ap psych midterm

Pataasin ang iyong marka sa homework at exams ngayon gamit ang Quizwiz!

Which of the following is a circadian rhythm?

A cycle of biological functioning that lasts about 25 hours

The depletion of which of the following neurotransmitters is most closely associated with the symptoms of Alzheimer's disease?

Acetylcholine

Sally says that her dream about going to a circus is just her brain attempting to make sense of random stimulation from the brain stem. Sally's explanation is consistent with which of the following theories of dreaming?

Activation-synthesis

Electrically stimulating a rat's amygdala would most likely produce which of the following?

Aggression

Which of the following statements concerning sleep is valid?

Individuals do not typically act out their dreams.

If an individual has lost the ability to feel pain in the left arm, there is most likely damage to what area of the brain?

Right parietal lobe

Elizabeth picks up the clothes from her bedroom floor and puts them away to avoid her mother's repeated nagging. Elizabeth's behavior is being influenced by

negative reinforcement

Dopamine, norepinephrine, and acetylcholine are all

neurotransmitters that excite or inhibit a neural signal across a synapse

The brain's ability to adapt after it is damaged is known as

plasticity

Which of the following is an explanation of why travelers suffer from jet lag?

There is a disruption in their circadian rhythm.

In a set of studies, Ivan Pavlov first touched a dog lightly on the side of its body and a few seconds later placed vinegar on the dog's tongue. The vinegar made the dog salivate. After several pairings of touch and vinegar, the dog began to salivate as soon as it was touched and before it was given the vinegar. In these studies which of the following was the conditioned stimulus?

Touch to the body

Damage to the cerebellum would most likely result in which of the following problems?

A loss of motor coordination

Which of the following is classified as an antagonist?

A tricyclic antidepressant, because they block serotonin and norepinephrine transporters.

For every twenty cell phones that Tom sells, he will get a $50 bonus. The bonuses are an example of which of the following types of reinforcement schedules?

Fixed ratio

The nature-nurture issue is best exemplified by which of the following questions?

Is level of intelligence the result of one's environment and specific learning, or is it a result of biological maturation?

In adult humans, which of the following is typically true of REM sleep?

It is correlated with dreaming.

A sudden inability to remember how to tie a certain kind of knot indicates a deficit in which kind of memory?

Procedural

Which of the following is NOT a product of learning?

Squinting in bright light

Based only on the variable described for each of the following pairs of individuals, which individuals are most likely to show different facial expressions when experiencing the same emotion?

Two individuals who are from different cultures that have different display rules for the emotion

A person will most likely develop aphasia as a result of damage to which of the following parts of the brain?

Wernicke's area

Which of the following best describes the primacy effect?

When people have better recall of things that occur at the beginning of a sequence.

Jerome does not like his English teacher, and he believes that the teacher thinks that he is not a good student. As a result, Jerome slouches at his desk and gazes out the window instead of paying attention in class. Jerome's behavior is most representative of

a self-fulfilling prophecy

The principles of operant conditioning are best illustrated by

a token economy to reinforce adaptive behaviors

Reuptake of a neurotransmitter refers to

absorption of the neurotransmitter into the terminal buttons of the sending neuron

The explanation that holds that dreams are merely the brain's attempt to make sense of meaningless patterns of brain activity during sleep is called the

activation-synthesis theory

During English class, Caleb is worried about an unfinished history project he needs to turn in later in the day. While the English teacher and other students discuss a short story the class just read, Caleb's attention is focused on how to finish the history project. The next day he is unable to recall the short story details presented in English class. The recall problem is most likely due to

encoding failure

Chuck recalls the day last summer when he fell off his bicycle and scraped his knee. This is an example of

episodic memory

Barney is a somewhat distractible second-grade student who finds schoolwork a bit boring. After a couple of minutes of working silently, Barney often starts to misbehave until his teacher, Ms. Skinner, calls his name and scolds him. However, he enjoys this attention from her and continues to misbehave. With respect to Barney's misbehavior, Ms. Skinner's attention serves as

positive reinforcement

In elementary school, Lisa learned to speak some Japanese in addition to English. As a sophomore in high school, Lisa took a class in Chinese. She found that some of the new vocabulary was difficult to learn because her earlier Japanese vocabulary was competing with the new Chinese words. This situation best illustrates

proactive interference

People who have difficulty remembering recently learned materials because of similar information learned earlier in life are demonstrating the phenomenon of

proactive interference

According to research on motivation, employers are most likely to ensure high performance and job satisfaction from their workers if the employers

redesign jobs to increase workers' responsibility and flexibility

Ted is hiking along a mountain trail when he sees a large snake slithering across the path ahead of him. According to the James-Lange theory, after seeing the snake, Ted will most likely

start trembling and then feel fear without explicitly processing the snake

Hunger and eating are primarily regulated by which of the following?

The hypothalamus

Damage to which of the following brain structures may cause the inability to detect the emotional significance of facial expressions, especially those demonstrating fear?

Amygdala

The following item refers to a snake frightening Ted. Ted is hiking along a mountain trail when he sees a large snake slithering across the path ahead of him. Which of the following brain structures is most closely associated with Ted's fear response?

Amygdala

Malia is 10 years of age, and her grandmother, Anna Rosa, is 60 years old. Which statement is likely to be true concerning their sleep patterns?

Anna Rosa sleeps fewer hours per day than Malia does.

Which of the following correctly pairs subdivisions within the major divisions of the human nervous system?

Autonomic . . sympathetic and parasympathetic

Areas that have a large prevalence of malaria, such as Africa, have a high frequency of children who have sickle cell anemia or are carriers of the trait. What role does the concept of natural selection play in this trend?

Being a carrier of, or having sickle cell anemia is adaptive in this region, because it protects against malaria. Subsequently, children born with sickle cell anemia are less likely to die from malaria.

Sam has shown some marked changes in the way he is able to communicate after having a stroke. He knows what he wants to say, but his speech is slow and labored. Sam's grammar is also quite poor. The part of Sam's brain that most likely sustained damage is

Broca's area

Which of the following parts of the brain is most active in decision-making?

Cerebral cortex

Which of the following allows the examination of living brain tissue visually without performing surgery?

Computerized axial tomography

A person with damage to Broca's area would most likely demonstrate which of the following symptoms?

Difficulty with speech production

Neurotransmitters that function like the drug morphine and are involved in pain modulation include which of the following?

Endorphins

Which of the following groups of characteristics best describes the REM sleep stage?

Fast breathing, relatively high heart rate, relatively high blood pressure

Jeff lives in the United States, and he recently flew to Spain. Even after sleeping for several hours on the flight, he still felt lethargic for a few days. If Jeff has not caught an illness, which of the following is the most likely explanation for his physical response?

His circadian rhythm has been disrupted.

Juana accidentally touched a hot iron. She immediately drew back her hand. Which of the following is true about the withdrawal of her hand?

It was initiated in the spinal cord.

REM sleep, generally an "active" state of sleep, is accompanied by which of the following paradoxical characteristics?

Lowered muscle tone

Rafael has a sleep disorder for which he takes medically prescribed amphetamines. For which of the following sleep disorders is Rafael most likely being treated?

Narcolepsy

Beth received a hemispherectomy to treat a seizure disorder when she was two years old. However, by the time she was five years old, her cognitive abilities were the same as those of a neurotypical five year old. Which of the following best explains her abilities?

Neuroplasticity

Which of the following terms refers to the brain's ability to physically change over time in reaction to experiences?

Neuroplasticity

Which of the following are involved in regulating circadian rhythms?

Photoreceptors, hypothalamus, pineal gland

Which of the following provides information regarding brain function by monitoring the brain at work through metabolism of glucose?

Positron emission tomography (PET)

Significant damage to which of the following parts of the brain will most likely cause a person to fall into a deep coma from which the person will be unable to awaken?

Reticular formation

The drugs that block the reabsorption of neurotransmitters in the synapse during neural transmission are

SSRIs

A patient reports constant sleepiness. A series of tests reveal that the patient's sleep is frequently disrupted by periods of interrupted breathing and brief awakenings. Which of the following diagnoses would account for such symptoms?

Sleep apnea

During the night, Alicia stops breathing repeatedly, frequently gasps for air, and snores loudly at regular intervals. Alicia is most likely suffering from which of the following conditions?

Sleep apnea

Which of the following are NOT part of a neuron?

Synapses

What hormone seems to be most closely linked with aggressive behavior?

Testosterone

Split-brain research has illustrated which of the following?

The left hemisphere of the brain is responsible for language in most people.

Sara had an argument with her coworker, Adam. That night, Sara had a dream that she was shopping at a mall and Adam was in every store in which she shopped. A psychoanalyst would say that Adam's being at the mall in her dream was an example of which of the following?

The manifest content

Which of the following occurs when a neuron is stimulated to its threshold?

The movements of sodium and potassium ions across the membrane creates an action potential.

Neurotransmitters are typically stored in which of the following parts of a neuron?

The terminal buttons

Which of the following assertions is best supported by empirical evidence?

The two cerebral hemispheres are specialized to process different types of cognitive tasks.

The biological clock that operates in human beings to adjust their functioning to night-and-day periodicity is referred to as

a circadian rhythm

An individual was admitted to the hospital after experiencing a mild tingling on the right side ofthe face and a sudden inability to speak. Using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), a doctor would likely find

an abnormality in the brain tissue of the left hemisphere

A drug that has the effect of intensifying or mimicking a particular neurotransmitter can be characterized as

an agonist, because it intensifies the effects of a particular neurotransmitter

Judy believes that her fate is determined by her own actions. Judy's belief best illustrates

an internal locus of control

Curare blocks action at acetylcholine synapses and causes paralysis. This drug is an example of an

antagonist

Difficulty in typing smoothly on a keyboard would most likely result from damage to the

cerebellum

The autonomic nervous system is most directly involved in

digesting food

Incentive theories of motivation explain the desire of people to achieve goals in terms of

external stimuli that have the capacity to affect behavior

Sigmund Freud believed that dream analysis was a useful device for

gaining insight into unconscious motives

The brain scans of people with amnesia are most likely to show damage to the

hippocampus

The part of the endocrine system that is responsible for overseeing and regulating the release of hormones across the entire body is the

hypothalamus

The pituitary gland is controlled by the

hypothalamus

Sleep paralysis typically occurs in people who are

in REM sleep

Brain lateralization refers to the

inclination for certain cognitive processes to be specialized to one hemisphere of the brain or the other

The primary effect of the myelin sheath is to

increase the velocity of conduction of the action potential along the axon

Many common antidepressants ease symptoms of depression by

inhibiting serotonin reuptake, which makes serotonin more available

The area of the brain stem that is important in controlling breathing is the

medulla

The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed into the neuron after it fires is called

reuptake

The division of the nervous system that most directly allows voluntary muscle movement is the

somatic

Ben was enjoying a walk in the woods on a beautiful Saturday afternoon. As he went around a curve, he noticed a bear walking toward him. Immediately his pupils dilated, he began to perspire, and his heart accelerated. These changes are most closely related to the function of the

sympathetic nervous system

Immediately after firing, a neuron is incapable of responding to stimulation. This condition is referred to as

the absolute refractory phase

During neuronal firing, the part of the neuron that acts as an insulator and conductor to speed the electrical impulse as it travels down the axon is

the myelin sheath

The time shortly after a neuron fires is referred to as

the refractory period

Damage to the occipital lobe would most likely affect a person's

vision

Damage to a small part of the occipital lobe would most likely result in a

visual deficit

Which of the following responses was most likely acquired through classical conditioning?

A child's fear of dogs after the child has been bitten by a dog

Which of the following is the best example of shaping?

A teacher rewards a student for sitting quietly for ten minutes on Monday, fifteen minutes on Tuesday, twenty minutes on Wednesday, and thirty minutes on Thursday.

Gustav was out for his daily walk when he was approached by a thief who demanded his wallet. He immediately felt an increase in his breathing and heart rate. Which of the following accurately describes Gustav's physiological response?

Alarm reaction

Which of the following scenarios best demonstrates the role of context effects in memory?

Amy studied for a vocab test in the same classroom and at the same time of day as the normal class, and she performed better than students who studied in different classrooms under different conditions.

Which of the following best supports the hypothesis that basic human emotions, such as sadness, are innate?

Basic emotions are understood and expressed in a similar fashion by individuals from diverse cultures.

Xander can no longer stomach the taste of sushi after he vomited from eating a spoiled serving of it. However, the appearance of sushi does not make him sick. Which of the following best accounts for why Xander becomes sick upon tasting sushi but not seeing sushi?

Biological predisposition, because this example illustrates taste aversion.

During a political debate, Candidate A expresses detailed facts on an important issue. Candidate B responds with an emotional appeal on the same issue. Which method of persuasion is each candidate using?

Candidate A is using the central route, and Candidate B is using the peripheral route.

After school, George and his friends complain of intense hunger. They go to George's home and immediately open his refrigerator to look for a snack. Which of the following is a theory of motivation that best explains their behavior?

Drive reduction

Homeostasis is most closely associated with which motivation theory?

Drive-reduction theory

An individual experiencing a low blood-glucose level would be best advised to do which of the following?

Eat a snack

Which of the following psychologists is most strongly associated with research on false memories?

Elizabeth Loftus

Dr. Rudolph's class has a big test coming up next week. Which of the following students is using a studying strategy that is most likely to lead to memory consolidation?

Elizabeth studies for a half hour before she goes to bed each night the week before the exam.

In the James-Lange theory of emotion, which of the following immediately precedes an emotion?

Experience of physiological changes

A rat always completes a maze successfully but is only rewarded every third trial. The rat is being rewarded using which of the following reinforcement schedules?

Fixed-ratio

Four-year-old Scott fell down the stairs at his grandmother's house. Although he was not badly hurt, he was very frightened. Now, whenever his parents mention visiting his grandmother's house, he feels anxious and fearful. In classical conditioning terms, what are the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in the scenario, respectively?

Grandmother's house; falling

A hostile person with a type A personality is most at risk for developing which of the following?

Heart disease

After Doug witnessed two cars involved in a car accident, a police officer asked Doug how fast the cars were going when the accident happened. According to research by Elizabeth Loftus, which of the following questions could the officer ask that would make Doug most susceptible to the misinformation effect?

How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other.

Hillary glances at a graph and then turns her head away less than a second later. When she tries to immediately remember what she saw, which of the following types of memory does Hillary use?

Iconic memory

Emiko's cat often meows for food. Emiko decides to eliminate the behavior by feeding the cat only when it does not meow. Over the next few weeks, she sometimes ignores the cat when it meows. Other times, she feeds the cat when it meows. Which of the following is the most reasonable prediction to make about the cat's meowing for food?

It will increase due to a variable schedule of reinforcement.

Which of the following is the best example of the learning principle of reinforcement?

James drank coffee before he took and passed a difficult test with a high grade, so now he drinks coffee before every test he takes because he believes doing so will help him score well on the tests.

Jasmine is worried about an upcoming exam. Which scenario best illustrates emotion-focused coping?

Jasmine reaches out to her friends for comfort to reduce her stress.

Which of the following best illustrates Ebbinghaus' forgetting curve?

Laurence studied for his first Spanish test by sitting down and cramming for two hours, and he studied for the second Spanish test by spacing out his studying for 30 minutes over the course of a week. He did better on the second test than the first.

Leo and Caitlin are both experiencing feelings about their date tonight. Leo has had bad dates lately, and so he feels fear and dejection. Caitlin, meanwhile, has had very good dates, and so she feels excited and happy. According to Richard Lazarus' appraisal theory,

Leo and Caitlin have an immediate unconscious interpretation of the scenario, which leads them to simultaneously both label their feelings as either positive or negative and have the appropriate physiological response

When studying for a vocabulary test, Catherine read one of her vocabulary words and its definition aloud several times. About twenty seconds later, she still remembered the word's meaning, but then she moved on to the next word in the list without engaging in any further strategies to enhance her memory. The next day, she tested herself on the same vocabulary word at the same time, in the same mood, and in the same location as when she had first studied the word, but she could not remember its definition. It is most likely that Catherine could not remember the word because she failed to engage which of the following memory functions?

Long-term memory, because Catherine failed to encode the word, therefore, the word did not become part of her long term memory.

Which of the following most clearly demonstrates social learning theory?

Mavis learns a line dance by watching her friends perform it.

Which of the following behaviors best demonstrates an emotional response associated with the short route from the thalamus to the amygdala, as described by Joseph LeDoux?

Miguel jumps up on a chair because he thinks he sees something moving along the wall. When he realizes it was just a dust ball, he gets off the chair.

Taking a painkiller to relieve a toothache is behavior learned through which of the following processes?

Negative reinforcement

A researcher wants to test whether increasing the size of a monetary incentive will motivate a person to perform better on a skill-based task. Which of the following methods is the best way to test this question, and what result will the researcher most likely find?

Offer three different groups of participants three different payment amounts (small, medium, or large) based on their performance on a single task. The researcher will likely find that participants perform best on the task that pays the most.

In the morning, Jorge watched a cartoon about a sarcastic rabbit. Later, in his psychology class, he viewed the image above and readily identified it as a rabbit instead of a duck. Which of the following best explains this phenomenon?

Priming

In which of the following scenarios is someone showing evidence of extinction in classical conditioning?

Randy was always worried about his exams in high school and felt anxiety when in the building. However, now that he is a teacher at the same high school the anxiety has gone away.

Melvin, a server at a restaurant, is in the middle of a lunch rush. He is completing orders, serving customers, and seating new guests. He has adapted to this level of stress and is coping. Which of the following terms identifies a stage in Hans Selye's general adaptation syndrome that Melvin is currently experiencing?

Resistance

Melinda went skydiving. As soon as she landed, a handsome man helped her gather her parachute. Melinda's heart was beating quickly and her hands were perspiring. Melinda inferred that she must be attracted to him. Which of the following is a theory of emotion that would best explain the relationship between Melinda's physiological state and her apparent attraction to the man that helped her?

Schachter two-factor

When given a drug that produced general arousal, research participants placed in a room with a happy confederate described their emotional state as happy, while those placed in a room with an angry confederate described their emotional state as angry. Which theory of emotion best explains these results?

Schachter-Singer

Which of the following kinds of learning is indicated by the ability to recall a memorized list of unrelated words in reverse order?

Serial Learning

The terms "modeling" and "imitation" are most closely associated with which of the following?

Social learning theory

Drive reduction as a motivational concept is best exemplified by which of the following?

The injection of heroin by an addict to avoid withdrawal symptoms

When Jeremy hears that his neighbor's house has been robbed, he argues that the neighbor deserved it because he leaves his expensive electronics out where people can see them. Jeremy's belief is best explained by which of the following cognitive biases?

The just-world hypothesis

According to Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer's theory of emotion, which of the following is true?

The same physiological response can produce different emotions, depending on the context within which the response occurs and a person's interpretation of that context.

Karl goes to see Dr. Norton to help him overcome his fear of cats. Karl's fear began in childhood when he petted a cat and someone slammed a door. Every time Karl petted the cat, the door slammed. Now whenever Karl sees a cat, he becomes very anxious. In the development of Karl's fear of cats, what was the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) ?

The slamming of the door

Which of the following explanations most clearly demonstrates an internal attribution for the reason a student fell asleep in class?

The student does not care about the class.

Firefighters are often required to walk through local buildings and drive trucks around the areas they serve as part of their training. The most likely purpose of this type of training is to develop

a cognitive map

A cancer patient becomes nauseated following chemotherapy treatments. After a few treatments, the patient begins having a sick feeling whenever entering the treatment room. The treatment room has become

a conditioned stimulus

Amanda experienced discomfort in class. She put on a sweater when she realized her discomfort was caused by the cold. Her behavior was motivated by

a drive

When a child behaves well for an entire day, the child earns a star. After acquiring fifteen stars, the child is allowed to pick a prize from a toy chest. The star is best described as

a secondary reinforcer

When Julie's boyfriend bought her a nice present, she thought, "He buys me presents because he's such a nice person." This kind of explanation is referred to as

an attribution

A complex pattern of organized, unlearned behavior that is species-specific is called

an instinct

A brain tumor that results in obesity would most likely be located in the

area of the hypothalamus

Individuals exhibiting a hostile type A personality pattern are at an increased risk for

cardiovascular disease

Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer view emotion as resulting from

cognitive labels of physiological changes

A mental image of a spatial layout is called

cognitive map

Hans grew up in Germany and later moved to Japan for a job opportunity. Back at home, he never had issues making friends or had interpersonal issues with colleagues at work, but in his new home, Hans is having difficulty interacting with his colleagues. According to psychologists who study how culture influences behavior, his difficulties most likely stem from

cultural differences in emotional expression and body language between Japan and Germany

On Diane's first day of work she was offered a cookie. When she bit into the cookie, it tasted horrible, but because she wanted to make a good impression, Diane concealed her disgust and smiled instead. Diane's reaction best illustrates

display rules

The neurotransmitter that is primarily associated with the feeling of wanting something is

dopamine

Danielle was laid off from her job six months ago and has been unsuccessful at finding a new one. The income from her long hours of temp work barely covers her bills. She has begun to have frequent cold and flu symptoms and has become depressed. Danielle is most likely in the stage of Hans Selye's general adaptation syndrome known as

exhaustion

The final stage of general adaptation theory is known as

exhaustion

The view that human emotions are universal has been supported by studies of

facial expressions

B. F. Skinner's claim that the environment determines an individual's behavior was criticized for

failing to acknowledge cognitive influences on behavior

Chuck is walking down the street and someone asks him to sign a petition to put clean-air legislation on the next ballot. He decides to sign the petition. Then the person asks whether he would like to give a donation to the associated environmental group. This technique is known as

foot in the door

A researcher shows the same video of an automobile accident to two different groups of participants. Participants in group one are asked: "Did you see a broken headlight?" Participants in group two are asked: "Did you see the broken headlight?" The researcher finds that participants in group two are much more likely to recall having seen a broken headlight, even though there actually was no broken headlight in the video. The researcher is investigating the effects of which of the following on recall?

framing

Ahmet is allergic to dogs. While in the toy store he sees a stuffed toy dog and has an allergic reaction. Ahmet's reaction to the toy best demonstrates the process of

generalization

Andrene is having difficulties with her roommate. A problem-focused coping strategy for Andrene would be

going directly to her roommate to see if they can work things out

Theories of motivation that assert the existence of biological motives to maintain the body in a steady state are called

homeostatic

When Amy was seven years of age, she had a babysitter from France. During this time Amy learned to speak a little French. Years later, when Amy got to college, she signed up for a beginning French class. Amy learned the material in her French class much more quickly than her classmates did. Amy's rapid learning was most likely due to

implicit memory

Dylan has difficulty solving a physics problem in class. The next day, he suddenly thinks of a solution to the problem as he is watching a friend play the guitar. The thought process that Dylan experienced is an example of

insight learning

Carla tutors other students because she likes to be helpful, whereas Jane tutors classmates strictly for pay. Their behaviors demonstrate the difference between

intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

An animal will gain weight when

its ventromedial hypothalamus is damaged

In the first part of an experiment, one group of rats received reinforcement after correctly navigating a maze. A second group received no reinforcement after wandering around the maze. In the next part, both groups received reinforcement after navigating the maze. Despite not receiving reinforcement at the beginning of the experiment, the second group performed as well as the first. The learning that occurred in the second group in the absence of reinforcement is called

latent learning

In a two-phase study, participants were randomly assigned to either group A or group B. All participants were subjected to a series of irritating air puffs directed at the face. In the first phase of the study, participants in group A pressed a button that stopped the air puffs. Participants in group B pressed a button that had no effect on the air puffs. In the second phase of the study, both groups had buttons that, if pressed, would stop the air puffs.

learned helplessness

A basic assumption underlying short-term memory is that it is

limited in capacity?

After each bar press, a laboratory rat receives electric stimulation to its brain. The rate of bar pressing increases. This is an example of

positive reinforcement

The difference between divided attention and selective attention is that divided attention

requires more automatic processing than selective attention does

Learned helplessness is most likely to result when

responses have no effect on the environment

A teacher has to learn 170 new student names every year and finds it difficult to remember the names of former students. The teacher's memory problem most likely results from

retroactive interference

Carlos wants to lose weight but is having a hard time motivating himself to go to the gym after work because he enjoys watching movies after work instead. To increase his likelihood of going to the gym, Carlos should

reward himself immediately after going to the gym

When his team wins a basketball game, Joe says it is because his team is so good; however, when his team loses, he says it is because the referees made a lot of unfair calls. Joe is most clearly demonstrating

self-serving bias, because he sees his team as being better than it is

Dr. Roberts conducts a study in which one group of participants counts the number of syllables in each member of a list of twenty words, and the second group creates stories from the same set of words. When later asked to write down as many of the previously seen words as possible, the second group of participants recalls more words than the first group. This study shows the importance of

semantic encoding

The first time four-year-old Savannah attempted to make her bed, her father praised her for covering the pillow with a blanket. After a few times, her father began praising Savannah for covering the pillow and tucking in the corners of the sheet. Finally, Savannah's father praised her when she covered the pillow, tucked in the corners of the sheet, and smoothed the blanket. The process described in this scenario is known as

shaping

A child whose family owns a dog may refer to any four-legged animal as "dog." In learning theory, such behavior is known as

stimulus generalization

Karen had been working overtime to complete a project so that she could go skiing at the end of the month. On the day of her trip, Karen got sick with the flu and had to cancel. Stress hormones had most likely affected her immune system by

suppressing white blood cells called T lymphocytes

Katie is trying to explain to her parents why they should allow her to attend State University. She presents them with information on tuition, graduation and retention rates, financial aid, and enrollment. Katie is using

the central route to persuasion

The tendency to believe that another person's behavior is caused by dispositional factors rather than by environmental factors is called

the fundamental attribution error

The feeling that you know someone's name, but cannot quite recall it, is an example of

the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

Tahani is hiking in the woods and sees some movement in the trees. She immediately tenses up. A few moments later, after she realizes that the trees were just rustling in the wind, she calms down. According to Joseph LeDoux, Tahani's reaction is due to the fact that

there is a fast processing path that sends sensory information directly to the amygdala, causing Tahani's initial fear response, and a slower processing path that processes the content of sensory information first, which overrode Tahani's fear response


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