ap lang final

Conflict

(internal vs. external) a struggle between opposing forces. Conflicts are internal when the opposing forces are two drives, impulses, or parts of a single character. Conflicts are external when they pit a character against something outside him or herself.

In medias res

(literally "in the midst of things") refers to a plot that opens in the middle of the action, then fills in past details by means of exposition or flashback.

Deus ex machina

(literally"god out of the machine") any improbably, unprepared-for plot contrivance introduced late in a literary work to resolve the central conflict.

Vehicle

(or comparison subject) In a metaphor, the vehicle is the image or idea that represents the subject. In other words, the vehicle is what is giving us a new way to imagine the tenor or subject of the metaphor. Example: In the metaphor 'Hell is empty / And all the devils are here" (1.2.213-216), hell is the vehicle.

Tenor

(or main subject) in a metaphor, the tenor is the subject. In other words, the tenor is what's getting reimagined by the other part of the metaphor (the vehicle). Example: "The king's son, Ferdinand / with hair up-staring,—then like reeds, not hair, / Was the first man that leap'd; cried, 'Hell is empty / And all the devils are here" (1.2.213-216) In Ariel's telling here, Ferdinand compares the ship to hell. The ship in this metaphor is the tenor.

Metaphor

A figure of thought that uses an implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for another, suggesting some similarity. Usually identified by comparing objects directly, using words Like "was" or "is".

Works Cited

A list of references and sources that appears at the end of an academic paper or report that uses MLA style and gives readers enough information about those sources to enable them to evaluate them or use them for further research. Works cited pages only include sources explicitly referenced in a paper or report, not sources used in the research process

Ethos

A speaker's or author's authority to express opinions and be heard on a given subject. A speaker's ethos is something like her brand; the qualities that make her audience likely to listen to and believe her. Rhetorician Kenneth Burke says that the key to establishing a strong ethos is to make your audience identify with you by establishing common ground with them

Non-sequitur

A statement or idea that fails to follow logically from the one before

Allegory

A story, fictional or nonfictional, in which characters, things, and events represent qualities or concepts. The interaction of these characters, things, and events is meant to reveal an abstraction or a truth. These characters may be symbolic of the ideas referred to. In other words, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. Example: The Tempest is often suspected of being an allegory for the late stages of Shakespeare's career as a playwright.

Analogy

An analogy is a comparison to a directly parallel case. When a writer uses an analogy, he or she argues that a claim reasonable for one case is reasonable for the analogous case.

Fallacy (or a logical fallacy)

An incorrect belief or supposition based on faulty data, defective evidence, false information, or flawed logic

Allusion

An indirect reference to something (usually a literary text, although it can be other cultural products as well) with which the reader is supposed to be familiar. Allusions are often meant to be funny, or to make a subtle point. Example: Gonzalo's reference to Dido is an allusion as well as an analogy.

Split Order of a Sentence

Divides the predicate into two parts with the subject coming in the middle, Example: Down the street the dog ran.

Five stages of plot development

Exposition: provides the background information that one needs to understand the central conflict Rising action: events complicate the situation and intensify the central conflict Climax: the turning point of a work, in which something happens to irrevocably change the central conflict. Falling action (dénoument): the part of the plot in which conflicts move towards their resolution (often includes hints as to what that resolution might be). Resolution (conclusion): the point of the plot in which the situation that was destabilized at the beginning becomes stable again and the central conflict is resolved. Not all plots have resolutions.

Circumlocution

Literally "talking around" a subject; i.e., discourse that avoids direct reference to a subject.

Point of view/perspective

Point of view/ perspective/narration are all terms that describe the voice in which a narrative is told. First person narrators use the pronouns I and we. Second person narrators use the pronoun you. Third person narrators use the pronouns he, she, and they. Omniscient narrators can describe the inner thoughts and feelings of multiple characters. Limited narrators can describe only the inner thoughts and feelings of one character (the central character). The term central consciousness describes a character whose inner thoughts, perceptions, and feelings are revealed by a third-person limited narrator who doesn't reveal the inner thoughts, perceptions, and feelings of other characters.

Ad hominem

Rhetoric that is directed to or appealing to feelings and prejudices instead of intellect or reason.

Natural Order of a Sentence

Sentences in English proceed logically when the subject comes before the predicate. Example: The dog ran down the street.

Inverted Order of a Sentence

Sentences where part or all of the predicate comes before the subject. The subject is a little harder to find in this type of sentence. Example: Down the street ran the dog.

Ellipsis

The deliberate omission of a word or phrase from prose done for effect by the author. Ellipsis can also be used to refer to the deliberate omission of key information from a communication. Example: "Please come and see me . . . Phone book . . . Under the name of Mrs. Sigourney Howard . . . My aunt . . ." (Chapter 3)

Pathos

The element in literature that stimulates pity or sorrow. Also, the emotional appeal used to persuade an audience to accept a certain point of view or opinion

Logos

The logic used by a speaker or writer to support a claim or point of view

Refutation (or rebuttal)

The part of discourse wherein opposing arguments are anticipated and answered.

Periodic sentence

When the main idea is not completed until the end of the sentence. The writer begins with subordinate elements and postpones the main clause. "About half way between West Egg and New York the motor-road hastily joins the railroad and runs beside it for a quarter of a mile, so as to shrink away from a certain desolate area of land" (Chapter 2).

Cumulative/Loose sentence

When the writer begins with an independent clause, then adds subordinate elements (modifying words, clauses, or phrases).

Epiphany

When used as a literary device, an epiphany is a moment in which there is a sudden realization that leads to a new perspective that clarifies a problem or situation. A character may have an epiphany, or it may also occur in the narration such that the reader has the epiphany.

Annotation

a brief explanation, summary, or evaluation of a text

Analogy

a comparison between two things, typically for the purpose of explanation or clarification.

Episode

a distinct action or series of actions within a plot.

Simile

a figure of speech comparing two unlike things that is often introduced by like or as. A simile is figure of speech. Example: "The king's son, Ferdinand / with hair up-staring,—then like reeds, not hair, / Was the first man that leap'd; cried, 'Hell is empty / And all the devils are here" (1.2.213-216). This simile compares reeds to hair.

Anecdote

a form of narrative; a brief recounting of a relevant episode. Anecdotes are often inserted into fictional or non-fictional texts as a way of providing an example or injecting humor.

Patch-writing

a form of plagiarism in which the writer rearranges phrases and tenses from a source text, but still relies heavily on the vocabulary and syntax of the source material

Foreshadowing

a hint about what will happen at a later moment in the plot.

Bibliography

a list of references and sources that appears at the end of an academic paper or report. Bibliographies include all of the sources referred to in the process of researching a piece of writing

Parenthetical Citation

a method of documenting a source in MLA style that includes the citation information within parentheses, outside of the quotation itself, but before the final punctuation mark of a sentence

Flashback

a plot-structuring device in which a scene from the fictional past is inserted into the fictional present or is presented out of order.

Flash forward

a plot-structuring device whereby a scene from the fictional future or inserted into the fictional present or is presented out of order.

Rhetorical Question

a question asked in order to create a dramatic effect or to make a point rather than to get an answer

Subplot

a secondary plot in a work of fiction (usually contributes in some way to the central plot)

Simple sentence

a sentence consisting of only one clause, with a single subject and predicate.

Balanced sentence

a sentence in which two parallel elements are set off against each other like equal weights on a scale. Both parts are parallel grammatically. Balanced sentences employ coordination I like muffins and I like coffee. I like that it's raining today, and I like that I'm wearing shoes.

Voice (active or passive)

a sentence is in the active voice when the predicate expresses an action performed by its subject. A sentence is in the passive voice when it expresses an action performed upon its subject or when the subject is the result of an action.

Tricolon

a series of three parallel words, phrases, or clauses. Plural: tricolons or tricola: "With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in ..." Abraham Lincoln.

Parable

a simple story used to illustrate a moral or spiritual lesson Example: The story of the bug resurrecting for an applewood table some sixty years after the egg was placed in the tree from the conclusion of Walden

Discriminated occasion

a specific, concrete moment portrayed in a fictional work, often signalled through time references.

Paradox

a statement or proposition that, despite sound (or apparently sound) reasoning from acceptable premises, leads to a conclusion that seems senseless, logically unacceptable, or self-contradictory. Example: "A man is rich in proportion to the number of things which he can afford to let alone" (Thoreau "Where I Lived ..." 66).

Thesis

a statement or theory that is put forward as a premise to be maintained or proved

Nuance

a subtle difference in or shade of meaning, expression, or sound

Documentation

a system used for giving readers information about where the writer found the sources he/she used in an academic paper, a research paper, or a technical report. A writer can document her sources informally by making references to her sources in the text of her writing, and/or she can employ a more formal mode of documentation. In AP English Language & Composition, we use the MLA style guide to document sources

Pun

also called paronomasia, is a form of word play that exploits multiple meanings of a term, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. Example: "The luxuriously rich are not simply kept comfortably warm, they are cooked, of course à la mode"

Indirect Citation

an indirect citation or secondary source is when the ideas of one author are published in another author's text but you have not read or accessed the original author's work. Include both the original author and the author of the work where quote/idea was found in the in-text reference

Currency

another of the characteristics of reputable secondary sources is that they are current. A general rule of thumb is to use sources published in the past ten years for research in the arts, humanities, literature, and history.

Reliability

another of the characteristics of reputable sources. Reliable sources provide factual information and make claims with bases in reality. Reliable sources lack bias, and cite the sources of their ideas

Secondary Source

are one step removed from primary sources, though they often quote or otherwise use primary sources. They can cover the same topic, but add a layer of interpretation and analysis. In the discipline of English, secondary sources are articles, books, or other pieces of writing about works of fiction, poetry, drama, or prose.

Character and characterization

conflicts or illustrations that play out in narrative often do so by way of characters. Characterization the art and technique of representing fictional characters. Direct characterization is when a narrator explicitly tells the reader what a character is like. Indirect characterization is when a character's traits are revealed implicitly, through his or her speech, behavior, speech, and so on.

Compound sentence

contains at least two independent clauses but no dependent clauses

Complex sentence

contains only one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. Complex sentences employ subordination.

Textual Evidence

evidence, gathered from a primary source, that supports an argument or thesis. Such evidence can be found in the form of a quotation, paraphrased material, and descriptions of the text

Primary Source

immediate, first-hand accounts of a topic, from people who had a direct connection with that topic. In the discipline of English, primary sources are works of fiction, poetry, drama, or prose.

Tone

in written composition, is an attitude of a writer toward a subject or an audience. Tone is generally conveyed through the choice of words, or the perspective of a writer on a particular subject.

Aphorism

is a brief saying or phrase that expresses an opinion or makes a statement of wisdom without the flowery language of a proverb. Aphorism comes from a Greek word meaning "definition." Example: "A goose is a goose still, dress it as you will"

Clause

is a collection of grammatically-related words including a subject and a predicate (though sometimes the subject is implied). Clauses are the building blocks of sentences: every sentence consists of one or more clauses. There are two types of clauses: Independent clauses: can (as their name implies) stand on their own as sentences. Or they can be linked together, either with other independent clauses or with dependent clauses. Dependent clauses: consist of a subject and predicate and a subordinating conjunction. Dependent clauses need to be linked with an independent clause in order to make sense.

Polysyndeton

is a literary technique in which conjunctions are used repeatedly in quick succession, often with no commas, even when the conjunctions could be removed. Polysyndeton is often used to change the rhythm of the text, and can convey either a sense of gravity or excitement. It can also be used to intentionally overwhelm the reader, giving her very little room for mentally or visually breathing with the lack of commas. Example: " They are not green like the pines, nor gray like the stones, nor blue like the sky; but they have, to my eyes, if possible, yet rarer colors, like flowers and precious stones, as if they were the pearls, the animalized nuclei or crystals of the Walden water"

Coordination

is a method of combining clauses or sentences. Coordination means combining two sentences or ideas that are of equal value. Coordinate clauses or sentences using coordinating conjunctions, semicolons, or periods. When you use sentence structure to coordinate the ideas in adjoining clauses or sentences, you are demonstrating that they are equally important to the meaning you are trying to express. Coordinated sentences are also called balanced sentences. Example: Kelly loves peanut butter but her husband is allergic to it.

Subordination

is a method of combining clauses or sentences. Subordination means combining two clauses or ideas in a way that makes one more important than the other. Subordinate one clause to another using a subordinating conjunction. When you use sentence structure to subordinate one clause to another, you are demonstrating that one relies on another for its meaning. Example: Kelly loves peanut butter because her husband is allergic to it.

Paraphrase

is a restating of the key ideas of a source text. Paraphrase is more specific than summary, because where summary focuses on one main idea or central conflict, paraphrase provides a relatively concise overview of several key ideas in a source

Chiasmus

is a rhetorical device in which two or more clauses are balanced against each other by the reversal of their structures in order to produce an artistic effect. Example: "I am wont to think that men are not so much the keepers of herds as herds are keepers of men"

Mixed construction

is a sentence that begins with one grammatical structure and then switches to another (i.e. begins with an imperative structure and then shifts to a declarative structure). Mixed constructions lead to parallelism errors, and should be avoided. Example: My students asked me when would we start to read The Great Gatsby.

Asyndeton

is the intentional omission of a conjunction such as "and" or "as" from a series of related words, phrases, or clauses. The function of asyndeton is usually to accelerate a passage and emphasize the significance of the relation between these clauses. Example: "... dying today, insolvent; seeking to curry favor, to get custom, by how many modes, only not state-prison offences; lying, flattering, voting, contracting yourselves into a nutshell of civility or dilating into an atmosphere of thin and vaporous generosity, that you may persuade your neighbor to let you make his shoes"

Invention

is the process of coming up with material for a text. In contemporary contexts invention deals both with the research process that gives rise to a text's content and also the elements of historical, cultural, and social context that the writer draws on to inform her message. How does the writer's relationship with the audience shape the message? How well does a communication anticipate counterarguments? How does the text's primary mode of discourse shape the message?

Style (or elocution)

is the process of coming up with the actual words that will be used in a text. As in all rhetoric, style the manner in which an author uses and chooses words, shapes ideas, and forms sentences

Memory

is the process of committing a text to memory. Although this canon is not as applicable to writing as it is to oratory, there are still occasions when writers must memorize their texts in order to make the delivery (the fifth canon) more effective. In a contemporary context, memory relates to how well a speaker or author knows their stuff: how well has she read the source text? Does the communication synthesize information from various sources effectively? Does a communication's reiteration of source material do it justice?

Arrangement

is the process of deciding how to order the material in a text to maximize the effect of your argument. Arrangement in Aristotelian rhetoric corresponds in many ways to line of reasoning/logic of argument in the language of the College Board. All of these concepts deal with the way that elements of an argument relate to and build on one another

Delivery

is the process of presenting a text to an audience. Like memory, delivery is less prominent in writing than in oratory; however, there are many occasions when writers must think of how to best deliver their texts

In-text citation

is when a writer provides the information that would otherwise be included in a parenthetical citation in the signal phrase to a quotation, or the syntax surrounding a summary or paraphrase (i.e. on page 562 James Kafka writes). In general, it is desirable not to reference edition-specific information (page numbers, line numbers, etc.) in-text. However, if you do reference all of the relevant information in-text, then you can dispense with your parenthetical citation

Imperative sentence

issues a command. "Don't tell me, old sport"

Authority

one of the characteristics of reputable secondary sources is that they come from a place of authority. Authoritative secondary sources are created by their author (not compilations of ideas from other authors, unless those ideas are properly documented). The authors of authoritative secondary sources are well-versed in the conventions of the field that they write about. Authoritative sources are published/sponsored by institutions whose interests are academic, rather than commercial, and they lack advertisements.

Bias

prejudice in favor of or against one thing, person, or group compared with another, usually in a way considered to be unfair. Good academic writing (and therefore reputable secondary sources) lacks institutional and commercial bias

Interrogative sentence

sentences incorporating interrogative pronouns (what, which, who, whom, and whose). "Look here, old sport ... What's your opinion of me, anyhow?"

Declarative sentence

states an idea. It does not give a command or request, nor does it ask a question. "It takes two to make an accident" (Chapter 3).

Peroration

the concluding part of a speech, typically intended to inspire enthusiasm in the audience. The peroration often uses pathos to evoke emotion.

Pacing

the duration of particular episodes in a literary work.

Definition

the form of exposition in which a writer demonstrates the essential nature of a purpose, place, object, or concept by explaining the qualities that make it special and distinguish it from everything else

Process analysis

the form of exposition in which a writer explains step by step how something is done.

Comparison and contrast

the form of exposition in which two or more things are considered in light of their similarities (comparison) and differences (contrast)

cause and effect

the form of exposition that consists of arguing from the presence or absence of the cause to the existence or nonexistence of the effect or result or, conversely, in arguing from an effect to its probable causes

Division and classification

the form of exposition that thinks about a subject by breaking the subject into smaller segments (division) and then orienting those segments as a part of a larger group or group with shared features (classification).

Exordium

the introductory part of an argument (or other mode of discourse), the purpose of which is to put the audience's mind at ease. The exordium is often the part of an argument where the narrator lays out her ethos. The Classical handbook of persuasion, the Ad Herennium lays out four methods for bringing the audience/reader around: "by discussing our own person, the person of our adversaries, that of our hearers, and the facts themselves."

Exposition

the mode of rhetoric and discourse that seeks to expose, inform, or instruct, or to present ideas and general truths objectively. Exposition can incorporate any of the following organizational patterns

Proof

the part of an argument that lays out the logos, or hard evidence. The Ad Herennium lays out two different kinds of proof: technical proofs, which are arguments that the narrator contrives (like analogies or anecdotes) and non-technical proofs, which are arguments that the narrator takes from a precedent (primary source material, secondary source material, facts and figures).

Division

the part of an argument that lays out the salient points of an argument, like what our introduction model calls the summary of argument.

Narration

the part of an argument that provides context and/or defines the terms of the argument. The narration of an argument, therefore, often uses definition, but it also often seeks to spin, or frame the terms of the argument. The narration may be where the narrator lays out the premise of her argument.

Plagiarism

the practice of taking someone else's work or ideas without properly attributing it/them

Direct Citation

the practice of taking text from a source and attributing the borrowed text, using quotation marks and an in-text or parenthetical citation

Attribution

the process of giving credit to the sources of your ideas or evidence in an academic paper, a research paper, or a technical report by citing them

Anaphora

the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses. Anaphora is used for emphasis, or sometimes to demonstrate variety within parts of a whole.

Syntax

the way in which linguistic elements (such as words) are put together to form constituents (such as phrases or clauses) in order to create meaning in a sentence.

Purpose

the writer's broad goal for a text

Parallel Structure

using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance. This can happen at the word, phrase, or clause level. The usual way to join parallel structures is by using a coordinating conjunction. Example: "... that you may persuade your neighbor to let you make his shoes, or his hat, or his coat, or his carriage, or import his groceries for him"