 9 hours per day
Epicycle
This orbit-within-an-orbit was used by both Ptolemy and Copernicus to help explain the movement of the planets, but they don't actually exist
The Peace of Westphalia
This peace agreement ended the Thirty Years' War
The Peace of Utrecht
This peace agreement ended the War of the Spanish Succession and forbade the Bourbons from ever uniting the thrones of France and Spain
The Scientific Revolution
This period in the 16th and 17th centuries, in which great advances were made in the fields of physics, astronomy, and biology, is said to have been sparked by Copernicus's work On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres -- It challenged and overturned many long-standing ancient and medieval ideas, and established that the world is governed by natural laws which man might discover
Montesquieu
This philosophe believed that the separate executive, judicial, and legislative powers in England served to balance and control each other
Diderot
This philosophe compiled the ideas of the leading thinkers of his day on a wide array of topics in his 17-volume Encyclopedia, which was invaluable for spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment (religious toleration, political reform, primacy of reason)
Immanuel Kant
This philosophe seemed to capture the spirit of the Enlightenment when he urged his fellow man to "dare to know! Have the courage to use your own intelligence."
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
This philosophe's emphasis on the need to give free reign to man's natural instincts and feelings made him an important forerunner of romanticism
Tabula Rasa
This phrase encapsulates Locke's belief that people are primarily products of their environment
Tabula Rasa ("Blank Slate")
This phrase encapsulates Locke's belief that people are primarily products of their environment
"The Power of the Purse"
This phrase refers to Parliament's exclusive right in England to approve new taxes
"Power of the Purse"
This phrase refers to Parliament's jealously-guarded right to approve all new taxes in England -- It was challenged by the Stuart monarchs, especially Charles I
Price Revolution
This phrase refers to a new economic phenomenon that began in Europe in the 15th century, when prices began to rise at a dramatic rate -- the primary explanations for this inflation are the resumed growth of the European population following the devastation of the Black Death and the influx of precious metals from the New World
The Columbian Exchange
This phrase refers to the transfer of plant and animal life between the New World and the Old as a result of European exploration beginning in the late 15th century -- important crops, livestock, and diseases were introduced in both Europe and the Americas that had profound cultural impacts
Julius II
This pope personally led the forces of the Papal States into battle against its enemies and is therefore remembered as the "Warrior Pope"
Pope Julius II
This pope, known as "the warrior pope" for personally leading troops into battle, was condemned by Erasmus for his neglect of his spiritual duties as he sought to expand papal power in Italy -- He also was an important patron of Michelangelo, commissioning the great artist to paint the Sistine Chapel ceiling
Diderot
This primary compiler of the Encyclopedia (1751-72) was also a harsh critic of Christianity
The Bourbons
This prominent French noble family, which would emerge as the leaders of France's Protestants, ruled the small kingdom of Navarre and in the late 16th century aspired to take possession of the French throne
"Cogito ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am)
This quote represents 17th-century French thinker Rene Descartes's starting point for his reconstruction of all knowledge after rejecting what he has been taught by the intellectual authorities -- Because he was doubting what he has been taught, he was thinking -- Because he was thinking, he must exist
Thomas Müntzer
This radical early Protestant leader broke from Martin Luther and became a leader of the German Peasants' Revolt, at the end of which he was executed
Jean-Paul Marat
This radical journalist, among the most popular and powerful of the Jacobins during the French Revolution, called for the ruthless use of violence against counterrevolutionaries -- He was executed in his bathtub in July 1793 by Charlotte Corday, who blamed him for the bloodshed of the revolution's radical stage
Separation of Powers
This refers to French philosophe Montesquieu's conception of the division of government authority between an executive branch, a legislature, and a judiciary -- He based it upon his understanding of the British political system
"Pocket Boroughs" (or "Rotten Boroughs")
This refers to a voting district within the United Kingdom with very few eligible voters -- They therefore had a disproportionate share of political power and could be easily controlled by a wealthy patron who sought more influence in Parliament -- The Great Reform Bill of 1832 addressed this problem by eliminating 57 of these districts
Junker
This refers to any member of the landholding Prussian nobility
The Thermidorean Reaction
This refers to the fall and execution of Maximilien Robespierre in July 1794 -- In its aftermath the Reign of Terror came to an end and France established the more conservative government of the Directory, which denied political power to the masses
Enlightened Absolutism (or Despotism)
This refers to the form of government adopted by several Eastern European monarchs in the 18th century -- While they resisted any limits on their personal power, they embraced the reason of the Enlightenment as a means of strengthening their kingdoms -- They permitted more religious toleration and freedom of speech, reduced restrictions on trade, and sought to adopt more rational codes of law
The Restoration
This refers to the period in English history following the reestablishment of the monarchy in 1660 and the return of the Stuart kings to power in the person of Charles II -- Many Englishmen were thrilled to see an end to the Puritan restrictions on their lives
Levée en masse
This refers to the policy, introduced during the French Revolution, of drafting all available Frenchmen to serve in the armed forces -- It was based on the principle that political equality carried an obligation to defend the state and created Europe's first citizen army -- France was now able to field much larger forces than its enemies (and it's armies often had higher morale)
State of Nature
This refers to the theoretical condition of man prior to the establishment of a formal government
John Calvin
This reformer wrote the single most important book of Protestant thought, entitled the Institutes of the Christian Religion
Methodism
This religious movement arose in England during the 18th century in response to a perceived indifference and lack of enthusiasm in the Anglican Church -- Its leaders began giving passionate, open-air sermons outside of the traditional church structure, urging listeners to confess their sins and be spiritually reborn -- Its most important preacher was John Wesley
Frederick the Wise
This ruler (or Elector) of Saxony was one of Martin Luther's most important defenders during the early years of the Reformation -- He ensured, for example, that Luther's case would be heard before the Diet of Worms and not in Rome, and that he was granted safe passage to and from the Diet
Humanism
This school of thought that emerged during the Italian Renaissance emphasized the study of the texts of the classical civilizations of Greece and Rome in order to learn how to live more fulfilling, productive lives
William Harvey
This scientist established his reputation with his 1628 book On the Motion of the Heart and Blood
The Council of Trent
This series of meetings of leading Catholic clergymen from 1545-63 ultimately decided to reaffirm Catholic doctrine while introducing significant reforms in church practices
The Council of Trent
This series of meetings of the leaders of the Catholic Church made most of the decisions and reforms that are today referred to as "The Catholic Reformation"
The Long Parliament
This session of Parliament was called by Charles I in 1640 when he needed funds to suppress a Scottish rebellion -- It would sit for 13 years, refusing to allow itself to be disbanded or to grant Charles the taxes he sought -- He eventually became so frustrated that he raised an army, starting the English Civil War in 1642
The Committee of Public Safety
This small ruling body, composed of about 12 men, basically ruled France during the radical stage of the Revolution and presided over the Reign of Terror -- Its purpose was to protect the new republic against internal and foreign enemies, and it was dominated by Maximilien Robespierre
The 3rd Estate
This social order included about 97% of the population of pre-Revolutionary France -- It was made up of the peasantry, the bourgeoisie, and the sans-culottes, and it carried most of France's tax burden
The 2nd Estate
This social order included all of France's nobles, between 1-2% of the population -- They were exempt from most taxes
Charles IX
This son of Catherine de Medici became king of France as a boy -- His mother exerted tremendous control over him and likely played a major role in convincing him to order the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre of 1572
Louis XIII
This son of Henry IV became king of France in 1610 -- His most important adviser would be the first minister, Cardinal Richelieu, who sought to centralize power under the monarchy
Pope Leo X
This son of Lorenzo de Medici became pope in 1513 -- He was a secularly-minded humanist and patronized artists like Raphael -- He also unsuccessfully sought to suppress Martin Luther after he composed his 95 Theses in 1517
Joseph II
This son of Maria Theresa was the enlightened monarch who attempted the most far-reaching reforms of the 18th century -- He abolished serfdom and the death penalty, imposed equal taxes on all classes, promoted religious toleration, and permitted more freedom of speech -- His reforms were generally not well-received by the elites, and most were undone after his death
Charles II
This son of the executed Stuart king Charles I became the king of England in 1660 with great rejoicing following the end of the Commonwealth -- He unsuccessfully tried to grant more religious toleration to Catholics and non-Anglicans
The Strait of Magellan
This strait at the southern tip of South America is named after the European explorer who discovered it in the early 16th century
"Paris is worth a mass"
This supposed five-word quote by Henry IV summarizes his decision to convert to Catholicism before he was crowned king of France in 1594 -- It was a reference to the fact that the region around his capital city was overwhelmingly Catholic
Corvée
This tax, much resented by France's peasants prior to the Revolution, required them to provide roughly two weeks of service each year maintaining and improving the kingdom's roads -- It was abolished on August 4, 1789, along with other feudal privileges
Ship Money
This tax, originally imposed on English coastal counties to provide for defense against attacks from the sea, was extended by Charles I to all English counties WITHOUT PARLIAMENTARY APPROVAL
Chiaroscuro
This technique employed by Renaissance painters literally means "light-dark" - it uses shading to give volume to objects in paintings and increase the 3-D effect
Oligarchy
This term refers to a government by a small group of people at the top of society, such as the merchant families that largely controlled the republican government of Florence
Pogrom
This term refers to a violent, mob attack against Jewish communities with the approval and/or support of the authorities -- they were most common in Russia, where anti-Semitism was most intense
Dispensation
This term refers to an exemption from some Catholic law granted by the pope -- Henry VIII, for example, needed one from Julius II before he could marry Catherine of Aragon
Philosophe
This term refers to any of the thinkers of the Enlightenment
Nobles of the Robe
This term refers to newer French nobles whose rank had been acquired through service to the king as officials or administrators or had been purchased outright
Chiaroscuro
This term refers to the Renaissance technique of using shading to create a three-dimensional effect in paintings
Vernacular
This term refers to the everyday language of the people (as opposed to a scholarly language like Latin) -- Christian humanists like Erasmus and reformers like Martin Luther agreed that the Bible should be made available in these languages, a policy opposed by the Catholic Church
Dowry
This term refers to the money given by the wife's family to a husband when they got married; it could involve quite considerable sums, esp. if the husband's family was more prominent than the bride's family
Nepotism
This term refers to the practice common among Renaissance popes of elevating close family members to high positions within the Catholic Church, oftentimes regardless of their qualifications for the job
The "Diplomatic Revolution" of 1756
This term refers to the reversal of the longstanding alliances in Europe that occurred between the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years War -- France became allies with its traditional enemy Austria, and Britain became allies with Prussia
Humanism
This term refers to the scholarly interest in the study of the classical cultures of Greece and Rome during the Renaissance
The Columbian Exchange
This term refers to the transfer of plant and animal life between the New and Old Worlds during the Age of Exploration
The Bourgeoisie
This term refers to the wealthiest, most influential members of the Third Estate who provided much of the leadership during the French Revolution
The Puritans
This term refers to those devout Protestants in England who, beginning in the late 16th century, sought to remove all remaining Catholic elements from the Church of England and to put an end to the episcopal system of church governance
Nobles of the Sword
This term refers to those more established, traditional French nobles whose nobility was based upon their ancestors' military service to the French monarchy
Huguenots
This term simply refers to French Calvinists
Patrons
This term simply refers to those wealthy institutions, families, and individuals who provided financial support to Renaissance artists, providing them with studios and materials and commissioning works of art; two examples would be the Catholic Church and Lorenzo de Medici
Nepotism
This term, derived from the Greek word for nephew, refers to the practice, common among Renaissance popes, of appointing family members to high church offices
Empiricism
This theory of knowledge, closely associated with 17th-century Englishman Francis Bacon, holds that true knowledge might only be acquired through actually observing and experiencing a phenomenon
Rationalism
This theory of knowledge, most closely linked with 17th-century French thinker Rene Descartes, holds that the use of one's reason, rather than one's senses, is the only reliable way to ascertain truth
Machiavelli
This thinker from Renaissance Italy was dismayed by the constant warring between the various city-states and invasions of the peninsula by foreign powers; he longed for a strong ruler who would restore peace, prosperity, and stability to Italy
René Descartes
This thinker of the Scientific Revolution famously doubted the reliability of his own senses and therefore rejected empiricism as a means of acquiring knowledge
René Descartes
This thinker of the Scientific Revolution resolved to question and doubt everything he had learned and to rediscover truth USING ONLY HIS REASON (rationalism)
John Locke
This thinker's 1689 work Two Treatises on Government helped provide much of the basis for constitutional government and endorsed the idea of rulers ruling only with the consent of the governed
The Estates-General
This traditional assembly of France's three social orders did not have the power to pass laws, but served only in an advisory capacity to the king -- When Louis XVI called it to Versailles in 1789 to address the kingdom's financial crisis, it had not met for 175 years
Mercator Projection
This type of map projection is very valuable to ship captains because it allowed for accurate navigation, but it greatly distorts the size of the land masses at the poles
The Great Fear
This uprising of French peasants during the summer of 1789 was sparked by wild rumors of attacks by foreign troops and bandits -- Noblemen's manor houses were attacked in the uprising, and in response to the violence the National Assembly voted to abolish feudalism and all estate privileges
The War of the Austrian Succession
This war began in 1740 when Frederick II ("the Great") invaded Silesia, violating the Pragmatic Sanction
The War of the Austrian Succession
This war began in 1740 when Frederick II ("the Great") of Prussia seized Silesia from Maria Theresa's Habsburg Empire (Austria), violating the Pragmatic Sanction
The Thirty Years' War
This war began with the "Defenestration of Prague," in which a number of Catholics were thrown from a window by Bohemian Calvinists
The Thirty Years' War
This war is remembered as the last of the religious wars, because hereafter the great countries of Europe would not enter conflicts over matters of religious doctrine or practice
The War of the Spanish Succession
This war was waged in the early 1700s because the states of Europe feared that with the Bourbons in control of France & Spain, they would be able to dominate Europe -- They therefore went to war to remove Philip V from the Spanish throne and preserve the balance of power
The Philosophy of Christ
This was Erasmus's belief that true Christians were more concerned to base their daily lives on the teachings of the New Testament than participate in the rituals demanded of the Catholic Church
The Philosophy of Christ
This was Erasmus's idea that Christianity should be less a set of beliefs, rituals, and doctrine that one must abide by, and more a guide for how one should live one's daily life, modeled on that of Jesus
"No bishop, no king"
This was James I's famous response to the request of English Puritans that he abolish the episcopal system of church government and give each congregation more control over church doctrine and practice
Justification by Faith or Salvation by Faith Alone
This was Martin Luther's basic doctrine, based on his reading of the New Testament, that states that "good works" were neither sufficient nor required to earn one salvation -- only belief in God's love and mercy was necessary
The Sejm
This was Poland's Parliament that severely limited the power of the Polish king -- the decisions it made had to be completely unanimous, making it very difficult to accomplish anything in the 17th and 18th centuries
The Fronde
This was a 1650-53 uprising against the French monarchy, fueled by resentment against high taxes and the encroachments of the monarchy on the powers of the local nobility and parlements (local courts of appeal) -- It occurred during the boyhood of Louis XIV and would encourage his later efforts to reduce the power of the nobility
The Vendée
This was a coastal region in western France that rose up in rebellion against the revolutionary government in 1793 -- The rebels were motivated by the Revolution's persecution of the Catholic clergy and the conscription of troops to serve in the revolutionary army -- The Committee of Public Safety ordered the rebellion ruthlessly suppressed, and several hundred thousand people died before peace was largely reestablished in 1795
Pugachev's Rebellion
This was a massive Russian peasant uprising during the reign of Catherine the Great -- Its leader was an adventurer who claimed to be the murdered husband of Catherine, and he promised land and freedom to his followers, who eventually numbered in the tens of thousands -- In 1775, after its leader had been captured and executed, the rebellion collapsed
Aerial (or Atmospheric) Perspective
This was a method used by Renaissance artists such as Da Vinci to enhance realism and help create the illusion of depth in their paintings; "distant" objects were painted with muted colors and less detail and clarity, just as they would appear to the human eye in real life
Joint-Stock Trading Company
This was a new investment opportunity during the Age of Exploration that made it easier to raise the money to fund voyages -- individuals would buy shares in a company and then receive a share of any profits made (dividends)
The Table of Ranks
This was a system, introduced by Peter the Great in 1722, that assigned status according to service to the state, not birth -- It divided the top military and government positions into a hierarchy of 14 levels, and anyone reaching the 8th highest level achieved hereditary nobility
The Pragmatic Sanction
This was an edict issued by Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI to ensure that the Habsburg lands could be inherited by a daughter at his death, which was legally prohibited -- Although the great powers accepted this edict, Prussia under Frederick II would nonetheless invade Silesia in 1740
The Gutenberg Bible
This was completed in either 1455 or 1456, the first true book in the West produced from movable type
Granada
This was last piece of territory that the Moors controlled on the Iberian peninsula before they were finally conquered by Ferdinand and Isabella
Better armed ships Better seamanship
This was one of the primary advantages that the Portuguese enjoyed in their conflict with Asian powers as they fought to take over the spice trade
The Glorious Revolution
This was the 1688 overthrow of James II and his replacement by William and Mary -- It derives its name from the fact that little blood was shed during this transfer of power, and that it seemed to firmly establish constitutional government in England
Anne Boleyn
This was the 2nd wife of Henry VIII
James I
This was the first of England's Stuart monarchs -- He was resented by many Englishmen for his Scottish origins, but many Puritans hoped that he would introduce the presbyterian form of church governance used in Scotland
The Jacobin Club
This was the largest political club in Paris during the French Revolution; it was dominated by Maximilien Robespierre and it came to support radical change, such as the creation of a republic in place of the monarchy
Pepper
This was the most common spice imported from Asia into Europe
Quebec
This was the most important French settlement in Canada; in the mid-18th century it was lost to the English at the end of the Seven Years' War
The Jesuits (or Society of Jesus)
This was the most important of the many new religious orders that arose during the Catholic Reformation -- The members of this order established many schools and seminaries, and worked as missionaries to combat the spread of Protestantism and carry the Catholic faith to the newly discovered portions of the world
The Jacobins
This was the most popular political club established for discussion and debate of the issues of the French Revolution -- Although it was initially moderate, over time it came to be dominated by more radical revolutionaries like Robespierre and to support the extremism of the Reign of Terror
The House of Orange
This was the most powerful, dominant family in the Dutch Republic, that provided many of the stadtholders who headed the executive branch of government, including the man who became King William III of England
The Reign of Terror
This was the most violent period of the French Revolution, between September 1793 and July 1794, in which the government, dominated by Robespierre, used regular executions to eliminate perceived enemies of the Revolution -- Many thousands were killed, including the Girondins and Marie Antoinette, before the fall of Robespierre brought it to an end
The Latin Vulgate Bible
This was the name for the official version of the Bible used by the Catholic Church at the time of the Protestant Reformation -- Erasmus believed that it contained errors and thus produced his own version
The Commonwealth
This was the name for the supposed republic established in 1649 following the English Civil War and the execution of Charles I -- In fact, Cromwell used his control of the army to rule England as a military dictator, and when he died in 1658 most Englishmen were ready to return to monarchy
The Schmalkaldic League
This was the name of the alliance of Lutheran states of the Holy Roman Empire that fought against the Catholics in the Wars of the Lutheran Reformation
Geography
This was the name of the great 2nd-century A.D. work by Ptolemy containing his world map that became available in Europe in the 15th century and had much influence on the explorers of the Age of Exploration
The Convention
This was the name of the legislature and executive body under the French republic established in 1792 -- Its most radical members, led by Robespierre, were dubbed "the Mountain" because they sat on the highest benches, while the moderates (or Girondins) sat on the lowest seats and were known as "the Plain"
The Convention
This was the name of the legislature that governed France from 1792-95, during the final, radical stage of the French Revolution when France was theoretically a republic
The Tuileries
This was the name of the palace in central Paris in which the royal family was housed following the women's march of October 1789 that forced Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette to abandon Versailles -- In August 1792 it was overrun by Parisian mobs, bringing an end to the monarchy
Tithe
This was the name of the tax, theoretically 10% of one's income, that Frenchmen were expected to pay to the Catholic Church prior to the French Revolution
"The Sea Dogs"
This was the nickname for the English privateers (such as Francis Drake) who raided Spanish gold and silver shipments from the New World during the reign of Elizabeth I
Roundheads
This was the nickname for the supporters of Parliament during the English Civil War
Cavaliers
This was the nickname for the supporters of the king during the English Civil War
Assignats
This was the paper currency issued by France's revolutionary government in 1790 to help solve the country's fiscal problems -- Their worth was based on the church lands seized by the government, but because too many were printed they soon lost most of their value
Pluralism
This was the practice in which Catholic clergymen held multiple church positions simultaneously, collecting more income but making it more difficult for them to perform all of their duties
Absenteeism
This was the practice, banned by the Council of Trent, of Catholic bishops living in Rome or on their landed estates rather than in the dioceses for which they were responsible
Simony
This was the practice, condemned as corrupt by many reformers, of buying and selling positions within the Catholic Church hierarchy
Financial crisis (impending bankruptcy)
This was the primary problem faced by the French monarchy on the eve of the French Revolution that prompted Louis XVI to summon a meeting of the Estates-General
Liberum Veto
This was the right of any member of the Polish Parliament (the Sejm) to end the current session and nullify any legislation that had been passed
Movable Metal Type
This was the specific innovation in printing developed by Johannes Gutenberg in the 1450s that dramatically increased the speed with which books could be printed and reduced their prices; it led to an explosion of book printing throughout Europe and greatly encouraged a rise in literacy
Boyars
This was the term for the hereditary Russian nobles who possessed great landed estates
The Bourgeoisie
This was the wealthiest, most educated portion of the Third Estate, roughly corresponding with today's upper middle class -- They resented the privileges of the 1st and 2nd Estates and provided much support and many leaders for the French Revolution
Elizabeth I
This woman ruled England from 1558 to 1603 and was the last of the Tudor monarchs -- Her reign is remembered as a golden age in which English culture flourished, England began to emerge as one of Europe's great powers, and a compromise settlement was secured between England's Catholics and Protestants
Mary, Queen of Scots
This woman ruled at one time as queen of France and Scotland -- She was a devout Catholic, a cousin of Elizabeth I, and the heir to the English throne -- Elizabeth kept her in captivity for 19 years and, after years of wavering, finally had her executed for plotting against her life and throne
Catherine of Aragon
This woman was the first wife of Henry VIII
On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
This work by Copernicus, published while he was on his deathbed in 1543, proposed a heliocentric model of the universe and is regarded as the first important work of the Scientific Revolution
The Prince
This work by Machiavelli, published in 1513, used historical examples to instruct rulers on how best to maintain and expand their power -- They were not to be restrained by moral considerations, but to use violence and deception when necessary to advance their interests
The Oration on the Dignity of Man
This work by Pico della Mirandola, written in 1486, assured men that they had complete control over their own fates and that man might "have whatever he chooses [and] be whatever he wills"
Utopia
This work by Sir Thomas More described a fictional island society in which all worked and there was no private ownership of property
Utopia
This work depicts an imaginary island in which there is communal ownership of all property and everyone works; in Greek it means "nowhere." It was written by Thomas More
Utopia
This work depicts an imaginary island in which there is communal ownership of all property and everyone works; in Greek it means "nowhere." It was written by Thomas More.
The Encyclopedia
This work, edited by Diderot and published between 1751-72, contained 71,818 articles, some by the leading philosophes -- It was a compilation of the learning of the Enlightenment and helped spread these ideas throughout Europe
Erasmus
This writer famously condemned the "warrior pope" Julius II for leading troops into battle and showing more concern for secular matters than spiritual ones
Charles XII
This young Swedish king's forces won many victories against the Russians in the early years of the Great Northern War, but after introducing a number of military reforms Peter the Great ultimately defeated him at the decisive 1709 Battle of Narva
Charlotte Corday
This young woman was executed during the French Revolution for assassinating fiery, radical newspaper editor and Jacobin leader Jean-Paul Marat while he was in his bathtub
The German Peasants' Revolt
Thomas Müntzer was the leader of this failed uprising in the 1520s that sought to win better treatment for the lower classes in the Holy Roman Empire
The Last Supper
To see this painting you must go to Milan, where it may be found on a monastery wall. It is remarkable for accurately depicting the personalities of each of the disciples as Jesus informs them that one of them will betray him
Prussia
Under the Hohenzollern rulers this country's rulers concentrated on securing the loyalty of the Junkers (nobles) and building the 3rd or 4th strongest army in Europe (even though it was only 13th in population size)
Wealthy Men
Under the first constitution written during the French Revolution, the Constitution of 1791, these were the only people who could vote or hold office:
Absolutism
Under this form of monarchy, most common in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, there were no formal limits placed on the power of the king by legislatures, churches, or the nobility -- This type of rule is most often associated with the reign of Louis XIV of France
Episcopal System
Under this heirarchical system of church government, used in the Catholic Church and the Church of England, bishops have authority over churches within a given region, and they in turn answer to a higher, central authority (such as the pope or the English monarch)
The Encomienda System
Under this system established in Spain's New World colonies in the early 16th century, colonists were permitted control over a certain number of Native American laborers -- in return, the colonists were expected to protect them and instruct them in the Catholic faith
The Encomienda System
Under this system, Spanish settlers in the New World were permitted to use Native Americans as laborers and to collect tribute from them
David
Using a piece of marble that had sat unused for 50 years, Michelangelo created this 14-foot high statue, the largest piece of sculpture created in Italy since Roman times
The Moon
Using the telescope in the early 17th century, which he improved but did not invent, Galileo was able to observe craters and mountains on this heavenly body, indicating that it was much like the earth and not a perfect, smooth sphere as the ancients believed
Andreas Vesalius
What Copernicus was to astronomy, this man was to anatomy -- His illustrated book On the Structure of the Human Body (1543) was based on human dissections and provided the most accurate descriptions of the human body yet produced
The Table of Ranks
What is being described in the following passage?: "All civil offices were ranked according to fourteen levels; a parallel list of foreign grades was also created for all military offices. Every official was then required to begin at level one and work his way up the ranks. When a non-noble reached the eighth rank, he acquired noble status."
The Columbian Exchange
What phenomenon is being described in the following passage?: "The European encounter with the Americas produced remarkable ecological transformations that have shaped the world to the present moment. The same ships that carried Europeans and Africans to the New World also transported animals, plants, and germs that had never before appeared in the Americas. There was a similar transport back to Europe and Africa. This process is named after the famous explorer who unwittingly initiated it."
Florence
What place is being described in the following passage?: "It dominated the region of Tuscany. By the beginning of the fifteenth century, it was governed by a small merchant oligarchy that manipulated the apparently republican government. In 1434, Cosimo de Medici took control of this oligarchy"
Mercantilism
What term embodies the set of beliefs and practices described in the following passage? "To encourage exports, governments should stimulate and protect export industries and trade by granting trade monopolies, encouraging investment in new industries through subsidies, importing foreign artisans, and improving transportation systems by building roads, bridges, and canals. By placing high tariffs on foreign goods, they could be kept out of the country and prevented from competing with domestic industries."
Religious Intolerance
What was the "infamous thing" that philosophe Voltaire wanted to "crush"?
Religious intolerance
What was the "infamous thing" that the famed philosope Voltaire sought to "crush"?
The Bahamas
When Columbus reached the New World in 1492, his first landfall was in this modern country made up of many islands
Granada
When Ferdinand and Isabella came to power in Spain, this was the last remaining territory on the Iberian Peninsula controlled by the Moors
The Moon
When Galileo used his telescope in the early 17th century to demonstrate that this body had hills and valleys much like those on Earth, he did much to undermine Aristotle's accepted ideas about the universe
René Descartes
When he wrote "cogito ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am) this 17th-century thinker was explaining the process in which he rejected all he had been taught and resolved to rebuild all of his knowledge from scratch using reason alone
Maria Theresa
When in 1740 this woman inherited the lands of the Habsburgs following the death of her father Charles VI, Frederick II of Prussia promptly invaded the territory of Silesia, beginning the War of the Austrian Succession
France
When the Thirty Years' War ended in 1648 it was apparent that this was the most powerful country in Europe
John Wesley
When this clergyman began travelling around England in the 18th century preaching to often huge crowds in open fields, he did not want to split from the Church of England -- He was merely trying to better reach England's poor and reinvigorate the faith of those who longer attended church -- His efforts eventually led to the birth of the Methodist movement
John Wesley
When this clergyman began travelling around England in the 18th century preaching to often huge crowds in open fields, he did not want to split from the Church of England -- He was merely trying to better reach England's poor and reinvigorate the faith of those who no longer attended church -- His efforts eventually led to the birth of the Methodist movement
The Thirty Years' War
When this conflict ended in 1648, the Holy Roman Empire was fragmented into numerous independent states, each with the power to make treaties and alliances, largely eroding the power of the Holy Roman Emperor
The Seven Years War
When this conflict ended in 1763, France was no longer a great colonial power, having lost most of its possessions to the British, and many in France became convinced of the need for political reform
Voltaire
When this strong 18th-century critic of organized religion famously stated "crush the infamous thing," he was referring to religious intolerance and persecution
Galileo
Which 17th-century scientist sketched this image of the moon?
Peter the Great
Which European leader is depicted holding the scissors in this image?
John Locke
Which philosophe wrote the following?: "Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say, white paper, void of all characters, without any ideas. How comes it to be furnished? ...To this I answer, in one word, from experience"
Portugal
While this European country enjoyed the first successes in the efforts to extend control over Asia, it simply lacked the population, resources, and will to establish a large, permanent empire
Charles V
Who is being addressed by Martin Luther in the following speech?: "Unless I am convinced by Scripture and plain reason ... my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and I will not recant anything, for to go against conscience is neither right nor safe. Here I stand, I cannot do otherwise. God help me. Amen."
Catherine de Medici
Who is being described in the following passage?: "This moderate Catholic looked to religious compromise as a way to defuse the political tensions, but found to her consternation that both sides possessed their share of religious fanatics unwilling to make concessions. The extreme Catholic party favored strict opposition to the Huguenots and was led by the Guise family."
The Dutch Revolt
William the Silent was the most important leader of this rebellion against the rule of Philip II and Spain
Isabella of Castille & Ferdinand of Aragon
With the marriage of these two monarchs in 1469, the unification of Spain as a single kingdom commenced -- They are best remembered for reconquering the remaining Moorish lands on the Iberian peninsula, sponsoring the voyages of Christopher Columbus, and expelling the Jews from their kingdoms
