AP World History Units 7 + 8 + 9 (1900-present: Contemporary Era) - Final Exam Sem. 2

Blitzkrieg

"Lighting war", typed of fast-moving warfare used by German forces against Poland in 1939; Britain feared they would be conquered next, so they asked the U.S. for help and the U.S. sent them war materials

What are environmental changes after 1900 and their causes?

- Deforestation: caused by more land required for agriculture due to an increased need for food - Desertification: caused by droughts, deforestation, and harmful agricultural techniques - Decline in air quality: caused by industrial byproducts being released into the environment (example: the Great Smog in London) - Increased pressure on fresh water supply: caused by increasing pollution of water - Increased global temperature: caused by industrial emissions and all of the above conditions

What are the negative effects of globalization?

- Environmental degradation - Threat to national sovereignty - Human rights abuses (low wages, child labor) - Social Media can lead to unrest, such as in China with the Uighurs

How did the rise of knowledge economies (economies which depend on quality and quantity of information available such as teachers and engineers) affect nations after 1900?

- Finland: shifted from an agrarian society to a knowledge economy - Japan: transitioned to a knowledge economy while still maintaining some mercantilist policies (such as exports prioritized over imports), so workers had to pay tariffs to stifle imported goods, thus resulting in labor unions for higher wages - In nations where information jobs increased, manufacturing jobs decreased, thus resulting in nations in Asia and Latin America being the primary source of manufactured goods

3 examples of migrations to metropoles after WWII

- Indians moved to England - Vietnamese and Algerians moved to France - Filipinos moved to the U.S.

What 3 war tactics caused WWI to stretch on for 4 years?

- Machine guns - Chemical warfare - Trench warfare

What were the four primary causes of WWI?

- Militarism - Alliances - Imperialism - Nationalism

3 main effects of the Cold War

- Military alliances - Proxy wars - Nuclear proliferation

What military alliances were formed as a result of the Cold War?

- North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): an alliance of countries in Western Europe against the Soviet Union - Warsaw Pact: an alliance formed by the Soviets against NATO

3 examples of proxy wars which the U.S. and Soviets were involved in

- North Korea (occupied by the Soviets) vs. South Korea (occupied by the U.S. and allies) - Angolan Civil War: rival groups in Portugal who were independent fought for power, but the U.S. and Soviets backed different sides - Contra War: The Sandinista National Liberation Front, who were socialists, seized power in Nicaragua, which the U.S. did not like, thus backing the Contras (who were against the SNLF, who were backed by the Soviets)

Examples of cultural diffusion and globalization after 1900

- Pablo Picasso reflected changes in culture in his art - Harlem Renaissance: poetry, literature, and music produced by African Americans who migrated to Harlem from the south ---> jazz music in America - International airlines and high speed trains allowed for globalization of culture - Reggae (from Jamaica) music spread with the rising popularity of artists such as Bob Marley - K-pop music rises in popularity - Hollywood and Bollywood produce American and Indian films (respectively) which globalize their cultures - Social media: instant cultural diffusion and communication (contrasts with earlier times when cultural diffusion relied on trade routes) - Olympics and the World Cup: have a very widespread viewing population

Examples of global epidemics and their sources

- Spanish Flu epidemic in 1918: many soldiers contracted this disease after WWII and brought it home to their families, thus resulting in 1/5 of the world's population being infected - HIV/AIDS - Ebola - Covid-19: spread along trade and travel routes

What were the 3 main reasons for the end of the Cold War?

- The military and technological advancement of the U.S. - The failed Soviet invasion of Afghanistan - Public discontent and economic weakness in the Soviet Union

Causes of WWII

- Treaty of Versailles was unsustainable as Germany's economy was completely ruined, Germany had to take responsibility with the War Guild Clause, and the Allied Powers occupied a part of German land - Rise of the Nazi party, which advocated for the nullification of the Treaty of Versailles and a stronger central authority - Adolf Hitler claims the Jews were the source of Germany's problems - Germany allies with Italy and Japan (Axis powers) - Germany invades multiple countries, including Poland, resulting in the Allied powers declaring war on Germany

What were the causes of U.S. and Soviet tension which led to the Cold War?

- U.S. was a capitalist economy while the Soviet Union was a communist economy - U.S. was a democracy while the Soviet Union was an authoritarian government - Americans wanted a capitalist and democratic world while the Soviets wanted a communist and authoritarian world - Each nation made others depend on them economically - The U.S. offers billions of dollars to nations to prevent them from succumbing to communism with the Marshall Plan - Western Europe was capitalist and democratic while Eastern Europe was communist and authoritarian

Treaty of Versailles

- ends WWI - required Germany to pay reparations - placed all the blame for the war on Germany

People's Republic of China

- established by Mao Zedong - redistributed land to peasants - nationalized industry

How did the use of pesticides, fertilizers, and irrigation in farming affect the agricultural industry?

- increased worldwide acreage used for farming - rise of commercial farming - small farms went into the hands of big corporations

Causes of the Mexican Revolution

- inequality, poverty, + the imprisonment of Francisco Madero by his presidential opponent Porfirio Diaz - Madero escapes and overthrows Diaz

Internal causes of the Russian Revolution

- little wealth and power - those in power failed to work on infrastructure and the implementation of voting and education rights - the Russian government kills protesters at the Bloody Sunday Massacre

External causes of the Russian Revolution

- lost the Crimean War to the Ottomans - lost the Russo-Japanese war

How have communication and transportation technologies influenced society after 1900?

- quick transmission of news from long distnaces (radio, tv, cellular technology, social media) - quick transportation of people and goods (air travel) - transportation of goods in bulk (shipping containers)

Similarities between WWI and WWII

- total wars - use of new technology such as atomic weapons - colonial armies fought for their parent countries

Truman Doctrine

1947, President Truman's policy of providing economic and military aid to any country threatened by communism or totalitarian ideology, mainly helped Greece and Turkey

Great Leap Forward

A Chinese movement initiated by communist Mao Zedong with which peasant lands were collectivized by the state (like Stalin did in Russia), and anyone who protested was sent to reeducation camps where they were killed if they did not change their perspective to that of Mao Zedong. This movement resulted in famine and death because of collectivization.

Who were the Uighurs?

A Muslim minority in China abused by the native Hans who sent them reeducation camps. The ideas on social media were though by the Chinese government to be the cause of the unrest between the two groups, so China introduces a government-censored social media site in the form of Weibo.

Khmer Rouge

A communist organization which established a communist government in Cambodia under Pol Pot, which leads to death and starvation due to famine.

Space Race

A competition of space exploration between the United States and Soviet Union during the Cold War initiated by the Soviets' launch of Sputnik in 1957 and ended with the U.S. Apollo 11 mission in 1969

Paris Peace Conference

A conference attended by the U.S., Britain, France, and Italy which was in an effort to develop a treaty to end WWI. The idea of French leader Georges Clemenceau that the losing powers should be punished and that the winning powers should be rewarded prevailed, resulting in the Treaty of Versailles

UN First World Conference on Women

A conference where representatives from all over the world met to plan steps for the advancement of women

Total war

A conflict in which the participating countries devote all their resources, both military and domestic, to the war effort (ex: women worked in factories that produced war materials)

Effect of the Mexican Revolution

A constitution is established which provided for land redistribution, voting rights for all men, and public education

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

A document cerated by United Nations in 1948 which sought to protect those who had suffered under oppression

World Trade Organization (WTO)

A global institution to promote international trade, reduce trade barriers, and facilitate the globalization of the world's economy.

Bolsheviks

A group led by Vladimir Lenin which represented the oppressed working class, and overthrew the tsarist government and replaced it with a communist government

What is the World Social Forum?

A group of anti-globalists that meet yearly to protest the actions of core countries.

Negritude Movement

A movement in French West Africa which celebrates Black people and their culture

Non-Aligned Movement

A movement that established that African and Asian colonies did not want to be a part of the tensions between the U.S. and the Soviets

What is the International Peace Bureau?

A non-governmental organization which convinced nations to reduce military spending and promoted nuclear disarmament.

What is the International Committee of the Red Cross?

A non-governmental organization which responds to human needs in nations affected by war or natural disasters.

What is the Paris Agreement?

A pact which legally binds member countries to no more than a 2% increase in global temperatures

What is the Strategic Defense Initiative?

A plan established by Ronald Reagan to launch defense mechanisms into space to protect the U.S. from nuclear attacks. Although it was to expensive to actually initiate, the announcement of the plan gave the U.S. power over the Soviets.

5 Year Plans in Russia

A plan instituted by Joseph Stalin, which had a goal of industrialization to fix Russia's economic deficit. Also involved the collectivization of agriculture, which led to starvation and ultimately the failure of the plan.

Muslim League

A religious organization formed by the Muslim minority in India which advocated for an independent state for Muslims, which was Pakistan

Peru's Shining Path

A revolutionary organization created by Guzman to overthrow the Peruvian government and install a communist one (inspired by Mao Zedong and Khmer Rouge). This led to assassinations and bombings.

What are proxy wars?

A small, localized which the U.S. and Russia took sides on during the Cold War

What is a Cold War?

A state of hostility between 2 countries which does not result in open warfare but rather remains limited to the use of threats and propaganda

Apartheid

A system of segregation imposed by the White minority in South Africa resulting in brutality towards peaceful Black protestors

Zimmerman Telegram

A telegram Germany sent to Mexico to convince Mexico to attack the U.S., which was intercepted by the U.S, ultimately giving them the push to join WWI despite their previous desires to not be involved in European conflict

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

A trade alliance that promotes trade and economic integration among member nations in Southeast Asia.

"Iron smelting and steel making in the Shaoyang region of Hunan province are rapidly developing on a mass scale. In a short period in the fall of 1958, 12,378 local blast furnaces have been built in this area. The main reason for this remarkable progress in such a short time is that this region has fully carried out the Communist Party's directive to let all the people work in iron and steel production, in keeping with the party's general plan of building socialism. Iron and steel production is not simply a technical job; it is also a political task. Therefore, the first condition for the rapid increase in production was for local party leaders to have the entire party membership mobilized. When the current push to increase production began, many 'experts' wanted to have big foreign blast furnaces. They were not interested in building small local furnaces. They thought we should wait until we've had the opportunity to buy elaborate equipment. Actually, that line of thinking would have resulted in producing less, more slowly, and more expensively. Under the timely guidance of the Party, those tendencies were firmly rejected and the policy of throwing all resources into iron and steel production and letting political cadres take charge was carried out. The strength of the masses is tremendous. All the problems of funds, raw materials, equipment, provisions, etc., which in the past seemed so hard to solve, disappeared before the resourcefulness of the people. In one Hunan county, 67,000 people worked non-stop for three days and nights and built 1025 blast furnaces. Many people, hearing the Party's call, walked over 30 miles to join the work, carrying timber and bamboo and their own food and clothes. In the town of Szetu, local people collected more than 1.6 million yuan [Chinese unit of currency] for the iron and steel effort, with one 50-year-old woman contributing more than 200 yuan, her life savings. Shoemakers donated more than 180,000 pairs of sandals for those building the furnaces. In the town of Tienping, the people solved the housing crisis [of furnace workers coming to the town but not having a place to sleep] by vacating more than 500 rooms in their houses and turning them over to the workers. The people also composed the following song: The Communist Party is really wonderful. In three days more than a thousand furnaces were built. The American imperialists will run off, tails between legs. The Chinese people will now surpass Britain. The East wind will always prevail over the West wind." Yin Zeming, Chinese government official, The Strength of the Masses is Limitless, pamphlet published in English by the Beijing Foreign Languages Press, a Chinese government publishing house, 1958 Which of the following best explains why the passage is likely NOT a reliable source of information regarding the level of popular support and enthusiasm for the Chinese government's push for iron and steel in 1958? A. As a government official, the author would have felt compelled to overstate the success of communist policies of resource redistribution to demonstrate his loyalty to the party. B. Communist ideology typically emphasized the importance of urban industrial workers as the primary agents of revolutionary change and minimized the contributions of the peasantry. C. As a Chinese author writing in English for a Western audience, the author could have feared persecution from the Chinese communist authorities for openly expressing his views. D. Chinese peasants were likely unaware of the economic and social problems created by rapid industrialization policies in other communist countries such as the Soviet Union.

A. As a government official, the author would have felt compelled to overstate the success of communist policies of resource redistribution to demonstrate his loyalty to the party.

"The Russian strategy can be seen at work on many fronts. In Austria the Russians claim 50% of all Austrian industry. In Paris they fight for an arrangement that will allow Yugoslavia to dominate Trieste. In Berlin they carry on a continued press campaign against the Western world but ban our newspapers from the sector if they contain the slightest criticism of Soviet policy. They control the University of Berlin because it is in their sector and impose rigid political tests upon the student body, but they also control the schools of all sectors through the domination of the Berlin Magistrate, established before our entrance. Thus far, it has been impossible to eliminate their Communist textbooks from the western sectors. They always appeal to the Potsdam accord* when it serves their ends and violate it when it suits their purposes. Their officers travel in our zone, marking factory equipment for dismantlement and shipment to Russia. But what they do in their zone is shrouded in mystery and there is some evidence that they are setting this equipment up, not in Russia but in Russian Germany. With millions of troops spread through the whole of Eastern Europe, they are now engaged in a press campaign against Western armies of occupation." *an agreement reached between the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union regarding the administration and occupation of Germany following the Second World War Reinhold Niebuhr, United States theologian and political commentator, "The Fight for Germany," article published in Life magazine, 1946 Which of the following best explains Niebuhr's likely purpose in recounting Soviet actions in postwar Europe? A. By pointing out the hypocrisy of Soviet policies, he hoped to encourage a more confrontational stance on the part of the United States government. B. By recounting Soviet appropriation of German industrial equipment, he wished to demonstrate the backwardness of Soviet economic development. C. By emphasizing the geographic extent of Soviet occupation, he wished to show that Soviet troops were dangerously overextended. D. By describing the effectiveness of Soviet information and press policies, he hoped to encourage the United States government to imitate them.

A. By pointing out the hypocrisy of Soviet policies, he hoped to encourage a more confrontational stance on the part of the United States government.

Source 1: "Wartime travel brought soldiers and carriers into contact with foreign ways of life, resulting in cultural exchange. . . . There is evidence also of Hausa [a West African people] 'experiments in architecture of grass and bamboo construction' while the troops were in East Africa, as well as enthusiasm for gathering souvenirs such as cowries and other East African shells 'with the intention of presenting necklaces and waist belts to their women folk.' . . . . Contact with European science and technology was another factor that contributed to change in Nigeria. Before the war, the men know only the casual, nature-oriented time-sense of the village; army life taught them a new concept of punctuality, compatible with reveille, parades, drills, and deadlines. Many Nigerians took their first ride on a train and saw their first car, aeroplane, and motion picture. Large numbers learned to shoot and care for modern weapons—not only rifles, but machine-guns and artillery. Also, soldiers learned basic hygiene, water sterilization, and other methods of disease control and health care. Thousands of Nigerians received their first vaccination and took their first pill during the war." James K. Matthews, United States military historian, "World War I and the Rise of African Nationalism," The Journal of Modern African Studies, 1982 Source 2: "African deaths in combat can be contrasted with those suffered by the French using a variety of standards. As a percentage of all the soldiers mobilized during the war, Senegalese losses were slightly less than those incurred by the French. The picture changes significantly, however, when only combatants are considered. Using this criterion, Senegalese losses were nearly 20 per cent higher than those sustained by their French counterparts. . . . African soldiers seldom served in the cavalry, artillery, engineering and aviation units, where casualties were substantially lower. . . . If only infantry fatalities are considered, . . . French and African losses between 1914 and 1918 were virtually identical: they amounted to slightly over 22 per cent in both cases. . . . This interpretation . . . neglects, however, to consider [that] . . . the Senegalese were not employed in significant numbers as combatants in Europe before July 1916. Prior to this time, African losses accounted for less than 10 per cent of their eventual wartime total, . . . it was precisely because of the staggering dimensions of French losses during the first 22 months of the war . . . that resistance to the massive recruitment of West Africans and their deployment on the Western Front was overcome. If the time factor is taken into consideration, a very different picture begins to emerge. It indicates that during the last two-and-a-half years of the war, Senegalese casualties in Europe were approximately twice as high as those suffered by French infantry combatants." Joe Lunn, military historian, "Les Races Guerrières': Racial Preconceptions in the French Military about West African Soldiers during the First World War," Journal of Contemporary History, 1999 Which of the following does the author of Source 1 cite as evidence of cultural exchange between East and West Africa during the First World War? A. Experiments in architecture and the gathering of souvenirs B. Learning parades and drill C. Learning the care and maintenance of modern weapons D. Spreading methods of disease control and health care

A. Experiments in architecture and the gathering of souvenirs

"The Russian strategy can be seen at work on many fronts. In Austria the Russians claim 50% of all Austrian industry. In Paris they fight for an arrangement that will allow Yugoslavia to dominate Trieste. In Berlin they carry on a continued press campaign against the Western world but ban our newspapers from the sector if they contain the slightest criticism of Soviet policy. They control the University of Berlin because it is in their sector and impose rigid political tests upon the student body, but they also control the schools of all sectors through the domination of the Berlin Magistrate, established before our entrance. Thus far, it has been impossible to eliminate their Communist textbooks from the western sectors. They always appeal to the Potsdam accord* when it serves their ends and violate it when it suits their purposes. Their officers travel in our zone, marking factory equipment for dismantlement and shipment to Russia. But what they do in their zone is shrouded in mystery and there is some evidence that they are setting this equipment up, not in Russia but in Russian Germany. With millions of troops spread through the whole of Eastern Europe, they are now engaged in a press campaign against Western armies of occupation." *an agreement reached between the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union regarding the administration and occupation of Germany following the Second World War Reinhold Niebuhr, United States theologian and political commentator, "The Fight for Germany," article published in Life magazine, 1946 Which of the following best explains Niebuhr's sense of alarm about Soviet intentions in occupied Eastern Europe? A. He was concerned that Americans would be reluctant to see their recent allies in the Second World War as a threat. B. He was afraid that Soviet success would encourage a socialist revolution in the United States. C. He feared that a new military buildup would interfere with the reconstruction of countries devastated by the Second World War. D. He wanted to prevent the United States government from enacting censorship of the press similar to the policies of the Soviet authorities in Eastern Europe.

A. He was concerned that Americans would be reluctant to see their recent allies in the Second World War as a threat.

"Just yesterday, you sent me a telegram appealing to my friendship and called upon me to act as an intermediary and help resolve the conflict between you and the Austro-Hungarian government. But I understand that, even as you did that, your troops were being mobilized against Austria-Hungary. This makes my attempts at meditation almost pointless. Nonetheless, I continued in my efforts today. I now receive fresh news of even more serious Russian preparations for war on my Eastern frontier. Responsibility for the safety of my empire forces me to take defensive and preventive measures. In my endeavors to maintain the peace of the world, I have gone to the utmost limit possible. The responsibility for the disaster that is now threatening the civilized world will not be laid at my door. At this moment, you still have the power to avert war. Nobody is threatening the honor or power of Russia, and you can well afford to await the result of my mediation. My friendship for you and your empire, transmitted to me by my grandfather on his deathbed, has always been sacred to me and I have often supported Russia in the past when she was in serious trouble." Wilhelm II, emperor of Germany, telegram to Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, July 31, 1914 Wilhelm II's assurances in the second paragraph that "nobody is threatening the honor or power of Russia" and that the tsar can "well afford" to await the results of attempts to defuse the crisis best testify to the importance of which of the following factors in the outbreak of the First World War? A. Intense nationalism, fueled by mass media, often forced the hand of military and political leaders. B. Religious and cultural traditions emphasizing honor and chivalry often led monarchs to disregard the will of their people. C. Regional conflicts in Europe were typically resolved by the great powers, with little attention paid to the needs of smaller states. D. Because of the rise of pacifism, using force to resolve political disputes had come to be seen as immoral by most segments of European society.

A. Intense nationalism, fueled by mass media, often forced the hand of military and political leaders.

Source 1 CUBAN TANK TROOPS IN ANGOLA, FIGHTING ON THE SIDE OF THE PROCOMMUNIST PEOPLE'S MOVEMENT FOR THE LIBERATION OF ANGOLA (MPLA) DURING THE ANGOLAN CIVIL WAR, CIRCA 1980 Source 2 SOUTH AFRICAN ANTIAIRCRAFT UNIT IN ANGOLA, FIGHTING ON THE SIDE OF THE ANTICOMMUNIST NATIONAL UNION FOR THE TOTAL INDEPENDENCE OF ANGOLA (UNITA) DURING THE ANGOLAN CIVIL WAR, CIRCA 1980 The confrontation illustrated in the two photographs can be seen as a specific example of the global rivalries in the period after 1945 that also directly produced which of the following? A. The NATO and Warsaw Pact military alliances B. The Arab-Israeli conflicts C. The Hutu-Tutsi ethnic tensions that led to the Rwanda genocide D. Regional economic cooperation blocs, such as the EEC, ASEAN, and Mercosur

A. The NATO and Warsaw Pact military alliances

"I argue that the current state of affairs is unsound and unsustainable. Financial markets are inherently unstable and there are social needs that cannot be met by giving market forces free rein. Unfortunately, these defects are not recognized. Instead, there is a widespread belief that markets are self-correcting. . . . It is claimed that the common interest is best served by allowing everyone to look out for his or her own interests and that attempts to protect the common interest by collective decision making distort the market mechanism. This idea was called laissez-faire in the nineteenth century. . . . I have found a better name for it: market fundamentalism. . . . To put the matter simply, market forces, if they are given complete authority even in the purely economic and financial arenas, produce chaos and could ultimately lead to the downfall of the global financial system. . . . Capitalism needs a counterweight because the capitalist system by itself shows no tendency toward equilibrium. The owners of capital seek to maximize their profits. Left to their own devices, they would continue to accumulate capital until the situation became unbalanced." George Soros, United States financial investment mogul and philanthropist, The Crisis of Global Capitalism, 1998 Which of the following developments in the late twentieth century would most likely be cited to explain a flaw in Soros' arguments regarding "social needs" and "collective decision making" in the first paragraph? A. The Soviet Union and other communist states in Eastern Europe collapsed largely because of economic inefficiencies created by centralized economic planning and attempts to eliminate all economic and social inequalities. B. Governments in the Asia-Pacific region and Latin America often offered generous tax incentives to Western multinational corporations to relocate manufacturing facilities to their countries. C. Technological innovations enhanced global communication and led to the development of knowledge economies. D. The emergence of major financial crises in Asia still did not convince governments about the need to enact banking and stock-market reforms.

A. The Soviet Union and other communist states in Eastern Europe collapsed largely because of economic inefficiencies created by centralized economic planning and attempts to eliminate all economic and social inequalities.

"Dear Comrade Lenin! I cannot avoid pointing out an outrageous phenomenon that can still be observed all over our Soviet Russia. Even though it has been more than two years since power in Russia has been in the hands of the Soviets, in all major cities certain things can be observed that do not at all indicate the existence of a dictatorship of the proletariat. I want to point out the most insulting one. In our city, Kazan (and as I mentioned, this also happens in all major cities), there live many former factory owners and other members of the bourgeoisie. Even though their factories and businesses have been nationalized, if you enter their apartments you would see them still living as they did in the 'good old times.' These gentlemen do not seem to know that the Civil War is still raging and that power is in the hands of the workers. As in the past, they continue to reside in the most luxurious, spacious, and warm apartments, with luxurious furniture. In their kitchens, you would still see hired cooks with white caps and uniforms, and in their households you would still see a variety of servants. In the summer they still go out to their country houses to 'relax.' When I see this, I become almost ashamed of our proletarian revolution. Why has no attention been paid to this yet? Why are workers not being moved into the bourgeois apartments and the bourgeois into workers' cellars? Why is their furniture and other belongings not being confiscated and distributed to the workers? And anyway, why has this gang of bourgeois parasites not yet been destroyed? I am turning to you, Comrade Lenin, as our leader and the most loyal friend of the proletariat, and I am waiting so that this issue, which concerns me and many other honest communists, can be resolved by an appropriate decree." Letter to Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin from a member of the Communist Party living in Kazan, Russia, November, 1920 Which of the following aspects of the immediate historical situation in which the letter was written best explains the author's demands toward the end of the second paragraph? A. The Soviet government used the pretext of the ongoing civil war to engage in repressive policies against entire sections of its population. B. Soviet leaders scrambled for influence as they sought to replace an ailing Vladimir Lenin. C. The implementation of the first Five Year Plan had resulted in widespread famine and high death rates in the Soviet countryside. D. Because of Russia's late industrialization, its working class was numerically small, limiting popular support for the Bolshevik seizure of power.

A. The Soviet government used the pretext of the ongoing civil war to engage in repressive policies against entire sections of its population.

"Many of my fellow students here have personal collections of stereo recordings of the best rock bands. I know you are a fan of the Beatles, but I must say that they are not among the most popular because they are considered out of date. It is more common here to listen to Deep Purple, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Yes, Queen, Wings, King Crimson, Alice Cooper, Uriah Heep, etc. I underlined those that I like the most. The records with rock music that one can find on the black market here are quite expensive. For example, Uriah Heep's album Salisbury costs 70 rubles, and Paul McCartney's album Ram costs 50 rubles if they are new and still sealed in their original cellophane wrap. But if they have been opened they cost about half that. What are the prices like in Leningrad? We also have a quite well developed system of exchanging and sharing rock records here. Do you have one too? Now, about the blue jeans that I had asked you to get for me: if you manage to obtain them, how much would they cost? If the price is reasonable, I will send you a money order. OK? I gave you my sizes in the past, but in case you lost them—length is 5 or 6; waist 46 or 48." Alexandr A. university student in Novosibirsk, the Soviet Union, letter to his friend Nikolai P., student in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg), 1977 A historian studying the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s would most likely use the letter above to illustrate which of the following? A. The alienation of Soviet citizens from their government's official rhetoric of class struggle and anti-capitalism B. The spread of dissident ideas and anti-government resistance movements among Soviet intellectuals C. The failure of the Soviet planned economy to deliver even the most basic consumer goods to the USSR's population D. The effects of Gorbachev's glasnost policies in stimulating an honest exchange of ideas among Soviet citizens

A. The alienation of Soviet citizens from their government's official rhetoric of class struggle and anti-capitalism

Source 1 CUBAN TANK TROOPS IN ANGOLA, FIGHTING ON THE SIDE OF THE PROCOMMUNIST PEOPLE'S MOVEMENT FOR THE LIBERATION OF ANGOLA (MPLA) DURING THE ANGOLAN CIVIL WAR, CIRCA 1980 Source 2 SOUTH AFRICAN ANTIAIRCRAFT UNIT IN ANGOLA, FIGHTING ON THE SIDE OF THE ANTICOMMUNIST NATIONAL UNION FOR THE TOTAL INDEPENDENCE OF ANGOLA (UNITA) DURING THE ANGOLAN CIVIL WAR, CIRCA 1980 Which of the following developments in the period after 1945 most directly prevented localized conflicts such as the one illustrated in the two photographs from escalating into global wars? A. The threat of the use of nuclear weapons B. The effectiveness of the United Nations as a global guarantor of collective security C. Recurring economic downturns, such as the one following the 1973 OPEC oil embargo D. The threat of communist revolutions breaking out in the industrialized countries of the West

A. The threat of the use of nuclear weapons

WORKERS AND SOLDIERS MARCHING IN THE STREETS OF SAINT PETERSBURG, RUSSIAN EMPIRE, AFTER TAKING OVER CONTROL OF THE CITY, FEBRUARY 1917 Which of the following best characterizes the significance of the events in Russia in the winter of 1917, as shown in the image? A. They started a process that eventually led to a communist revolution. B. They convinced Tsarist government leaders to take Russia out of the First World War by concluding a separate peace treaty. C. They led directly to the collapse of other land-based empires such as the Ottoman Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. D. They led to the abolition of the Russian parliament (Duma) and the beginning of direct personal rule by Tsar Nicholas II.

A. They started a process that eventually led to a communist revolution.

"Compatriots throughout the country! We have made concessions for peace during our negotiations with the French to end the war.* But the more concessions we made, the more the French colonialists were determined to maintain their control over Vietnam despite their promises. No! We would rather sacrifice everything than lose our country and return to slavery. Compatriots! Rise up! Men and women, old and young, regardless of religion, political parties, or nationalities, all the Vietnamese must stand up to fight the French colonialists to save the Fatherland. Those who have rifles must use their rifles. Those who have swords must use their swords. Those who have no swords must use their spades, hoes, and sticks. Everyone must endeavor to oppose the colonialists and save their country. Soldiers, self-defense guards, militiamen! The hour of national liberation has struck! We must sacrifice to our last drop of blood to save our country. We must be ready to endure any hardship. With the determination to sacrifice, victory will be ours! Long live an independent and unified Vietnam! Long live the victorious resistance!" *In 1945 Ho Chi Minh proclaimed an independent republic of Vietnam and war with France broke out in 1946. Ho Chi Minh, Vietnamese political leader, appeal to the Vietnamese population, 1946 As indicated by the passage, Vietnam's achievement of independence differed in what way from the achievement of independence by many other former colonies? A. Vietnam gained its independence through a violent uprising rather than a negotiated settlement. B. Vietnam was seeking to gain its independence from a non-European country. C. Vietnam achieved its independence in a much shorter time than most other former colonies. D. Vietnam's independence movement relied on support from a narrow segment of the population.

A. Vietnam gained its independence through a violent uprising rather than a negotiated settlement.

PETITION "To the Honorable Members of the Government of the Province of Manitoba (Canada), and the Honorable Members of the Legislative Assembly of the said Province. WHEREAS the following resolution forms part of the platform of the Liberal Party: 'The Liberal Party believing that there are no just grounds for denying women the right to vote, will enact a measure providing for equal suffrage upon it being established by petition that it is desired by women numbering 15% of the votes cast in the Province in the preceding general election.' AND WHEREAS the Liberal Party is now the party in office in the said Province. NOW THEREFORE the petition of the undersigned humbly shows that: - We, the Petitioners, are women over the age of twenty-one years old and are resident in the Province of Manitoba. - We, the Petitioners, are desirous that a measure be enacted forthwith extending the franchise to women on equal terms with men, in accordance with the ideas of equality. - We, the Petitioners, number 39,584 women, which is in excess of the required number of 17,000 [to meet the 15% requirement in the Liberal Party's program]. THEREFORE, We, the Petitioners, pray that there shall be enacted by the Legislative Assembly during this Session a measure extending the franchise to women on equal terms with men." [39,584 signatures follow] Petition presented by the Political Equality League, a women's rights organization, to the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Manitoba, Canada, 23 December, 1915 Which of the following aspects of the international context in which the petition was produced most likely strengthened the petitioners' demands? A. Women's critical contributions to the home front effort during The First World War B. The adoption of woman suffrage by most industrialized Western countries in the decades preceding 1915 C. The growing share of women in positions of economic and political leadership as a result of the spread of universal compulsory education D. The greater role women had over their reproductive rights, as a result of the spread of more effective forms of birth control

A. Women's critical contributions to the home front effort during The First World War

"Japan's colonial policy aims at extending into its colonies the principle of paternalistic protection followed in the home land. The protection of industry and education, which is a characteristic feature of Japanese administration at home, has largely been transplanted to the Korean peninsula. The results that have followed the industrialization of Korea, for both the native population and the Japanese administration, may be summarized as follows: 1. The development of industries has increased capital in the country and helped Korean society in a general advance toward a capitalistic stage of development. 2. As a result of industrialization, the Japanese administration's financial resources have been increased. 3. Korean mineral products are of kinds that are scarce in Japan proper and consequently there is little competition between Korean and Japanese mineral products. Administration by Japan, the inflow of Japanese capital, and the provision of public education have all tended toward a fundamental transformation of native Korean society. The Koreans are being rapidly modernized and even their inherent seclusive nature is undergoing a marked change. Under their former corrupt rulers, the people were reduced to abject poverty and misery and resigned themselves to fatalism, having been robbed of all incentives to earn and save money. Under Japanese government, however, the Korean people have begun to be active and industrious once again." Tadao Yanaihara, Japanese economist, "Problems of Japanese Administration in Korea," article published in a Canadian journal, 1938 Which of the following best explains a likely significant purpose behind Yanaihara publishing his article in a Canadian journal? A. Yanaihara wished to justify continued Japanese colonial rule of Korea to potentially hostile Western states. B. Yanaihara wished to intimidate potential Western rivals by describing Japan's industrial power. C. Yanaihara sought to open free trade with Canada in order to alleviate the effects of the Great Depression. D. Yanaihara sought to pass on Japanese industrial expertise to underdeveloped countries.

A. Yanaihara wished to justify continued Japanese colonial rule of Korea to potentially hostile Western states.

"The main promise which Britain held out to South Asian migrants [in the early 1950s] was the promise of relief from the economic stagnation which affected rural life. In this respect, Indian and Pakistani migrants had a lot in common with the peripheral European countrymen and women who moved to the cities of the industrial north during the 1950s and 1960s—the Portuguese who powered French industrial expansion, the Turks in Germany, the Cypriots and Maltese in Britain. . . . Subsistence farmers as far apart as Ireland, Calabria* and the Punjab** were propelled to post-war Britain by the same economic laws. Their only chance of altering their circumstances, indeed of imagining a future at all that was different from the present, lay abroad. . . . Nonetheless, although the villager from India and the villager from Ireland or Italy may have been subject to the same economic laws, they were poles apart when it came to their migrant experiences. 'Before I came [to England] my mother told me not to cut off my hair,*** but I told her frankly, "Ma, they cut it off in Bombay, even before we board the ship." ' The straightforward acceptance by a Sikh immigrant that the symbols of his religion would have to go if he were to find work in British foundries and factories suggests a profoundly pragmatic attitude that was shared by most other Indian migrants—they were not going to let religion get in the way of livelihood. The Partition of India in 1947 had a profound effect on Indian emigration to Britain. During the Partition, in Punjab alone . . . over 5 million Muslims fled or were forced to go, on trains, ox-cart and by foot, from India to West Punjab in Pakistan. Over 3 million Hindus and Sikhs escaped the other way, to settle in East Punjab. But the population transfer was carried out with terrible violence and slaughter . . . as religious communities took revenge on one another. Refugees flooded into Delhi, others tried to settle on newly divided parcels of land on both sides of the border. But the influx of newcomers also meant that the landholdings of residents already settled in East Punjab had to be sliced up, into smaller and smaller pieces, with the new parcels averaging as little as two and a half acres in some places. Punjabis had been shaken loose from their land and . . . for those of them on both sides of the border who decided to move on from this precarious existence, England was merely the last in a series of migrations." *a region in southern Italy **a region on both sides of the India-Pakistan border ***many Sikh men let their hair grow naturally as a sign of respect for God's creation. Clair Wills, British historian, Lovers and Strangers: An Immigrant History of Post-War Britain, book published in 2017 Contrary to the author's implicit argument in the second paragraph regarding South Asian migrants' determination to integrate into British society, the migration of former colonial subjects to imperial metropoles typically resulted in A. the preservation of cultural and economic ties between former colonies and metropoles, as immigrant communities maintained some connections to their countries of origin B. the strengthening of the economic dependency of former colonies on their metropoles, as immigrant communities in the metropoles invested heavily in the economies of their countries of origin C. a resurgence of ethnic nationalism and separatism in the former colonial metropoles, as immigrants turned against their host countries D. internal divisions within migrant communities as most second-generation immigrants rejected the proassimilation ideas of their parents

A. the preservation of cultural and economic ties between former colonies and metropoles, as immigrant communities maintained some connections to their countries of origin

Source 1 "The purposes of the new international organization should be: 1. To maintain international peace and security and take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to peace and to settle international disputes by peaceful means. 2. To develop friendly relations among nations to strengthen universal peace. 3. To achieve international cooperation in the solution of international economic, social, and other humanitarian problems. A Security Council to make decisions related to maintaining peace will be established that should consist of one representative of each of eleven members of the organization. Representatives of the United States of America, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, the Republic of China, and France, should have permanent seats." Agreement reached by the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and China, Washington D.C., 1944 Source 2 "The purposes of the new international bank are: 1. To assist collectively in the reconstruction and development of members' countries by facilitating cooperation among member states in the restoration of economies destroyed or disrupted by war and the encouragement of the development of productive facilities and resources in less developed countries. 2. To promote private foreign investment by means of guarantees or participations in loans to member countries. 3. To promote the long-range balanced growth of international trade, thereby assisting in raising productivity, the standard of living, and conditions of labor in member countries' territories. The Executive Directors shall be responsible for the conduct of the general operations of the bank, and for this purpose, shall exercise all the powers delegated to them by the Board of Governors. Five of the executive directors will be appointed by the five members having the largest number of shares in the bank. The other directors will be elected from the other member states. The purposes of the International Monetary Fund are: 1. To promote international monetary cooperation through a permanent institution that facilitates consultation and collaboration on international monetary problems. 2. To facilitate the expansion and balanced growth of international trade." Agreement reached between delegates from 44 nations, Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, 1944 The ideas behind the establishment of the council referred to in Source 1 and the ideas behind the establishment of the bank referred to in Source 2 are most similar in that A. while the council and the bank were intended to provide benefits to all members, a small group of states were allowed to retain permanent decision-making power B. although the council and the bank were intended to provide benefits to all states, membership was restricted to only European and Asian states C. while the council and the bank promised aid to all states equally, the terms of that aid were subject to various restrictions D. although the council and the bank wanted member states to agree willingly to their decisions, they received the right to implement sanctions to force compliance

A. while the council and the bank were intended to provide benefits to all members, a small group of states were allowed to retain permanent decision-making power

Collectivization of Agriculture

Abolishing private farms in favour of large, state-owned farms where peasants work together

Decolonization in India

After WWII, the British did not have enough resources or power to maintain colonial rule in India, so India negotiated and became an independent state.

Decolonization on the Gold Coast

After WWII, the British did not have enough resources or power to maintain colonial rule on the Gold Coast, so they negotiated and became the independent state of Ghana.

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

Agreement that created a free-trade area among the United States, Canada, and Mexico, so that goods made in Mexico could be exported without tariffs to the U.S. and Canada.

Who won WWI?

Allied powers

Al Qaeda

An Islamic terrorist organization led by Osama bin Laden to resist oppressive policies of countries like the U.S.

Ataturk

An Ottoman leader who made Turkey more like Western democracies and unhinged its culture from Islam

UNICEF

An agency of the United Nations responsible for devoting resources to feeding children after WWII and establishing programs to aid education and the health of children in developing countries

What is a free trade organization?

An agreement between nations which eliminates barriers of exchange between them, such as tariffs.

What is the World Fair Trade Organization?

An agreement established in 1989 for fair trade practices, respect for the environment, good working conditions, and no discrimination.

Fascism

An authoritarian and nationalistic system of government and social organization which glorified military might

What is a multinational corporation and what are examples?

An entity which is incorporated in one country but manufactures and sells goods in other countries. They employ information workers in their own countries, but manufacture goods in other countries and sell these goods on a global market. Examples: Nestle, Mahindra and Mahindra

Liberation Theology

An ideology present in Latin America which promoted that Jesus was on the side of the poor and against the rich

What is United Nations?

An international organization of independent states formed in 1945 after WWII where nations could peacefully discuss and negotiate as opposed to using warfare (similar to League of Nations after WWI). - Maintains world peace with Security Council - Settles disputes with law with International Court of Justice - Published the Universal Declaration of Human Rights - Protects refugees with the Economic and Social Council - Provides for the poor with World Food Program

What is the Kyoto Protocol?

An international protocol established in 1997 to reduce carbon emissions, mostly in developed nations

What is the Green Belt Movement?

An organization founded by Wangari Maothai in Kenya that promotes environmental conservation.

What is Greenpeace?

An organization which advocated for a clean environment.

What was the Arab Spring?

Anti government protests in the Arab world which were documented on social media, thus contrasting from censorship of information by the government in previous times (such as Tiananmen Square Protest in China)

Armenian Genocide

Armenian Christians were accused of colluding with the Russians, resulting in the Ottomans putting them in concentration camps or executing them

Ukranian famine

As a protest against Stalin's collectivization of agriculture, Soviet farmers burned their crops and killed their livestock, resulting in famine

"1. Every Hutu should know that a Tutsi woman, wherever she is, works for the interest of her ethnic Tutsi group. Consequently, we should consider a traitor every Hutu who marries a Tutsi woman, befriends a Tutsi woman, or employs a Tutsi woman as a secretary. 2. Every Hutu should know that our Hutu daughters are more suitable and dutiful in their roles as women, wives, and mothers of the family. . . . 4. Every Hutu should know that every Tutsi is dishonest in business. Their only aim is supremacy for their ethnic minority group. As a consequence, every Hutu is a traitor who makes a business partnership with a Tutsi, invests his money in a Tutsi enterprise, lends money to a Tutsi, or gives business favors to a Tutsi. 5. All strategic posts, political, administrative, economic, military, and those in the area of security, should be entrusted to the Hutu. 6. The majority of the education sector must be Hutu. 7. The Rwandan armed forces should be exclusively Hutu. No member of the military should marry a Tutsi. 8. The Hutu should stop having mercy on the Tutsi." Excerpt from the "Hutu Ten Commandments," a manifesto published in Kangura, a newspaper dedicated to the promotion of Hutu supremacy, Kigali, Rwanda, 1990 Which of the following best explains the similarity between Hutu views of the Tutsi in the "Hutu Ten Commandments" and the treatment of Jews in Nazi Germany? A. Both the Tutsi and Jews were accused of being in league with communists. B. Both the Tutsi and Jews were persecuted based on ethnic prejudice. C. Both the Tutsi and Jews were seen as responsible for defeats suffered during previous wars. D. Both the Tutsi and Jews were attacked as militant colonizers who had displaced native populations.

B. Both the Tutsi and Jews were persecuted based on ethnic prejudice.

"Iron smelting and steel making in the Shaoyang region of Hunan province are rapidly developing on a mass scale. In a short period in the fall of 1958, 12,378 local blast furnaces have been built in this area. The main reason for this remarkable progress in such a short time is that this region has fully carried out the Communist Party's directive to let all the people work in iron and steel production, in keeping with the party's general plan of building socialism. Iron and steel production is not simply a technical job; it is also a political task. Therefore, the first condition for the rapid increase in production was for local party leaders to have the entire party membership mobilized. When the current push to increase production began, many 'experts' wanted to have big foreign blast furnaces. They were not interested in building small local furnaces. They thought we should wait until we've had the opportunity to buy elaborate equipment. Actually, that line of thinking would have resulted in producing less, more slowly, and more expensively. Under the timely guidance of the Party, those tendencies were firmly rejected and the policy of throwing all resources into iron and steel production and letting political cadres take charge was carried out. The strength of the masses is tremendous. All the problems of funds, raw materials, equipment, provisions, etc., which in the past seemed so hard to solve, disappeared before the resourcefulness of the people. In one Hunan county, 67,000 people worked non-stop for three days and nights and built 1025 blast furnaces. Many people, hearing the Party's call, walked over 30 miles to join the work, carrying timber and bamboo and their own food and clothes. In the town of Szetu, local people collected more than 1.6 million yuan [Chinese unit of currency] for the iron and steel effort, with one 50-year-old woman contributing more than 200 yuan, her life savings. Shoemakers donated more than 180,000 pairs of sandals for those building the furnaces. In the town of Tienping, the people solved the housing crisis [of furnace workers coming to the town but not having a place to sleep] by vacating more than 500 rooms in their houses and turning them over to the workers. The people also composed the following song: The Communist Party is really wonderful. In three days more than a thousand furnaces were built. The American imperialists will run off, tails between legs. The Chinese people will now surpass Britain. The East wind will always prevail over the West wind." Yin Zeming, Chinese government official, The Strength of the Masses is Limitless, pamphlet published in English by the Beijing Foreign Languages Press, a Chinese government publishing house, 1958 Which of the following aspects of the immediate historical situation in China in 1958 best explains the author's perspective in the passage? A. The Chinese Communist Party was buoyed by its recent victory in the country's long civil war. B. Chinese leaders had made it clear that meeting the goals of the Great Leap Forward was the highest priority facing the country. C. Mao Zedong's Cultural Revolution had created severe social upheavals and caused widespread suffering among those accused of political dissent. D. The new Chinese Communist leadership implemented economic liberalization reform in the aftermath of Mao Zedong's death.

B. Chinese leaders had made it clear that meeting the goals of the Great Leap Forward was the highest priority facing the country.

"Throughout the period of Nigeria's short and precarious existence as a single political entity, we Eastern Nigerians have always believed in fundamental human rights as they are accepted and enjoyed in civilized countries. Impelled by our belief in these rights and our sense of common citizenship with other Nigerians, we contributed our ideas and skills, our resourcefulness and dynamism, in the development of areas of Nigeria outside the East. We set up businesses and industries throughout the country, overlooked the neglect of our homeland in the division of national institutions, development projects, and financial resources, made our region's abundant natural resources available to the rest of the country, and confidently invested in the general economic and social development of Nigeria. . . . We used to oppose those who told us that what our former colonial masters made into 'Nigeria' was merely an agglomeration of different peoples, distinct in every way except in the color of their skin, and organized in as a unit solely for the commercial interests and administrative convenience of the colonists. . . . But we have come to realize that national unity is no longer possible. The Nigerian constitution that was adopted after independence in 1960 installed the North in perpetual dominance over Nigeria. Thus were sown, by design or by default, the seeds of factionalism and hate, of struggle for power, and the worst type of political deception. National independence was followed by successive crises, each leading to the near disintegration of the country. Last year alone, tens of thousands of Eastern and Southern Nigerians were killed in pogroms by Northerners in all parts of the country, including the capital, Lagos. We are now facing a situation in which there are only two possible outcomes: either perpetual domination of the rest of the country by the North, not by consent but by force and fraud, or a dissolution of the [Nigerian] federation bond." Lieutenant Colonel C. Odumegwu Ojukwu, Nigerian army officer, proclamation of the breakaway Republic of Biafra [Eastern Nigeria], 19 Which of the flowing best explains how the immediate historical situation of the proclamation of Biafran independence from Nigeria informed the author's statements in the third paragraph? A. Explicitly seeking the support of one of the two superpowers was the expected course of action from most new national governments in Asia and Africa. B. Claiming to uphold the rule of law and oppose government corruption had become the norm for those seeking political power, even for military leaders seeking to challenge elected governments. C. Presenting their struggle as one against European imperialism was the best way for leaders of African and Asian states to justify their corrupt practices. D. Adopting the principles of the Non-Aligned Movement allowed many leaders of new states in Asia and Africa to remain above the proxy conflicts of the Cold War.

B. Claiming to uphold the rule of law and oppose government corruption had become the norm for those seeking political power, even for military leaders seeking to challenge elected governments.

B-24 LIBERATOR BOMBERS NEARING COMPLETION AT THE CONSOLIDATED AIRCRAFT CORPORATION PLANT, FORT WORTH, TEXAS, 1942 Which of the following best explains how this photograph from the Second World War can be connected to the Cold War that began shortly afterward? A. It provides evidence of underlying hostility between the Soviet Union and the United States even when they were allied during the Second World War. B. It shows the technological advances made by one of the victors of the Second World War that solidified its position as a postwar superpower. C. It demonstrates the numerical and material advantages enjoyed by the Allied powers in their conflict with the Axis powers of Germany, Italy, and Japan. D. It illustrates the convergence of Soviet and American military technology as both countries adopted the same methods of fighting.

B. It shows the technological advances made by one of the victors of the Second World War that solidified its position as a postwar superpower.

"Twenty years of Green Revolution agriculture have succeeded in destroying the fertility of the soils of Punjab [a state in northern India] which had been maintained over generations for centuries and could have been maintained indefinitely if international agribusiness experts and their Indian followers had not mistakenly believed that their technologies could substitute land, and their chemicals could replace the organic fertility of soils. It has been the assumption of the Green Revolution that nutrient loss and nutrient deficit can be made up by the use of non-renewable inputs of chemical fertilizers. The natural nutrient cycle, in which nutrients are produced by plants and returned to the soil as organic matter has thus been replaced by the belief in linear non-renewable flows of chemicals: phosphorus and potash mined from geological deposits and nitrogen derived from petroleum. The Green Revolution created the perception that soil fertility is produced in chemical factories, and agricultural yields are measured only through marketed commodities. Yet, as the Punjab experience has shown, the fertility of soils cannot be reduced to Nitrogen-Phosphorus-Potassium inputs from the factories of multinational corporations. Agribusiness technologies cannot substitute nature or work outside of nature's ecological processes without destroying the very basis of agricultural production. Nor can markets provide the only meaningful measure of 'output' and 'yields.'" Vandana Shiva, Indian scholar, feminist, environmentalist, and anti-globalization activist, The Violence of the Green Revolution: Ecological Degradation and Political Conflict in Punjab, book published in 1989. Which of the following arguments could be most effectively used to undermine Vandana Shiva's implicit criticism of free trade and globalization in the passage? A. Consumer preferences in societies around the world are becoming increasingly uniform because of globalization. B. Many developing countries could never become self-sufficient food producers because of limitations of size, climate, and available cropland. C. Developing countries are free to join or not join in globalized trade practices and international trade organizations. D. Many of the economic forces driving globalization in agriculture are based on increasingly intensive exploitation of nonrenewable natural resources.

B. Many developing countries could never become self-sufficient food producers because of limitations of size, climate, and available cropland.

"I argue that the current state of affairs is unsound and unsustainable. Financial markets are inherently unstable and there are social needs that cannot be met by giving market forces free rein. Unfortunately, these defects are not recognized. Instead, there is a widespread belief that markets are self-correcting. . . . It is claimed that the common interest is best served by allowing everyone to look out for his or her own interests and that attempts to protect the common interest by collective decision making distort the market mechanism. This idea was called laissez-faire in the nineteenth century. . . . I have found a better name for it: market fundamentalism. . . . To put the matter simply, market forces, if they are given complete authority even in the purely economic and financial arenas, produce chaos and could ultimately lead to the downfall of the global financial system. . . . Capitalism needs a counterweight because the capitalist system by itself shows no tendency toward equilibrium. The owners of capital seek to maximize their profits. Left to their own devices, they would continue to accumulate capital until the situation became unbalanced." George Soros, United States financial investment mogul and philanthropist, The Crisis of Global Capitalism, 1998 Which of the following would most likely be cited to explain a weakness in Soros' arguments in the passage about the power granted to free-market forces in the global economy? A. Multinational corporations have often been successful in using their financial power to undermine government attempts to regulate their activity. B. Market forces are constrained to a large extent by regulations imposed by governments, international economic institutions, and regional trade agreements. C. Unions have declined in influence in part because of opposition from those who claim that unions undermine business activity. D. The reduction of trade barriers has steadily reduced the ability of many smaller firms to compete in the global economy.

B. Market forces are constrained to a large extent by regulations imposed by governments, international economic institutions, and regional trade agreements.

"Compatriots throughout the country! We have made concessions for peace during our negotiations with the French to end the war.* But the more concessions we made, the more the French colonialists were determined to maintain their control over Vietnam despite their promises. No! We would rather sacrifice everything than lose our country and return to slavery. Compatriots! Rise up! Men and women, old and young, regardless of religion, political parties, or nationalities, all the Vietnamese must stand up to fight the French colonialists to save the Fatherland. Those who have rifles must use their rifles. Those who have swords must use their swords. Those who have no swords must use their spades, hoes, and sticks. Everyone must endeavor to oppose the colonialists and save their country. Soldiers, self-defense guards, militiamen! The hour of national liberation has struck! We must sacrifice to our last drop of blood to save our country. We must be ready to endure any hardship. With the determination to sacrifice, victory will be ours! Long live an independent and unified Vietnam! Long live the victorious resistance!" *In 1945 Ho Chi Minh proclaimed an independent republic of Vietnam and war with France broke out in 1946. Ho Chi Minh, Vietnamese political leader, appeal to the Vietnamese population, 1946 As portrayed by Ho Chi Minh in the passage, the Vietnamese independence movement appears most similar to which of the following types of nineteenth-century and early-twentieth-century movements? A. Revolutionary socialist movements B. Nationalist movements C. Anarchist movements D. Suffrage movements

B. Nationalist movements

"Many years later [Prime Minister] Clement Attlee wrote that, if someone asked him, 'What exactly, did Winston [Churchill] do to win the war?' he would have to say 'talk about it.' Edward R. Murrow, the American news correspondent, said much the same thing when he wrote of Churchill's mobilization of words. The effect of his speeches to the nation on British morale is incalculable and can be described, without hyperbole, as transforming. . . . Churchill's words also gripped the attention—as they were meant to—of both politicians and people in the United States and anywhere else that an English-speaking population had access to them. They seriously irritated the Nazis and arguably contributed to Hitler making ill-advised strategic decisions such as switching [German] bombing raids in Britain from airfields to civilian centers. . . . [The speeches themselves] were the first great battle of the Second World War, fought and won, not with Hurricanes* and Spitfires* but with words, passion, and history. . . . In the year that followed the German invasion of France [in May 1940], there was overwhelming evidence of a new-found British social cohesiveness and mutual loyalty. The complete isolation of Britain, fighting on alone, which Hitler not unreasonably assumed would make it a soft target, had precisely the reverse effect. Churchill turned on the 'island nation' rhetoric, and the British people across all classes, with very few exceptions, echoed him. . . . It is impossible not to be struck by the degree to which Britain, which had been such a divided society between the wars, managed to pull together when it mattered most. . . . The unions and employers, so bitterly at odds for so long, now worked together . . . so that no undue [government] pressure needed to be applied to have factories, many of them, of course, staffed by women, working 24 hours a day, seven days a week. The collaborative push made a critical difference to the production of munitions in general, but especially of war planes, which in turn made the difference between winning and losing the Battle of Britain." *British military aircraft used during the Second World War Simon Schama, British historian, A History of Britain: The Fate of Empire, 1776-2000, book published in 2002 Which of the following would best support Schama's argument in the first paragraph about the role of Churchill's speeches in Great Britain's war effort? A. Other nations' leaders during the war also regularly made speeches to their people. B. New mass media such as radio greatly expanded the reach of governments' mobilization efforts. C. For almost a full year after the British declaration of war against Germany, there was almost no military action on British soil. D. Despite its economic and logistical support for Britain, the United States did not formally join the war against Germany until after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.

B. New mass media such as radio greatly expanded the reach of governments' mobilization efforts.

PETITION "To the Honorable Members of the Government of the Province of Manitoba (Canada), and the Honorable Members of the Legislative Assembly of the said Province. WHEREAS the following resolution forms part of the platform of the Liberal Party: 'The Liberal Party believing that there are no just grounds for denying women the right to vote, will enact a measure providing for equal suffrage upon it being established by petition that it is desired by women numbering 15% of the votes cast in the Province in the preceding general election.' AND WHEREAS the Liberal Party is now the party in office in the said Province. NOW THEREFORE the petition of the undersigned humbly shows that: - We, the Petitioners, are women over the age of twenty-one years old and are resident in the Province of Manitoba. - We, the Petitioners, are desirous that a measure be enacted forthwith extending the franchise to women on equal terms with men, in accordance with the ideas of equality. - We, the Petitioners, number 39,584 women, which is in excess of the required number of 17,000 [to meet the 15% requirement in the Liberal Party's program]. THEREFORE, We, the Petitioners, pray that there shall be enacted by the Legislative Assembly during this Session a measure extending the franchise to women on equal terms with men." [39,584 signatures follow] Petition presented by the Political Equality League, a women's rights organization, to the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Manitoba, Canada, 23 December, 1915 The policy position of the Manitoba Liberal Party quoted in the appeal is best seen as a continuation of which of the following broader trends in the late 1800s and early 1900s? A. Mainstream political parties teaming up to defeat challenges from socialist parties B. Political parties embracing mass politics and broader popular participation in the democratic process C. The growing acceptance of free-trade and laissez-faire economic philosophy by both liberals and conservatives D. The increasing influence on politics of ethnic nationalism and its ideas of women as essential to the moral character of the nation

B. Political parties embracing mass politics and broader popular participation in the democratic process

"Just yesterday, you sent me a telegram appealing to my friendship and called upon me to act as an intermediary and help resolve the conflict between you and the Austro-Hungarian government. But I understand that, even as you did that, your troops were being mobilized against Austria-Hungary. This makes my attempts at meditation almost pointless. Nonetheless, I continued in my efforts today. I now receive fresh news of even more serious Russian preparations for war on my Eastern frontier. Responsibility for the safety of my empire forces me to take defensive and preventive measures. In my endeavors to maintain the peace of the world, I have gone to the utmost limit possible. The responsibility for the disaster that is now threatening the civilized world will not be laid at my door. At this moment, you still have the power to avert war. Nobody is threatening the honor or power of Russia, and you can well afford to await the result of my mediation. My friendship for you and your empire, transmitted to me by my grandfather on his deathbed, has always been sacred to me and I have often supported Russia in the past when she was in serious trouble." Wilhelm II, emperor of Germany, telegram to Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, July 31, 1914 The passage can best be used to explain the role of which of the following in bringing about the First World War? A. Imperialist expansion B. Rival great power alliances C. Global competition for economic resources D. Competing political and social ideologies

B. Rival great power alliances

WORKERS AND SOLDIERS MARCHING IN THE STREETS OF SAINT PETERSBURG, RUSSIAN EMPIRE, AFTER TAKING OVER CONTROL OF THE CITY, FEBRUARY 1917 The unrest reflected in the image is best explained by which of the following features of the Russian government at the time of the photograph? A. The Russian Empire covered a vast land area, much of which was undeveloped economically. B. The Tsarist regime that governed Russia was autocratic and unresponsive to calls for reform. C. The Russian Empire was composed of many different ethnic groups that had varying degrees of autonomy. D. The Tsarist monarchy was tied to the monarchies of Germany and Great Britain by common family links.

B. The Tsarist regime that governed Russia was autocratic and unresponsive to calls for reform.

"1. Every Hutu should know that a Tutsi woman, wherever she is, works for the interest of her ethnic Tutsi group. Consequently, we should consider a traitor every Hutu who marries a Tutsi woman, befriends a Tutsi woman, or employs a Tutsi woman as a secretary. 2. Every Hutu should know that our Hutu daughters are more suitable and dutiful in their roles as women, wives, and mothers of the family. . . . 4. Every Hutu should know that every Tutsi is dishonest in business. Their only aim is supremacy for their ethnic minority group. As a consequence, every Hutu is a traitor who makes a business partnership with a Tutsi, invests his money in a Tutsi enterprise, lends money to a Tutsi, or gives business favors to a Tutsi. 5. All strategic posts, political, administrative, economic, military, and those in the area of security, should be entrusted to the Hutu. 6. The majority of the education sector must be Hutu. 7. The Rwandan armed forces should be exclusively Hutu. No member of the military should marry a Tutsi. 8. The Hutu should stop having mercy on the Tutsi." Excerpt from the "Hutu Ten Commandments," a manifesto published in Kangura, a newspaper dedicated to the promotion of Hutu supremacy, Kigali, Rwanda, 1990 All of the following statements about the Hutu and Tutsi ethnic groups in Rwanda are factually accurate. Which would best explain how the attitudes expressed in the "Hutu Ten Commandments" were a reaction to past developments in Rwandan history? A. Traditional Tutsi society was based on pastoralism and animal husbandry, while traditional Hutu society was based on agriculture. B. The Tutsi were heavily favored and promoted to positions of power under European colonial rule, while the Hutu were not. C. Historically, the Tutsi and Hutu ethnic groups spoke different dialects of the same language. D. Hutu and Tutsi were not the only ethnic groups in Rwanda but coexisted with a third ethnic group, the Twa.

B. The Tutsi were heavily favored and promoted to positions of power under European colonial rule, while the Hutu were not.

"Dear Comrade Lenin! I cannot avoid pointing out an outrageous phenomenon that can still be observed all over our Soviet Russia. Even though it has been more than two years since power in Russia has been in the hands of the Soviets, in all major cities certain things can be observed that do not at all indicate the existence of a dictatorship of the proletariat. I want to point out the most insulting one. In our city, Kazan (and as I mentioned, this also happens in all major cities), there live many former factory owners and other members of the bourgeoisie. Even though their factories and businesses have been nationalized, if you enter their apartments you would see them still living as they did in the 'good old times.' These gentlemen do not seem to know that the Civil War is still raging and that power is in the hands of the workers. As in the past, they continue to reside in the most luxurious, spacious, and warm apartments, with luxurious furniture. In their kitchens, you would still see hired cooks with white caps and uniforms, and in their households you would still see a variety of servants. In the summer they still go out to their country houses to 'relax.' When I see this, I become almost ashamed of our proletarian revolution. Why has no attention been paid to this yet? Why are workers not being moved into the bourgeois apartments and the bourgeois into workers' cellars? Why is their furniture and other belongings not being confiscated and distributed to the workers? And anyway, why has this gang of bourgeois parasites not yet been destroyed? I am turning to you, Comrade Lenin, as our leader and the most loyal friend of the proletariat, and I am waiting so that this issue, which concerns me and many other honest communists, can be resolved by an appropriate decree." Letter to Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin from a member of the Communist Party living in Kazan, Russia, November, 1920 Considering the purpose of the letter, it most likely overstates which of the following? A. The period of time that has elapsed since power in Russia has been in the hands of the Soviets (first paragraph). B. The extent to which wealthy Russians continued to live exactly as they did before the revolution (second paragraph). C. The author's sense of indignation and shame at the perceived injustices of Soviet revolutionary society (second paragraph). D. The author's estimation of Lenin as "the most loyal friend of the proletariat" (third paragraph).

B. The extent to which wealthy Russians continued to live exactly as they did before the revolution (second paragraph).

Source 1 "The purposes of the new international organization should be: 1. To maintain international peace and security and take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to peace and to settle international disputes by peaceful means. 2. To develop friendly relations among nations to strengthen universal peace. 3. To achieve international cooperation in the solution of international economic, social, and other humanitarian problems. A Security Council to make decisions related to maintaining peace will be established that should consist of one representative of each of eleven members of the organization. Representatives of the United States of America, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, the Republic of China, and France, should have permanent seats." Agreement reached by the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and China, Washington D.C., 1944 Source 2 "The purposes of the new international bank are: 1. To assist collectively in the reconstruction and development of members' countries by facilitating cooperation among member states in the restoration of economies destroyed or disrupted by war and the encouragement of the development of productive facilities and resources in less developed countries. 2. To promote private foreign investment by means of guarantees or participations in loans to member countries. 3. To promote the long-range balanced growth of international trade, thereby assisting in raising productivity, the standard of living, and conditions of labor in member countries' territories. The Executive Directors shall be responsible for the conduct of the general operations of the bank, and for this purpose, shall exercise all the powers delegated to them by the Board of Governors. Five of the executive directors will be appointed by the five members having the largest number of shares in the bank. The other directors will be elected from the other member states. The purposes of the International Monetary Fund are: 1. To promote international monetary cooperation through a permanent institution that facilitates consultation and collaboration on international monetary problems. 2. To facilitate the expansion and balanced growth of international trade." Agreement reached between delegates from 44 nations, Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, 1944 Which of the following best describes a main idea common to both passages? A. The new organizations should solve international humanitarian problems. B. The new organizations should facilitate greater international cooperation. C. The new organizations should address political and economic inequalities among member states. D. The new organizations should promote democracy and free-trade across the world.

B. The new organizations should facilitate greater international cooperation.

Source 1 CUBAN TANK TROOPS IN ANGOLA, FIGHTING ON THE SIDE OF THE PROCOMMUNIST PEOPLE'S MOVEMENT FOR THE LIBERATION OF ANGOLA (MPLA) DURING THE ANGOLAN CIVIL WAR, CIRCA 1980 Source 2 SOUTH AFRICAN ANTIAIRCRAFT UNIT IN ANGOLA, FIGHTING ON THE SIDE OF THE ANTICOMMUNIST NATIONAL UNION FOR THE TOTAL INDEPENDENCE OF ANGOLA (UNITA) DURING THE ANGOLAN CIVIL WAR, CIRCA 1980 Which of the following developments or processes in the late twentieth century best explains the participation of foreign troops in the Angolan Civil War, as shown in the two photographs? A. The creation of the Non-Aligned Movement B. The proliferation of Cold War proxy conflicts C. The global campaign against apartheid in South Africa D. The emergence of ideologically driven movements advocating violence against civilians

B. The proliferation of Cold War proxy conflicts

B-24 LIBERATOR BOMBERS NEARING COMPLETION AT THE CONSOLIDATED AIRCRAFT CORPORATION PLANT, FORT WORTH, TEXAS, 1942 The image could best be understood as evidence for which of the following developments? A. The reluctance of the two Cold War superpowers to engage in direct military conflict with each other B. The shift in the global balance of power associated with the Second World War C. The increasing importance of unconventional methods of warfare as global conflict intensified D. The greater technical skills of individual workers necessitated by wartime production

B. The shift in the global balance of power associated with the Second World War

"The German people once built up a colonial empire without robbing anyone and without violating any treaty. That colonial empire was taken away from us unreasonably. First, it was said that the natives in those colonies did not want to belong to Germany. But, who asked them if they wished to belong to some other power and when were these natives ever asked if they had been content with the power that formerly ruled them? Second, it is stated that the colonies were not administered properly by the Germans, but Germany had these colonies only for a few decades and they were in a process of development. Third, it is said that the colonies are of no real value. But, if that is the case, then they can be of no value to any other state. Moreover, Germany has never demanded colonies for military purposes, but exclusively for economic purposes. It is obvious that in times of general prosperity the value of certain territories may decrease, but it is just as evident that in times of distress such value increases. Today, Germany lives in a time of difficult struggle for foodstuffs and raw materials. Sufficient imports are conceivable only if there is a continued and lasting increase in our exports. Therefore, as a matter of course, our demand for colonies for our densely populated country will be put forward again and again." Adolf Hitler, German chancellor, speech delivered in the German parliament, 1937 In the context of the late 1930s, the arguments that Hitler makes in the last paragraph are most significant in explaining how A. the Great Depression gave fascist states an excuse to take over all aspects of economic production B. imperialist aspirations contributed to motivating the policies of fascist states C. the protectionist policies of Western European states contributed to economic collapse in fascist states D. fascist regimes in Europe used settler colonies to provide soldiers for their armies

B. imperialist aspirations contributed to motivating the policies of fascist states

How did Martin Luther King Jr. resist discrimination in the U.S.?

Because the African American population was not treated equally in the U.S., Martin Luther King Jr., who was a prominent leader of the Civlil Rights Movement, took inspiration from Gandhi and instituted nonviolent protests such as boycotts and sit ins. His efforts ultimately resulted in the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which made racial discrimination illegal in the U.S., and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which prohibited racial discrimination during voting.

Allied Powers in WWI

Britain, France, Russia, Italy and the United States

Decolonization in Egypt

British troops were stationed in Egypt because they wanted to maintain access to the Suez Canal, but when the Egyptians nationalized the canal, the British and French lost access thus resulting in the Suez Crisis. During the Suez Crisis, France induced Israel to attack Egypt and the United Nations makes the Suez Canal an international waterway.

"Many years later [Prime Minister] Clement Attlee wrote that, if someone asked him, 'What exactly, did Winston [Churchill] do to win the war?' he would have to say 'talk about it.' Edward R. Murrow, the American news correspondent, said much the same thing when he wrote of Churchill's mobilization of words. The effect of his speeches to the nation on British morale is incalculable and can be described, without hyperbole, as transforming. . . . Churchill's words also gripped the attention—as they were meant to—of both politicians and people in the United States and anywhere else that an English-speaking population had access to them. They seriously irritated the Nazis and arguably contributed to Hitler making ill-advised strategic decisions such as switching [German] bombing raids in Britain from airfields to civilian centers. . . . [The speeches themselves] were the first great battle of the Second World War, fought and won, not with Hurricanes* and Spitfires* but with words, passion, and history. . . . In the year that followed the German invasion of France [in May 1940], there was overwhelming evidence of a new-found British social cohesiveness and mutual loyalty. The complete isolation of Britain, fighting on alone, which Hitler not unreasonably assumed would make it a soft target, had precisely the reverse effect. Churchill turned on the 'island nation' rhetoric, and the British people across all classes, with very few exceptions, echoed him. . . . It is impossible not to be struck by the degree to which Britain, which had been such a divided society between the wars, managed to pull together when it mattered most. . . . The unions and employers, so bitterly at odds for so long, now worked together . . . so that no undue [government] pressure needed to be applied to have factories, many of them, of course, staffed by women, working 24 hours a day, seven days a week. The collaborative push made a critical difference to the production of munitions in general, but especially of war planes, which in turn made the difference between winning and losing the Battle of Britain." *British military aircraft used during the Second World War Simon Schama, British historian, A History of Britain: The Fate of Empire, 1776-2000, book published in 2002 All of the following statements are factually accurate. Which could be most directly used to modify Schama's argument that the war provided "overwhelming evidence of a new-found British social cohesiveness and mutual loyalty"? A. British military production in key sectors such as aircraft and munitions generally outpaced German production after 1940. B. Churchill replaced Neville Chamberlain as Prime Minister in 1940, after Chamberlain had lost the support of the country because of his policy of appeasement of Nazi Germany. C. After a brief period of supporting the war effort, the Indian National Congress continued its anti-imperialist agitation, with Gandhi launching a Quit India campaign in 1942. D. During the war, the British government took an active role in regulating the economy via the rationing of food and fuel, subsidizing military production, and assuring its population of its intention to adopt social welfare policies after the war had been won.

C. After a brief period of supporting the war effort, the Indian National Congress continued its anti-imperialist agitation, with Gandhi launching a Quit India campaign in 1942.

"Twenty years of Green Revolution agriculture have succeeded in destroying the fertility of the soils of Punjab [a state in northern India] which had been maintained over generations for centuries and could have been maintained indefinitely if international agribusiness experts and their Indian followers had not mistakenly believed that their technologies could substitute land, and their chemicals could replace the organic fertility of soils. It has been the assumption of the Green Revolution that nutrient loss and nutrient deficit can be made up by the use of non-renewable inputs of chemical fertilizers. The natural nutrient cycle, in which nutrients are produced by plants and returned to the soil as organic matter has thus been replaced by the belief in linear non-renewable flows of chemicals: phosphorus and potash mined from geological deposits and nitrogen derived from petroleum. The Green Revolution created the perception that soil fertility is produced in chemical factories, and agricultural yields are measured only through marketed commodities. Yet, as the Punjab experience has shown, the fertility of soils cannot be reduced to Nitrogen-Phosphorus-Potassium inputs from the factories of multinational corporations. Agribusiness technologies cannot substitute nature or work outside of nature's ecological processes without destroying the very basis of agricultural production. Nor can markets provide the only meaningful measure of 'output' and 'yields.'" Vandana Shiva, Indian scholar, feminist, environmentalist, and anti-globalization activist, The Violence of the Green Revolution: Ecological Degradation and Political Conflict in Punjab, book published in 1989. Which of the following could be most effectively used to challenge the objectivity of Vandana Shiva's arguments in her book The Violence of the Green Revolution? . As an Indian scholar, Shiva lived in a country relatively unaffected by the Green Revolution. B. As a woman and a feminist, Shiva may have been particularly interested in the way the Green Revolution has affected women farmers. C. As an environmentalist and anti-globalization activist, Shiva may have been selective in presenting the scientific data regarding the effects of the Green Revolution. D. As a study based on the experience of just one Indian state, Punjab, Shiva's book may be unrepresentative of the broader regional or global impacts of the Green Revolution.

C. As an environmentalist and anti-globalization activist, Shiva may have been selective in presenting the scientific data regarding the effects of the Green Revolution.

"China's achievements in health care across the twentieth century are remarkable. With an estimated average life expectancy of only thirty years in 1900, it is no wonder that China was denigrated as the 'sick man of Asia.' By the end of the century in 2000, however, China's life expectancy had more than doubled, to an estimated seventy-one years. A comparison with the United States highlights the nature of China's achievements. China was seventeen years behind America's life expectancy in 1900 (30 versus 47) and that gap actually widened to twenty-five years (44 versus 69) by mid-century. Yet by 2000, the gap had narrowed to only six years, with China's average life expectancy at 71 and the United States' life expectancy at 77. The weak progress in China in the first half of the century, 1900-1950, was undoubtedly related to the political chaos, foreign invasion, and civil war that characterized China's history in that period. On the other hand, the marked acceleration in health care improvements in the second half of the century, 1950-2000, was achieved due to political stability and strong government commitment to equitable health policies. While not dismissing the usefulness of traditional Chinese medicine, there is strong evidence that the application of modern medical science through hospitals and field-based health-systems operated by well-trained health professionals has a major impact on health outcomes. Social factors are also at work, perhaps the most important of these being the development of universal literacy and the increase in gender equality." Lincoln Chen and Ling Chen, historians, "China's Exceptional Health Transitions," scholarly article, 2014 The changes in life expectancy in China described in the second paragraph are most likely attributable to which of the following? A. By the mid-twentieth century China had become an industrialized economy, while by the end of the twentieth century it had become a postindustrial, services-dominated economy. B. By the mid-twentieth century China had become a communist country, while by the end of the twentieth century it had become a capitalist country. C. By the mid-twentieth century China was still plagued by infectious diseases associated with poverty, while by the end of the twentieth century it had overcome those diseases. D. By the mid-twentieth century China had not yet been affected by lifestyle diseases associated with modernity, while by the end of the twentieth century it was suffering from high rates of those diseases.

C. By the mid-twentieth century China was still plagued by infectious diseases associated with poverty, while by the end of the twentieth century it had overcome those diseases.

"Twenty years of Green Revolution agriculture have succeeded in destroying the fertility of the soils of Punjab [a state in northern India] which had been maintained over generations for centuries and could have been maintained indefinitely if international agribusiness experts and their Indian followers had not mistakenly believed that their technologies could substitute land, and their chemicals could replace the organic fertility of soils. It has been the assumption of the Green Revolution that nutrient loss and nutrient deficit can be made up by the use of non-renewable inputs of chemical fertilizers. The natural nutrient cycle, in which nutrients are produced by plants and returned to the soil as organic matter has thus been replaced by the belief in linear non-renewable flows of chemicals: phosphorus and potash mined from geological deposits and nitrogen derived from petroleum. The Green Revolution created the perception that soil fertility is produced in chemical factories, and agricultural yields are measured only through marketed commodities. Yet, as the Punjab experience has shown, the fertility of soils cannot be reduced to Nitrogen-Phosphorus-Potassium inputs from the factories of multinational corporations. Agribusiness technologies cannot substitute nature or work outside of nature's ecological processes without destroying the very basis of agricultural production. Nor can markets provide the only meaningful measure of 'output' and 'yields.'" Vandana Shiva, Indian scholar, feminist, environmentalist, and anti-globalization activist, The Violence of the Green Revolution: Ecological Degradation and Political Conflict in Punjab, book published in 1989. Which of the following could best be used to counter Vandana Shiva's criticism of the effects of globalization on the world's agricultural practices, as outlined in the passage? A. Data on the increasing profits of multinational agribusiness corporations in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries B. Data on the growing numbers of displaced persons as a result of international conflict in the late twentieth century C. Data on population and food production trends in developing countries before the advent of industrial farming in the mid-twentieth century D. Data on the growing rates of income inequality in developed countries in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries

C. Data on population and food production trends in developing countries before the advent of industrial farming in the mid-twentieth century

"1. Every Hutu should know that a Tutsi woman, wherever she is, works for the interest of her ethnic Tutsi group. Consequently, we should consider a traitor every Hutu who marries a Tutsi woman, befriends a Tutsi woman, or employs a Tutsi woman as a secretary. 2. Every Hutu should know that our Hutu daughters are more suitable and dutiful in their roles as women, wives, and mothers of the family. . . . 4. Every Hutu should know that every Tutsi is dishonest in business. Their only aim is supremacy for their ethnic minority group. As a consequence, every Hutu is a traitor who makes a business partnership with a Tutsi, invests his money in a Tutsi enterprise, lends money to a Tutsi, or gives business favors to a Tutsi. 5. All strategic posts, political, administrative, economic, military, and those in the area of security, should be entrusted to the Hutu. 6. The majority of the education sector must be Hutu. 7. The Rwandan armed forces should be exclusively Hutu. No member of the military should marry a Tutsi. 8. The Hutu should stop having mercy on the Tutsi." Excerpt from the "Hutu Ten Commandments," a manifesto published in Kangura, a newspaper dedicated to the promotion of Hutu supremacy, Kigali, Rwanda, 1990 The "Hutu Ten Commandments" is best explained as being part of which of the following continuities in twentieth-century history? A. Authoritarian communist regimes attempting to control the daily lives of their populations B. Liberal governments attempting to manage the interests of competing ethnic groups C. Extremist groups using propaganda to target specific minority populations D. New ideologies emerging and presenting challenges to the economic order

C. Extremist groups using propaganda to target specific minority populations

Source 1: "Wartime travel brought soldiers and carriers into contact with foreign ways of life, resulting in cultural exchange. . . . There is evidence also of Hausa [a West African people] 'experiments in architecture of grass and bamboo construction' while the troops were in East Africa, as well as enthusiasm for gathering souvenirs such as cowries and other East African shells 'with the intention of presenting necklaces and waist belts to their women folk.' . . . . Contact with European science and technology was another factor that contributed to change in Nigeria. Before the war, the men know only the casual, nature-oriented time-sense of the village; army life taught them a new concept of punctuality, compatible with reveille, parades, drills, and deadlines. Many Nigerians took their first ride on a train and saw their first car, aeroplane, and motion picture. Large numbers learned to shoot and care for modern weapons—not only rifles, but machine-guns and artillery. Also, soldiers learned basic hygiene, water sterilization, and other methods of disease control and health care. Thousands of Nigerians received their first vaccination and took their first pill during the war." James K. Matthews, United States military historian, "World War I and the Rise of African Nationalism," The Journal of Modern African Studies, 1982 Source 2: "African deaths in combat can be contrasted with those suffered by the French using a variety of standards. As a percentage of all the soldiers mobilized during the war, Senegalese losses were slightly less than those incurred by the French. The picture changes significantly, however, when only combatants are considered. Using this criterion, Senegalese losses were nearly 20 per cent higher than those sustained by their French counterparts. . . . African soldiers seldom served in the cavalry, artillery, engineering and aviation units, where casualties were substantially lower. . . . If only infantry fatalities are considered, . . . French and African losses between 1914 and 1918 were virtually identical: they amounted to slightly over 22 per cent in both cases. . . . This interpretation . . . neglects, however, to consider [that] . . . the Senegalese were not employed in significant numbers as combatants in Europe before July 1916. Prior to this time, African losses accounted for less than 10 per cent of their eventual wartime total, . . . it was precisely because of the staggering dimensions of French losses during the first 22 months of the war . . . that resistance to the massive recruitment of West Africans and their deployment on the Western Front was overcome. If the time factor is taken into consideration, a very different picture begins to emerge. It indicates that during the last two-and-a-half years of the war, Senegalese casualties in Europe were approximately twice as high as those suffered by French infantry combatants." Joe Lunn, military historian, "Les Races Guerrières': Racial Preconceptions in the French Military about West African Soldiers during the First World War," Journal of Contemporary History, 1999 Which of the following does the author of Source 1 NOT cite as evidence of European science and technology contributing to cultural change in Nigeria? A. New concepts of timekeeping B. Encounters with modern transportation technology C. Gift gathering for women back home D. Adoption of European hygiene concepts

C. Gift gathering for women back home

"It seems that the only way we have of opposing totalitarianism is to reject its lies and start living the truth. Of course, to oppose the government in a society such as ours is very different from opposing a democratic government in an open society. In a repressive society such as ours dissent must start first on the level of individual thinking and conscience, rather than actual political action. The power of our opposition to the Communist regime is, for now, a potential power, which is hidden throughout the whole of society. But once enough members of society have joined our ranks, then this potential power can spring forth (when, where, and under what circumstances it is difficult to predict) into something visible: a real act of political protest, a social movement, a sudden explosion of civil unrest. This is why the regime persecutes dissidents for even the most modest attempts to tell the truth. Why was Solzhenitsyn* driven out of his own country? Certainly not because he wielded any real power or because any of the regime's representatives felt he might unseat them and take their place in government. No—Solzhenitsyn's expulsion was a desperate attempt to plug up a wellspring of truth which the regime feared might one day produce unpredictable consequences. They feared Solzhenitsyn because they realized that the crust of lies they have built around us is very fragile. As long as it seals off completely the entire society, it appears to be made of stone. But the moment someone breaks through in one place, when one person cries out, 'The king has no clothes!' then everything suddenly appears in another light and the whole system can suddenly find itself on the verge of disintegrating." *a Soviet writer who wrote books exposing the oppressive policies of Stalinism Vaclav Havel, Czechoslovak writer and dissident, The Power of the Powerless, essay written in 1978 and distributed as an underground publication in Soviet bloc countries As expressed in the passage, Havel's vision of effecting change in the communist bloc was most consistent with which of the following developments? A. State-led programs to increase press freedom and provide greater transparency on past and present political decisions, such as Gorbachev's glasnost policies B. Market-oriented measures to stimulate private initiative and make state-run plants and factories more competitive, such as Deng Xiaoping's economic reforms in China C. Grassroots citizens' organizations forming to protest the economic and social injustices in the Communist bloc, such as the Solidarity labor union in Poland D. Violent disintegration of states deemed illegitimate or artificially created, such as the collapse of Yugoslavia

C. Grassroots citizens' organizations forming to protest the economic and social injustices in the Communist bloc, such as the Solidarity labor union in Poland

"Just yesterday, you sent me a telegram appealing to my friendship and called upon me to act as an intermediary and help resolve the conflict between you and the Austro-Hungarian government. But I understand that, even as you did that, your troops were being mobilized against Austria-Hungary. This makes my attempts at meditation almost pointless. Nonetheless, I continued in my efforts today. I now receive fresh news of even more serious Russian preparations for war on my Eastern frontier. Responsibility for the safety of my empire forces me to take defensive and preventive measures. In my endeavors to maintain the peace of the world, I have gone to the utmost limit possible. The responsibility for the disaster that is now threatening the civilized world will not be laid at my door. At this moment, you still have the power to avert war. Nobody is threatening the honor or power of Russia, and you can well afford to await the result of my mediation. My friendship for you and your empire, transmitted to me by my grandfather on his deathbed, has always been sacred to me and I have often supported Russia in the past when she was in serious trouble." Wilhelm II, emperor of Germany, telegram to Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, July 31, 1914 Which of the following events that preceded the outbreak of the First World War best explains why Russian troops were being mobilized against Austria-Hungary, as stated in the first paragraph? A. Russia wanted to demonstrate to Austria-Hungary that its military forces had recovered from their defeat during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. B. Russia was confident that its mutual defense treaties with France and Great Britain would ensure that Austria-Hungary would not dare attack it. C. Russia was acting in support of Serbia, which was facing an imminent Austro-Hungarian attack following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. D. Russia wanted to divert its people's attention away from its pressing economic problems and stop the growth of socialist parties.

C. Russia was acting in support of Serbia, which was facing an imminent Austro-Hungarian attack following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.

"I argue that the current state of affairs is unsound and unsustainable. Financial markets are inherently unstable and there are social needs that cannot be met by giving market forces free rein. Unfortunately, these defects are not recognized. Instead, there is a widespread belief that markets are self-correcting. . . . It is claimed that the common interest is best served by allowing everyone to look out for his or her own interests and that attempts to protect the common interest by collective decision making distort the market mechanism. This idea was called laissez-faire in the nineteenth century. . . . I have found a better name for it: market fundamentalism. . . . To put the matter simply, market forces, if they are given complete authority even in the purely economic and financial arenas, produce chaos and could ultimately lead to the downfall of the global financial system. . . . Capitalism needs a counterweight because the capitalist system by itself shows no tendency toward equilibrium. The owners of capital seek to maximize their profits. Left to their own devices, they would continue to accumulate capital until the situation became unbalanced." George Soros, United States financial investment mogul and philanthropist, The Crisis of Global Capitalism, 1998 Which of the following best explains how a supporter of free trade and market deregulation would counter Soros' critiques of free markets in the passage? A. Soros fails to acknowledge the fact that capitalist states continue to promote economic inequality between corporations and workers despite the adoption of social safety nets. B. Soros ignores the fact that government deregulation of financial systems has led to the most serious economic crises in the twentieth century. C. Soros ignores the fact that the adoption of free-market policies by states around the world in the late twentieth century increased standards of living for many people. D. Soros fails to recognize that governments across the world have been reluctant to reduce subsidies for many local industries.

C. Soros ignores the fact that the adoption of free-market policies by states around the world in the late twentieth century increased standards of living for many people.

Source 1: "Wartime travel brought soldiers and carriers into contact with foreign ways of life, resulting in cultural exchange. . . . There is evidence also of Hausa [a West African people] 'experiments in architecture of grass and bamboo construction' while the troops were in East Africa, as well as enthusiasm for gathering souvenirs such as cowries and other East African shells 'with the intention of presenting necklaces and waist belts to their women folk.' . . . . Contact with European science and technology was another factor that contributed to change in Nigeria. Before the war, the men know only the casual, nature-oriented time-sense of the village; army life taught them a new concept of punctuality, compatible with reveille, parades, drills, and deadlines. Many Nigerians took their first ride on a train and saw their first car, aeroplane, and motion picture. Large numbers learned to shoot and care for modern weapons—not only rifles, but machine-guns and artillery. Also, soldiers learned basic hygiene, water sterilization, and other methods of disease control and health care. Thousands of Nigerians received their first vaccination and took their first pill during the war." James K. Matthews, United States military historian, "World War I and the Rise of African Nationalism," The Journal of Modern African Studies, 1982 Source 2: "African deaths in combat can be contrasted with those suffered by the French using a variety of standards. As a percentage of all the soldiers mobilized during the war, Senegalese losses were slightly less than those incurred by the French. The picture changes significantly, however, when only combatants are considered. Using this criterion, Senegalese losses were nearly 20 per cent higher than those sustained by their French counterparts. . . . African soldiers seldom served in the cavalry, artillery, engineering and aviation units, where casualties were substantially lower. . . . If only infantry fatalities are considered, . . . French and African losses between 1914 and 1918 were virtually identical: they amounted to slightly over 22 per cent in both cases. . . . This interpretation . . . neglects, however, to consider [that] . . . the Senegalese were not employed in significant numbers as combatants in Europe before July 1916. Prior to this time, African losses accounted for less than 10 per cent of their eventual wartime total, . . . it was precisely because of the staggering dimensions of French losses during the first 22 months of the war . . . that resistance to the massive recruitment of West Africans and their deployment on the Western Front was overcome. If the time factor is taken into consideration, a very different picture begins to emerge. It indicates that during the last two-and-a-half years of the war, Senegalese casualties in Europe were approximately twice as high as those suffered by French infantry combatants." Joe Lunn, military historian, "Les Races Guerrières': Racial Preconceptions in the French Military about West African Soldiers during the First World War," Journal of Contemporary History, 1999 Which of the following does the author of Source 2 most directly cite as evidence of a higher casualty rate among Senegalese soldiers in combat than among French soldiers in combat? A. The casualty rate as a percentage of all soldiers mobilized for the war B. The casualty rate among infantry units C. The casualty rate after July 1916 D. The casualty rate among cavalry, artillery, engineering, and aviation units

C. The casualty rate after July 1916

"China's achievements in health care across the twentieth century are remarkable. With an estimated average life expectancy of only thirty years in 1900, it is no wonder that China was denigrated as the 'sick man of Asia.' By the end of the century in 2000, however, China's life expectancy had more than doubled, to an estimated seventy-one years. A comparison with the United States highlights the nature of China's achievements. China was seventeen years behind America's life expectancy in 1900 (30 versus 47) and that gap actually widened to twenty-five years (44 versus 69) by mid-century. Yet by 2000, the gap had narrowed to only six years, with China's average life expectancy at 71 and the United States' life expectancy at 77. The weak progress in China in the first half of the century, 1900-1950, was undoubtedly related to the political chaos, foreign invasion, and civil war that characterized China's history in that period. On the other hand, the marked acceleration in health care improvements in the second half of the century, 1950-2000, was achieved due to political stability and strong government commitment to equitable health policies. While not dismissing the usefulness of traditional Chinese medicine, there is strong evidence that the application of modern medical science through hospitals and field-based health-systems operated by well-trained health professionals has a major impact on health outcomes. Social factors are also at work, perhaps the most important of these being the development of universal literacy and the increase in gender equality." Lincoln Chen and Ling Chen, historians, "China's Exceptional Health Transitions," scholarly article, 2014 The authors' discussion in the third paragraph of "the marked acceleration in health care improvements" in China after 1950 refers most directly to which of the following historical developments? A. The collapse of the Chinese Qing dynasty B. The Japanese invasion of Chinese Manchuria C. The communist victory in China's civil war D. The market reforms in China after Mao Zedong's death

C. The communist victory in China's civil war

"Many of my fellow students here have personal collections of stereo recordings of the best rock bands. I know you are a fan of the Beatles, but I must say that they are not among the most popular because they are considered out of date. It is more common here to listen to Deep Purple, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Yes, Queen, Wings, King Crimson, Alice Cooper, Uriah Heep, etc. I underlined those that I like the most. The records with rock music that one can find on the black market here are quite expensive. For example, Uriah Heep's album Salisbury costs 70 rubles, and Paul McCartney's album Ram costs 50 rubles if they are new and still sealed in their original cellophane wrap. But if they have been opened they cost about half that. What are the prices like in Leningrad? We also have a quite well developed system of exchanging and sharing rock records here. Do you have one too? Now, about the blue jeans that I had asked you to get for me: if you manage to obtain them, how much would they cost? If the price is reasonable, I will send you a money order. OK? I gave you my sizes in the past, but in case you lost them—length is 5 or 6; waist 46 or 48." Alexandr A. university student in Novosibirsk, the Soviet Union, letter to his friend Nikolai P., student in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg), 1977 The letter above could best be used to illustrate which of the following aspects of the historical context of the late twentieth century? A. The repressive nature of the Soviet communist regime B. The role of communist ideology in the development of anti-consumerist youth movements C. The globalization of consumer culture despite the rivalries of the Cold War D. The declining quality of Soviet higher education and Soviet universities

C. The globalization of consumer culture despite the rivalries of the Cold War

"Japan's colonial policy aims at extending into its colonies the principle of paternalistic protection followed in the home land. The protection of industry and education, which is a characteristic feature of Japanese administration at home, has largely been transplanted to the Korean peninsula. The results that have followed the industrialization of Korea, for both the native population and the Japanese administration, may be summarized as follows: 1. The development of industries has increased capital in the country and helped Korean society in a general advance toward a capitalistic stage of development. 2. As a result of industrialization, the Japanese administration's financial resources have been increased. 3. Korean mineral products are of kinds that are scarce in Japan proper and consequently there is little competition between Korean and Japanese mineral products. Administration by Japan, the inflow of Japanese capital, and the provision of public education have all tended toward a fundamental transformation of native Korean society. The Koreans are being rapidly modernized and even their inherent seclusive nature is undergoing a marked change. Under their former corrupt rulers, the people were reduced to abject poverty and misery and resigned themselves to fatalism, having been robbed of all incentives to earn and save money. Under Japanese government, however, the Korean people have begun to be active and industrious once again." Tadao Yanaihara, Japanese economist, "Problems of Japanese Administration in Korea," article published in a Canadian journal, 1938 Which of the following best explains the long-term historical significance of the views expressed by Yanaihara in the passage? A. They show that some members of the Japanese elite sought to join larger regional trade organizations in order to expand Japan's economy. B. They show that some members of the Japanese elite feared the growth of communist influence in Asia after the Russian Revolution and Chinese Civil War. C. They show that some members of the Japanese elite sought to justify aggressive Japanese colonial efforts in China and the Pacific region. D. They show that some members of the Japanese elite feared Western influence would disrupt Japan's traditional Shinto cultural and political practices.

C. They show that some members of the Japanese elite sought to justify aggressive Japanese colonial efforts in China and the Pacific region.

"The main promise which Britain held out to South Asian migrants [in the early 1950s] was the promise of relief from the economic stagnation which affected rural life. In this respect, Indian and Pakistani migrants had a lot in common with the peripheral European countrymen and women who moved to the cities of the industrial north during the 1950s and 1960s—the Portuguese who powered French industrial expansion, the Turks in Germany, the Cypriots and Maltese in Britain. . . . Subsistence farmers as far apart as Ireland, Calabria* and the Punjab** were propelled to post-war Britain by the same economic laws. Their only chance of altering their circumstances, indeed of imagining a future at all that was different from the present, lay abroad. . . . Nonetheless, although the villager from India and the villager from Ireland or Italy may have been subject to the same economic laws, they were poles apart when it came to their migrant experiences. 'Before I came [to England] my mother told me not to cut off my hair,*** but I told her frankly, "Ma, they cut it off in Bombay, even before we board the ship." ' The straightforward acceptance by a Sikh immigrant that the symbols of his religion would have to go if he were to find work in British foundries and factories suggests a profoundly pragmatic attitude that was shared by most other Indian migrants—they were not going to let religion get in the way of livelihood. The Partition of India in 1947 had a profound effect on Indian emigration to Britain. During the Partition, in Punjab alone . . . over 5 million Muslims fled or were forced to go, on trains, ox-cart and by foot, from India to West Punjab in Pakistan. Over 3 million Hindus and Sikhs escaped the other way, to settle in East Punjab. But the population transfer was carried out with terrible violence and slaughter . . . as religious communities took revenge on one another. Refugees flooded into Delhi, others tried to settle on newly divided parcels of land on both sides of the border. But the influx of newcomers also meant that the landholdings of residents already settled in East Punjab had to be sliced up, into smaller and smaller pieces, with the new parcels averaging as little as two and a half acres in some places. Punjabis had been shaken loose from their land and . . . for those of them on both sides of the border who decided to move on from this precarious existence, England was merely the last in a series of migrations." *a region in southern Italy **a region on both sides of the India-Pakistan border ***many Sikh men let their hair grow naturally as a sign of respect for God's creation. Clair Wills, British historian, Lovers and Strangers: An Immigrant History of Post-War Britain, book published in 2017 Which of the following best explains why the author brings up the example of the Sikh migrant cutting his hair before coming to England as a way of supporting his argument that the experiences of South Asian and European immigrants to Britain were "poles apart"? A. Unlike European immigrants, South Asian immigrants were escaping poverty and economic stagnation in their homeland. B. Unlike European immigrants, South Asian immigrants could count on the support of existing large migrant communities from their countries of birth. C. Unlike European immigrants, South Asian immigrants had to suppress parts of their culture and remove important religious symbols to fit into British society. D. Unlike European immigrants, South Asian immigrants brought to Britain cultural norms and religious symbols that gave them advantages in competing for industrial jobs.

C. Unlike European immigrants, South Asian immigrants had to suppress parts of their culture and remove important religious symbols to fit into British society.

"Dear Comrade Lenin! I cannot avoid pointing out an outrageous phenomenon that can still be observed all over our Soviet Russia. Even though it has been more than two years since power in Russia has been in the hands of the Soviets, in all major cities certain things can be observed that do not at all indicate the existence of a dictatorship of the proletariat. I want to point out the most insulting one. In our city, Kazan (and as I mentioned, this also happens in all major cities), there live many former factory owners and other members of the bourgeoisie. Even though their factories and businesses have been nationalized, if you enter their apartments you would see them still living as they did in the 'good old times.' These gentlemen do not seem to know that the Civil War is still raging and that power is in the hands of the workers. As in the past, they continue to reside in the most luxurious, spacious, and warm apartments, with luxurious furniture. In their kitchens, you would still see hired cooks with white caps and uniforms, and in their households you would still see a variety of servants. In the summer they still go out to their country houses to 'relax.' When I see this, I become almost ashamed of our proletarian revolution. Why has no attention been paid to this yet? Why are workers not being moved into the bourgeois apartments and the bourgeois into workers' cellars? Why is their furniture and other belongings not being confiscated and distributed to the workers? And anyway, why has this gang of bourgeois parasites not yet been destroyed? I am turning to you, Comrade Lenin, as our leader and the most loyal friend of the proletariat, and I am waiting so that this issue, which concerns me and many other honest communists, can be resolved by an appropriate decree." Letter to Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin from a member of the Communist Party living in Kazan, Russia, November, 1920 The letter's significance as a source of information on popular attitudes to Bolshevik revolutionary policies lies in the fact that it suggests that some Soviet citizens A. condemned the revolution for leaving the means of production in the hands of the bourgeoisie B. felt that the Bolsheviks had gone too far in curtailing the property rights of wealthy Soviet citizens C. supported the Bolsheviks in their nationalization of industrial property but urged them to seize the upper classes' private property as well D. were grateful to the Bolshevik revolutionary government for providing them with improved living conditions in newly built public housing

C. supported the Bolsheviks in their nationalization of industrial property but urged them to seize the upper classes' private property as well

"It seems that the only way we have of opposing totalitarianism is to reject its lies and start living the truth. Of course, to oppose the government in a society such as ours is very different from opposing a democratic government in an open society. In a repressive society such as ours dissent must start first on the level of individual thinking and conscience, rather than actual political action. The power of our opposition to the Communist regime is, for now, a potential power, which is hidden throughout the whole of society. But once enough members of society have joined our ranks, then this potential power can spring forth (when, where, and under what circumstances it is difficult to predict) into something visible: a real act of political protest, a social movement, a sudden explosion of civil unrest. This is why the regime persecutes dissidents for even the most modest attempts to tell the truth. Why was Solzhenitsyn* driven out of his own country? Certainly not because he wielded any real power or because any of the regime's representatives felt he might unseat them and take their place in government. No—Solzhenitsyn's expulsion was a desperate attempt to plug up a wellspring of truth which the regime feared might one day produce unpredictable consequences. They feared Solzhenitsyn because they realized that the crust of lies they have built around us is very fragile. As long as it seals off completely the entire society, it appears to be made of stone. But the moment someone breaks through in one place, when one person cries out, 'The king has no clothes!' then everything suddenly appears in another light and the whole system can suddenly find itself on the verge of disintegrating." *a Soviet writer who wrote books exposing the oppressive policies of Stalinism Vaclav Havel, Czechoslovak writer and dissident, The Power of the Powerless, essay written in 1978 and distributed as an underground publication in Soviet bloc countries In addition to the factors exemplified by the passage, the end of the Cold War was also directly hastened by all of the following EXCEPT A. United States military and diplomatic pressure on the Soviet Union B. a deepening economic crisis as a result of a downturn in oil prices C. the signing of nuclear arms control treaties between the United States and the Soviet Union D. the costly and ultimately unsuccessful Soviet invasion of Afghanistan

C. the signing of nuclear arms control treaties between the United States and the Soviet Union

How did nationalism lead to WWI?

Citizens experienced a strong identification with their own nation, often to the exclusion of other people

Arms Race

Cold war competition between the U.S. and Soviet Union to build up their respective armed forces and weapons. Resulted in the creation of hydrogen bombs and ballistic missiles.

What was the driving force of decolonization after WWII?

Colonies who were promised self-determination after WWI did not receive it and WWII resulted in colonies gaining support from other powers to become decolonized and independent

How did imperialism lead to WWI?

Competition over colonies caused tension and European powers felt threatened by one another.

How did militarism help cause WWI and what is an example of this?

Countries desired to develop and maintain a powerful military in order to aggressively advance their own interests; Britain and Germany invested lots of money into improving their militaries and developed lots of new weapons

"Japan's colonial policy aims at extending into its colonies the principle of paternalistic protection followed in the home land. The protection of industry and education, which is a characteristic feature of Japanese administration at home, has largely been transplanted to the Korean peninsula. The results that have followed the industrialization of Korea, for both the native population and the Japanese administration, may be summarized as follows: 1. The development of industries has increased capital in the country and helped Korean society in a general advance toward a capitalistic stage of development. 2. As a result of industrialization, the Japanese administration's financial resources have been increased. 3. Korean mineral products are of kinds that are scarce in Japan proper and consequently there is little competition between Korean and Japanese mineral products. Administration by Japan, the inflow of Japanese capital, and the provision of public education have all tended toward a fundamental transformation of native Korean society. The Koreans are being rapidly modernized and even their inherent seclusive nature is undergoing a marked change. Under their former corrupt rulers, the people were reduced to abject poverty and misery and resigned themselves to fatalism, having been robbed of all incentives to earn and save money. Under Japanese government, however, the Korean people have begun to be active and industrious once again." Tadao Yanaihara, Japanese economist, "Problems of Japanese Administration in Korea," article published in a Canadian journal, 1938 All of the following statements about Canada in the early twentieth century are factually accurate. Which would most likely help to explain why Yanaihara thought that his claims regarding Korea might be well received by a Canadian audience? A. Unlike Japan, Canada had never sought to acquire overseas colonies. B. Canada had large French and Native American populations that fiercely defended their native cultures. C. Canada had various unresolved territorial disputes with the United States regarding vital waterways such as the Saint Lawrence River. D. Canada's economy grew during most of the early twentieth century under British rule, and Canadian troops willingly helped the British Empire defend its colonial territories in Asia and Africa.

D. Canada's economy grew during most of the early twentieth century under British rule, and Canadian troops willingly helped the British Empire defend its colonial territories in Asia and Africa.

PETITION "To the Honorable Members of the Government of the Province of Manitoba (Canada), and the Honorable Members of the Legislative Assembly of the said Province. WHEREAS the following resolution forms part of the platform of the Liberal Party: 'The Liberal Party believing that there are no just grounds for denying women the right to vote, will enact a measure providing for equal suffrage upon it being established by petition that it is desired by women numbering 15% of the votes cast in the Province in the preceding general election.' AND WHEREAS the Liberal Party is now the party in office in the said Province. NOW THEREFORE the petition of the undersigned humbly shows that: - We, the Petitioners, are women over the age of twenty-one years old and are resident in the Province of Manitoba. - We, the Petitioners, are desirous that a measure be enacted forthwith extending the franchise to women on equal terms with men, in accordance with the ideas of equality. - We, the Petitioners, number 39,584 women, which is in excess of the required number of 17,000 [to meet the 15% requirement in the Liberal Party's program]. THEREFORE, We, the Petitioners, pray that there shall be enacted by the Legislative Assembly during this Session a measure extending the franchise to women on equal terms with men." [39,584 signatures follow] Petition presented by the Political Equality League, a women's rights organization, to the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Manitoba, Canada, 23 December, 1915 The political activism embodied in the petition is best seen in the context of which of the following broader twentieth-century developments? A. Groups and individuals resisting the political violence of the period by adopting the principles of nonviolence B. Groups and individuals leveraging their technical knowledge to secure political and legal rights C. Groups and individuals using radical ideologies to call for resource redistribution D. Groups and individuals using universal principles to challenge established social norms

D. Groups and individuals using universal principles to challenge established social norms

"Throughout the period of Nigeria's short and precarious existence as a single political entity, we Eastern Nigerians have always believed in fundamental human rights as they are accepted and enjoyed in civilized countries. Impelled by our belief in these rights and our sense of common citizenship with other Nigerians, we contributed our ideas and skills, our resourcefulness and dynamism, in the development of areas of Nigeria outside the East. We set up businesses and industries throughout the country, overlooked the neglect of our homeland in the division of national institutions, development projects, and financial resources, made our region's abundant natural resources available to the rest of the country, and confidently invested in the general economic and social development of Nigeria. . . . We used to oppose those who told us that what our former colonial masters made into 'Nigeria' was merely an agglomeration of different peoples, distinct in every way except in the color of their skin, and organized in as a unit solely for the commercial interests and administrative convenience of the colonists. . . . But we have come to realize that national unity is no longer possible. The Nigerian constitution that was adopted after independence in 1960 installed the North in perpetual dominance over Nigeria. Thus were sown, by design or by default, the seeds of factionalism and hate, of struggle for power, and the worst type of political deception. National independence was followed by successive crises, each leading to the near disintegration of the country. Last year alone, tens of thousands of Eastern and Southern Nigerians were killed in pogroms by Northerners in all parts of the country, including the capital, Lagos. We are now facing a situation in which there are only two possible outcomes: either perpetual domination of the rest of the country by the North, not by consent but by force and fraud, or a dissolution of the [Nigerian] federation bond." Lieutenant Colonel C. Odumegwu Ojukwu, Nigerian army officer, proclamation of the breakaway Republic of Biafra [Eastern Nigeria], 19 Which of the following best explains Lt. Colonel Ojukwu's purpose in including the information in the first paragraph in his independence proclamation? A. He wanted to emphasize the continued economic exploitation of Nigeria by Western global capitalism. B. He wanted to convince Nigeria's elected government to compensate Eastern Nigerians for the economic sacrifices they had made in building the country. C. He wanted to advocate for a pan-African solution to the continent's pressing economic and social problems. D. He wanted to outline a list of East Nigerian grievances in order to justify the political action he was about to take.

D. He wanted to outline a list of East Nigerian grievances in order to justify the political action he was about to take.

"Many years later [Prime Minister] Clement Attlee wrote that, if someone asked him, 'What exactly, did Winston [Churchill] do to win the war?' he would have to say 'talk about it.' Edward R. Murrow, the American news correspondent, said much the same thing when he wrote of Churchill's mobilization of words. The effect of his speeches to the nation on British morale is incalculable and can be described, without hyperbole, as transforming. . . . Churchill's words also gripped the attention—as they were meant to—of both politicians and people in the United States and anywhere else that an English-speaking population had access to them. They seriously irritated the Nazis and arguably contributed to Hitler making ill-advised strategic decisions such as switching [German] bombing raids in Britain from airfields to civilian centers. . . . [The speeches themselves] were the first great battle of the Second World War, fought and won, not with Hurricanes* and Spitfires* but with words, passion, and history. . . . In the year that followed the German invasion of France [in May 1940], there was overwhelming evidence of a new-found British social cohesiveness and mutual loyalty. The complete isolation of Britain, fighting on alone, which Hitler not unreasonably assumed would make it a soft target, had precisely the reverse effect. Churchill turned on the 'island nation' rhetoric, and the British people across all classes, with very few exceptions, echoed him. . . . It is impossible not to be struck by the degree to which Britain, which had been such a divided society between the wars, managed to pull together when it mattered most. . . . The unions and employers, so bitterly at odds for so long, now worked together . . . so that no undue [government] pressure needed to be applied to have factories, many of them, of course, staffed by women, working 24 hours a day, seven days a week. The collaborative push made a critical difference to the production of munitions in general, but especially of war planes, which in turn made the difference between winning and losing the Battle of Britain." *British military aircraft used during the Second World War Simon Schama, British historian, A History of Britain: The Fate of Empire, 1776-2000, book published in 2002 Which of the following best explains why Schama uses the claim that the British government did not have to apply any "undue pressure" on either factory owners or factory workers during the war? A. He wanted to explain why Hitler made "ill-advised strategic decisions" in his choice of tactics to use in the war against Britain. B. He wanted to show that military aircraft such as Hurricanes and Spitfires were not the deciding factor in the British victory. C. He wanted to prove his point that Britain was a very divided society between the two world wars. D. He wanted to support his argument that Britons were completely mobilized for the war effort.

D. He wanted to support his argument that Britons were completely mobilized for the war effort.

WORKERS AND SOLDIERS MARCHING IN THE STREETS OF SAINT PETERSBURG, RUSSIAN EMPIRE, AFTER TAKING OVER CONTROL OF THE CITY, FEBRUARY 1917 The makeup of the force shown in the image is best explained by the fact that by 1917 A. nationalism in Russia had intensified sharply as a result of the shared experiences of the First World War B. new military technologies had made it possible to transport soldiers more rapidly C. wartime propaganda had fueled fanatical loyalty to the Tsarist regime among ordinary Russians D. Russia's army morale and home-front effort were collapsing because of the strains of total war

D. Russia's army morale and home-front effort were collapsing because of the strains of total war

"Iron smelting and steel making in the Shaoyang region of Hunan province are rapidly developing on a mass scale. In a short period in the fall of 1958, 12,378 local blast furnaces have been built in this area. The main reason for this remarkable progress in such a short time is that this region has fully carried out the Communist Party's directive to let all the people work in iron and steel production, in keeping with the party's general plan of building socialism. Iron and steel production is not simply a technical job; it is also a political task. Therefore, the first condition for the rapid increase in production was for local party leaders to have the entire party membership mobilized. When the current push to increase production began, many 'experts' wanted to have big foreign blast furnaces. They were not interested in building small local furnaces. They thought we should wait until we've had the opportunity to buy elaborate equipment. Actually, that line of thinking would have resulted in producing less, more slowly, and more expensively. Under the timely guidance of the Party, those tendencies were firmly rejected and the policy of throwing all resources into iron and steel production and letting political cadres take charge was carried out. The strength of the masses is tremendous. All the problems of funds, raw materials, equipment, provisions, etc., which in the past seemed so hard to solve, disappeared before the resourcefulness of the people. In one Hunan county, 67,000 people worked non-stop for three days and nights and built 1025 blast furnaces. Many people, hearing the Party's call, walked over 30 miles to join the work, carrying timber and bamboo and their own food and clothes. In the town of Szetu, local people collected more than 1.6 million yuan [Chinese unit of currency] for the iron and steel effort, with one 50-year-old woman contributing more than 200 yuan, her life savings. Shoemakers donated more than 180,000 pairs of sandals for those building the furnaces. In the town of Tienping, the people solved the housing crisis [of furnace workers coming to the town but not having a place to sleep] by vacating more than 500 rooms in their houses and turning them over to the workers. The people also composed the following song: The Communist Party is really wonderful. In three days more than a thousand furnaces were built. The American imperialists will run off, tails between legs. The Chinese people will now surpass Britain. The East wind will always prevail over the West wind." Yin Zeming, Chinese government official, The Strength of the Masses is Limitless, pamphlet published in English by the Beijing Foreign Languages Press, a Chinese government publishing house, 1958 Which of the following best explains the significance of the intended audience of Yin Zeming's pamphlet in shaping the author's narrative? A. Since it was intended for a domestic Chinese audience skeptical of the economic reforms, the pamphlet seeks to rally the people behind the party line. B. Since it was aimed at an audience of Communist Party cadres, the pamphlet discusses at length the responsibilities of party officials in implementing the reforms. C. Since it was mostly intended to document the technological and economic achievements of Communist China, the pamphlet refrains from making any overtly political statements. D. Since it targets an international audience across the Cold War divide, the pamphlet presents an idealized, propaganda-tinged vision of Chinese accomplishments.

D. Since it targets an international audience across the Cold War divide, the pamphlet presents an idealized, propaganda-tinged vision of Chinese accomplishments.

B-24 LIBERATOR BOMBERS NEARING COMPLETION AT THE CONSOLIDATED AIRCRAFT CORPORATION PLANT, FORT WORTH, TEXAS, 1942 The image is best understood in which of the following contexts of both the Second World War and the Cold War? A. The greater ability of totalitarian regimes to mobilize their populations for war B. The negative economic effects of excessive military spending C. The ideological differences that informed both conflicts D. The continued importance of industry in improving military capacity

D. The continued importance of industry in improving military capacity

Source 1 "The purposes of the new international organization should be: 1. To maintain international peace and security and take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to peace and to settle international disputes by peaceful means. 2. To develop friendly relations among nations to strengthen universal peace. 3. To achieve international cooperation in the solution of international economic, social, and other humanitarian problems. A Security Council to make decisions related to maintaining peace will be established that should consist of one representative of each of eleven members of the organization. Representatives of the United States of America, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, the Republic of China, and France, should have permanent seats." Agreement reached by the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and China, Washington D.C., 1944 Source 2 "The purposes of the new international bank are: 1. To assist collectively in the reconstruction and development of members' countries by facilitating cooperation among member states in the restoration of economies destroyed or disrupted by war and the encouragement of the development of productive facilities and resources in less developed countries. 2. To promote private foreign investment by means of guarantees or participations in loans to member countries. 3. To promote the long-range balanced growth of international trade, thereby assisting in raising productivity, the standard of living, and conditions of labor in member countries' territories. The Executive Directors shall be responsible for the conduct of the general operations of the bank, and for this purpose, shall exercise all the powers delegated to them by the Board of Governors. Five of the executive directors will be appointed by the five members having the largest number of shares in the bank. The other directors will be elected from the other member states. The purposes of the International Monetary Fund are: 1. To promote international monetary cooperation through a permanent institution that facilitates consultation and collaboration on international monetary problems. 2. To facilitate the expansion and balanced growth of international trade." Agreement reached between delegates from 44 nations, Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, 1944 Which of the following best describes a difference between the purpose of the institution established in Source 1 and the purpose of the institutions established in Source 2 ? A. The institution established in Source 1 was intended to maintain the global balance of power, while the institutions established in Source 2 were intended to eliminate poverty. B. The institutions established in Source 2 were intended to regulate global banking, while the institution established in Source 1 tried to foster diplomacy between rival military blocs. C. The institution established in Source 1 was intended to stop the spread of communism, while the institutions established in Source 2 were intended to prevent future financial crises. D. The institution established in Source 1 was intended to prevent war, while the institutions established in Source 2were intended to promote economic development and international trade.

D. The institution established in Source 1 was intended to prevent war, while the institutions established in Source 2were intended to promote economic development and international trade.

"The German people once built up a colonial empire without robbing anyone and without violating any treaty. That colonial empire was taken away from us unreasonably. First, it was said that the natives in those colonies did not want to belong to Germany. But, who asked them if they wished to belong to some other power and when were these natives ever asked if they had been content with the power that formerly ruled them? Second, it is stated that the colonies were not administered properly by the Germans, but Germany had these colonies only for a few decades and they were in a process of development. Third, it is said that the colonies are of no real value. But, if that is the case, then they can be of no value to any other state. Moreover, Germany has never demanded colonies for military purposes, but exclusively for economic purposes. It is obvious that in times of general prosperity the value of certain territories may decrease, but it is just as evident that in times of distress such value increases. Today, Germany lives in a time of difficult struggle for foodstuffs and raw materials. Sufficient imports are conceivable only if there is a continued and lasting increase in our exports. Therefore, as a matter of course, our demand for colonies for our densely populated country will be put forward again and again." Adolf Hitler, German chancellor, speech delivered in the German parliament, 1937 The point of view that Hitler expresses in the first three paragraphs is most directly significant in helping to explain how which of the following contributed to starting the Second World War? A. Nationalist movements in European colonies opposing imperialism B. Ideological rivalry between fascist and communist states C. The use of mass media such as radio to spread propaganda D. The provisions of the Treaty of Versailles that ended the First World War

D. The provisions of the Treaty of Versailles that ended the First World War

"It seems that the only way we have of opposing totalitarianism is to reject its lies and start living the truth. Of course, to oppose the government in a society such as ours is very different from opposing a democratic government in an open society. In a repressive society such as ours dissent must start first on the level of individual thinking and conscience, rather than actual political action. The power of our opposition to the Communist regime is, for now, a potential power, which is hidden throughout the whole of society. But once enough members of society have joined our ranks, then this potential power can spring forth (when, where, and under what circumstances it is difficult to predict) into something visible: a real act of political protest, a social movement, a sudden explosion of civil unrest. This is why the regime persecutes dissidents for even the most modest attempts to tell the truth. Why was Solzhenitsyn* driven out of his own country? Certainly not because he wielded any real power or because any of the regime's representatives felt he might unseat them and take their place in government. No—Solzhenitsyn's expulsion was a desperate attempt to plug up a wellspring of truth which the regime feared might one day produce unpredictable consequences. They feared Solzhenitsyn because they realized that the crust of lies they have built around us is very fragile. As long as it seals off completely the entire society, it appears to be made of stone. But the moment someone breaks through in one place, when one person cries out, 'The king has no clothes!' then everything suddenly appears in another light and the whole system can suddenly find itself on the verge of disintegrating." *a Soviet writer who wrote books exposing the oppressive policies of Stalinism Vaclav Havel, Czechoslovak writer and dissident, The Power of the Powerless, essay written in 1978 and distributed as an underground publication in Soviet bloc countries The passage can best be used to illustrate which of the following developments in the 1970s and 1980s? A. The way in which squabbles among party leaders and intraparty power rivalries gradually undermined the legitimacy of communist regimes in Eastern Europe B. The way in which the mobilization of society during the Cold War gave people in Eastern Europe the strength to endure economic hardships C. The way in which the liberalization of Soviet policies following the death of Stalin allowed people in the Eastern bloc to express a wide variety of opinions and viewpoints D. The way in which government efforts to suppress criticism and restrict freedom of speech proved ineffective in stemming public discontent within communist regimes

D. The way in which government efforts to suppress criticism and restrict freedom of speech proved ineffective in stemming public discontent within communist regimes

"The Russian strategy can be seen at work on many fronts. In Austria the Russians claim 50% of all Austrian industry. In Paris they fight for an arrangement that will allow Yugoslavia to dominate Trieste. In Berlin they carry on a continued press campaign against the Western world but ban our newspapers from the sector if they contain the slightest criticism of Soviet policy. They control the University of Berlin because it is in their sector and impose rigid political tests upon the student body, but they also control the schools of all sectors through the domination of the Berlin Magistrate, established before our entrance. Thus far, it has been impossible to eliminate their Communist textbooks from the western sectors. They always appeal to the Potsdam accord* when it serves their ends and violate it when it suits their purposes. Their officers travel in our zone, marking factory equipment for dismantlement and shipment to Russia. But what they do in their zone is shrouded in mystery and there is some evidence that they are setting this equipment up, not in Russia but in Russian Germany. With millions of troops spread through the whole of Eastern Europe, they are now engaged in a press campaign against Western armies of occupation." *an agreement reached between the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union regarding the administration and occupation of Germany following the Second World War Reinhold Niebuhr, United States theologian and political commentator, "The Fight for Germany," article published in Life magazine, 1946 Which of the following most likely explains why Niebuhr chose to publish his article in a popular publication like Life magazine? A. Magazines with opinions that were hostile to the Soviet Union could be more easily smuggled into Eastern Europe than books. B. The fact that the magazine was not controlled by the United States government would help convince people in Eastern Europe that the opinions expressed were sincere. C. While the political elite of the United States was already in agreement with Niebuhr's position, the general public was generally opposed to it. D. To change government policies in a democratic country like the United States, it was first necessary to change public opinion.

D. To change government policies in a democratic country like the United States, it was first necessary to change public opinion.

"Many of my fellow students here have personal collections of stereo recordings of the best rock bands. I know you are a fan of the Beatles, but I must say that they are not among the most popular because they are considered out of date. It is more common here to listen to Deep Purple, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Yes, Queen, Wings, King Crimson, Alice Cooper, Uriah Heep, etc. I underlined those that I like the most. The records with rock music that one can find on the black market here are quite expensive. For example, Uriah Heep's album Salisbury costs 70 rubles, and Paul McCartney's album Ram costs 50 rubles if they are new and still sealed in their original cellophane wrap. But if they have been opened they cost about half that. What are the prices like in Leningrad? We also have a quite well developed system of exchanging and sharing rock records here. Do you have one too? Now, about the blue jeans that I had asked you to get for me: if you manage to obtain them, how much would they cost? If the price is reasonable, I will send you a money order. OK? I gave you my sizes in the past, but in case you lost them—length is 5 or 6; waist 46 or 48." Alexandr A. university student in Novosibirsk, the Soviet Union, letter to his friend Nikolai P., student in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg), 1977 Considering the global context of the 1970s, which of the following would have been the most significant difference between young people living outside the Communist bloc and the two young men in the source? A. Young people outside the Communist bloc would have been unlikely to listen to records of rock music. B. Young people outside the Communist bloc would not have been familiar with major American and British rock bands. C. Young people outside the Communist bloc would have been unlikely to wear or aspire to wear blue jeans. D. Young people outside the Communist bloc would have been unlikely to need to buy Western goods on the black market.

D. Young people outside the Communist bloc would have been unlikely to need to buy Western goods on the black market.

"Throughout the period of Nigeria's short and precarious existence as a single political entity, we Eastern Nigerians have always believed in fundamental human rights as they are accepted and enjoyed in civilized countries. Impelled by our belief in these rights and our sense of common citizenship with other Nigerians, we contributed our ideas and skills, our resourcefulness and dynamism, in the development of areas of Nigeria outside the East. We set up businesses and industries throughout the country, overlooked the neglect of our homeland in the division of national institutions, development projects, and financial resources, made our region's abundant natural resources available to the rest of the country, and confidently invested in the general economic and social development of Nigeria. . . . We used to oppose those who told us that what our former colonial masters made into 'Nigeria' was merely an agglomeration of different peoples, distinct in every way except in the color of their skin, and organized in as a unit solely for the commercial interests and administrative convenience of the colonists. . . . But we have come to realize that national unity is no longer possible. The Nigerian constitution that was adopted after independence in 1960 installed the North in perpetual dominance over Nigeria. Thus were sown, by design or by default, the seeds of factionalism and hate, of struggle for power, and the worst type of political deception. National independence was followed by successive crises, each leading to the near disintegration of the country. Last year alone, tens of thousands of Eastern and Southern Nigerians were killed in pogroms by Northerners in all parts of the country, including the capital, Lagos. We are now facing a situation in which there are only two possible outcomes: either perpetual domination of the rest of the country by the North, not by consent but by force and fraud, or a dissolution of the [Nigerian] federation bond." Lieutenant Colonel C. Odumegwu Ojukwu, Nigerian army officer, proclamation of the breakaway Republic of Biafra [Eastern Nigeria], 19 Based on the author's point of view, it is most likely that the information presented in the passage A. understates the economic contributions Eastern Nigerians had made to the unified Nigerian state B. inadvertently misrepresents the extent of regional differences and identities in Nigerian society C. glosses over the responsibility of corrupt politicians in creating the problems facing the unified Nigerian state D. overstates the extent to which Northern Nigerians were responsible for undermining the united Nigerian state

D. overstates the extent to which Northern Nigerians were responsible for undermining the united Nigerian state

"The German people once built up a colonial empire without robbing anyone and without violating any treaty. That colonial empire was taken away from us unreasonably. First, it was said that the natives in those colonies did not want to belong to Germany. But, who asked them if they wished to belong to some other power and when were these natives ever asked if they had been content with the power that formerly ruled them? Second, it is stated that the colonies were not administered properly by the Germans, but Germany had these colonies only for a few decades and they were in a process of development. Third, it is said that the colonies are of no real value. But, if that is the case, then they can be of no value to any other state. Moreover, Germany has never demanded colonies for military purposes, but exclusively for economic purposes. It is obvious that in times of general prosperity the value of certain territories may decrease, but it is just as evident that in times of distress such value increases. Today, Germany lives in a time of difficult struggle for foodstuffs and raw materials. Sufficient imports are conceivable only if there is a continued and lasting increase in our exports. Therefore, as a matter of course, our demand for colonies for our densely populated country will be put forward again and again." Adolf Hitler, German chancellor, speech delivered in the German parliament, 1937 Based on the historical situation in which the speech was given, Hitler's most significant motivation for giving the speech was likely to continue to A. make his case to the German people that Jews and other minority populations were a threat to Germany B. eliminate potential opposition to Nazi rule by labeling political opponents as traitors to the German nation C. overstate the extent to which Nazi economic policies had helped Germany overcome the unjust actions of its Western European rivals and prosper again D. reinforce the idea to the German people that past injustices required Germany to continue its military buildup and engage in future territorial expansion

D. reinforce the idea to the German people that past injustices required Germany to continue its military buildup and engage in future territorial expansion

"The main promise which Britain held out to South Asian migrants [in the early 1950s] was the promise of relief from the economic stagnation which affected rural life. In this respect, Indian and Pakistani migrants had a lot in common with the peripheral European countrymen and women who moved to the cities of the industrial north during the 1950s and 1960s—the Portuguese who powered French industrial expansion, the Turks in Germany, the Cypriots and Maltese in Britain. . . . Subsistence farmers as far apart as Ireland, Calabria* and the Punjab** were propelled to post-war Britain by the same economic laws. Their only chance of altering their circumstances, indeed of imagining a future at all that was different from the present, lay abroad. . . . Nonetheless, although the villager from India and the villager from Ireland or Italy may have been subject to the same economic laws, they were poles apart when it came to their migrant experiences. 'Before I came [to England] my mother told me not to cut off my hair,*** but I told her frankly, "Ma, they cut it off in Bombay, even before we board the ship." ' The straightforward acceptance by a Sikh immigrant that the symbols of his religion would have to go if he were to find work in British foundries and factories suggests a profoundly pragmatic attitude that was shared by most other Indian migrants—they were not going to let religion get in the way of livelihood. The Partition of India in 1947 had a profound effect on Indian emigration to Britain. During the Partition, in Punjab alone . . . over 5 million Muslims fled or were forced to go, on trains, ox-cart and by foot, from India to West Punjab in Pakistan. Over 3 million Hindus and Sikhs escaped the other way, to settle in East Punjab. But the population transfer was carried out with terrible violence and slaughter . . . as religious communities took revenge on one another. Refugees flooded into Delhi, others tried to settle on newly divided parcels of land on both sides of the border. But the influx of newcomers also meant that the landholdings of residents already settled in East Punjab had to be sliced up, into smaller and smaller pieces, with the new parcels averaging as little as two and a half acres in some places. Punjabis had been shaken loose from their land and . . . for those of them on both sides of the border who decided to move on from this precarious existence, England was merely the last in a series of migrations." *a region in southern Italy **a region on both sides of the India-Pakistan border ***many Sikh men let their hair grow naturally as a sign of respect for God's creation. Clair Wills, British historian, Lovers and Strangers: An Immigrant History of Post-War Britain, book published in 2017 The argument in the third paragraph regarding the connection between the Partition of India in 1947 and Punjabi migrations to Britain in the 1950s is most directly supported by the author's claim that A. more Muslims than Hindus were displaced by the Partition in Punjab, leading to disproportionate numbers of migrants to Britain being Muslim B. the Partition was accompanied by large-scale mass violence, leading to significant loss of life C. India's cities were flooded with Punjabi refugees from the Partition seeking economic opportunity there D. resettling Partition refugees led to an economic crisis in rural Punjab, leading to further population movements

D. resettling Partition refugees led to an economic crisis in rural Punjab, leading to further population movements

"Compatriots throughout the country! We have made concessions for peace during our negotiations with the French to end the war.* But the more concessions we made, the more the French colonialists were determined to maintain their control over Vietnam despite their promises. No! We would rather sacrifice everything than lose our country and return to slavery. Compatriots! Rise up! Men and women, old and young, regardless of religion, political parties, or nationalities, all the Vietnamese must stand up to fight the French colonialists to save the Fatherland. Those who have rifles must use their rifles. Those who have swords must use their swords. Those who have no swords must use their spades, hoes, and sticks. Everyone must endeavor to oppose the colonialists and save their country. Soldiers, self-defense guards, militiamen! The hour of national liberation has struck! We must sacrifice to our last drop of blood to save our country. We must be ready to endure any hardship. With the determination to sacrifice, victory will be ours! Long live an independent and unified Vietnam! Long live the victorious resistance!" *In 1945 Ho Chi Minh proclaimed an independent republic of Vietnam and war with France broke out in 1946. Ho Chi Minh, Vietnamese political leader, appeal to the Vietnamese population, 1946 Compared to the position of anticolonial movements earlier in the twentieth century, the prospects for movements such as Ho Chi Minh's in the mid-twentieth century could most accurately be described as A. weaker because of the growth of Cold War tensions between communist and noncommunist countries B. weaker because of improvements in military technology achieved by imperial powers C. stronger because of the shift of industry to overseas colonial territories D. stronger because the Second World War weakened imperialist powers

D. stronger because the Second World War weakened imperialist powers

"China's achievements in health care across the twentieth century are remarkable. With an estimated average life expectancy of only thirty years in 1900, it is no wonder that China was denigrated as the 'sick man of Asia.' By the end of the century in 2000, however, China's life expectancy had more than doubled, to an estimated seventy-one years. A comparison with the United States highlights the nature of China's achievements. China was seventeen years behind America's life expectancy in 1900 (30 versus 47) and that gap actually widened to twenty-five years (44 versus 69) by mid-century. Yet by 2000, the gap had narrowed to only six years, with China's average life expectancy at 71 and the United States' life expectancy at 77. The weak progress in China in the first half of the century, 1900-1950, was undoubtedly related to the political chaos, foreign invasion, and civil war that characterized China's history in that period. On the other hand, the marked acceleration in health care improvements in the second half of the century, 1950-2000, was achieved due to political stability and strong government commitment to equitable health policies. While not dismissing the usefulness of traditional Chinese medicine, there is strong evidence that the application of modern medical science through hospitals and field-based health-systems operated by well-trained health professionals has a major impact on health outcomes. Social factors are also at work, perhaps the most important of these being the development of universal literacy and the increase in gender equality." Lincoln Chen and Ling Chen, historians, "China's Exceptional Health Transitions," scholarly article, 2014 The authors' argument in the third paragraph concerning the effect of "social factors" on the effectiveness of a country's healthcare system likely refers to all of the following general trends in the twentieth century EXCEPT A. the high likelihood that a literate population would follow medical advice regarding vaccinations and child healthcare B. the high likelihood that improvements in gender equality would lead to adoption of modern family-planning techniques C. the high likelihood that rising educational levels would lead to the adoption of healthier lifestyles D. the high likelihood that increasing longevity would lead to an increase in overall healthcare costs

D. the high likelihood that increasing longevity would lead to an increase in overall healthcare costs

Benito Mussolini

Fascist dictator of Italy that reorganized the Italian economy into corporatism, which resulted in totalitarianism

Adolf Hitler

Fascist leader of the Nazi Party, who were inspired by the fascist Italians. Also cancelled German reparation payments.

Why was the public discontent with the Soviet Union?

Foreign trade was limited, the government stifled the agriculture industry, and the countries which the Soviets had power over were upset by their repressive policies.

Decolonization in Vietnam (Indochina)

France lost colonial occupation of Vietnam after WWII but then gained the Southern portion back. The communist government in the North wanted to oust the French completely, so Ho Chi Minh initiates the Vietnamese War for Independence.

How did the global economy change after 1900and what are examples of this development?

Free market economies were increasingly used: - Free market economies established by nations formerly a part of the Soviet Bloc - Nations in the Non-Aligned movement had more opportunities for free market economies - The U.S. and Great Britain, led by Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher respectively, were capitalist powers and encouraged the growth of free markets around the world - Augusto Pinochet led the Chilean economy to be come a free market, thus leading Chile to have a more balanced economy in the future

How did Mohandas Gandhi resist power structures in India?

Gandhi led the Indian National Congress to resist oppressive British rule with nonviolent civil disobedience. With the Homespun Movement, he led the Indian people to spin their own clothes, as the British colonial government had been unjustly buying cotton from India and shipping the textiles back to India at inflated prices. He also led the Salt March to protest the British salt monopoly by leading people to the sea to harvest their own salt.

How did the German government respond to the severe reparations they were faced with after WWI and how did this ultimately affect other nations?

Germany printed more money, resulting in hyperinflation, which meant that Germany still could not pay their reparations and were in debt to the allied powers, who still had suffering economies due to war spending. This also meant that colonial governments could not receive their promised reparations from their parent countries.

Central Powers in WWI

Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire

How did interactions between nations change after WWII and the Cold War?

Global competition mostly turned into global cooperation ---> UN, European Union, WTO

General causes for poor environmental conditions

Globalization, industrialization, population growth, and urbanization

How did Francisco Franco resist power structures in Spain?

He overthrew the government and severely and violently punished anyone who resisted and challenged him, even if they did so nonviolently.

What influenced workers in West Africa to go on strike?

Ideas of natural rights and social contract

How did Idi Amin resist power structures in Uganda?

Idi Amin was a military dictator who led Uganda and intensified ethnic tensions and denied human rights. He also severely and violently punished anyone who resisted and challenged him.

What was the most significant continuity after WWI?

Imperialism

How did the government play a strong role in the economic development of India?

India Gandhi attempts to resolve India's poor economy by reforming corrupt laws, increasing national production, and alleviating inflation.

Hindu-Muslim conflict in India

India was for Hindus and Pakistan was for Muslims, but immigration between these two states led to violence as India was a democracy and Pakistan was authoritarian. Kashmir, a state with a Hindu leader and a Muslim population, was desired by both sides. However, India, Pakistan, and China claimed different portions of the region.

Internal and external problems in China after 1900

Internal - ethnic tension between the Qing and Han - threat of famine - low tax revenue --> poor infrastructure External - economically dominated by industrialized powers

Why was the Soviet Union a world superpower after WWII?

It had a huge size, huge population, and was industrialized

Why was the U.S. a world superpower after WWII?

It suffered nearly no damage to its infrastructure and industry in WWII

What role did Japan play in Korean unrest?

Japan completely encroached the Korean Peninsula, and the Koreans resented the Japanese colonial rule and protested

German Holocaust

Jews, among other minority groups, were sent to concentration camps, ghettos, and even death camps such as Auschwitz as a result of severe anti-semitism

How did the government play a strong role in the economic development of Tanzania?

Julius Nyerere initiated socialist policies and vouched for less aid from outside nations, but these ideas were ultimately unsuccessful.

Kwame Nkrumah

Leader of Ghana who advocated for the unity of all Africans

Mao Zedong

Leader of the Chinese Communist party who wanted a communist revolution similar to the one in Russia

Sun Yat-Sen

Leads a revolution to overthrow the Qing Dynasty, though he did keep China with the Confucian values of the Qing. However, he did attempt to implement a democracy. He was also the leader of the Chinese nationalist party, and wanted independence and industrialization in China.

How did Nelson Mandela resist discrimination in South Africa?

Mandela nonviolently resisted Apartheid, a system of racial discrimination established in South Africa by the white minority population there, which resulted in jail time for life. However, he did in fact inspire a global movement for the end of Apartheid, and when it was abolished, he was released and elected as the South African president.

Who won the Chinese Civil War?

Mao Zedong and the Communists

Propoganda

Media which was used to motivate people to win the war

Potsdam Conference

Meeting between leaders Truman, Stalin and Churchill where Truman voices for free elections, but Stalin refuses

Yalta Conference

Meeting with US president FDR, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and and Soviet Leader Stalin during WWII to plan for post-war where it was untruthfully decided by Stalin that free elections would occur in Eastern Europe after the war

How did the colonies of world powers participate in WWI?

Members of a parent nation's colony fought for the parent country, as the parent country promised them freedom and self-rule (ex: Africans, Indians, and Australians fought for the British)

Land Reform in Ethiopia

Mengistu Haile Mariam leads an overthrow of the Ethiopian government (which served as a 'puppet' of Western powers), which was successful, and he establishes a socialist government in its place and initiates land redistribution. However, this does in fact lead to famine and death once again.

Decolonization in Nigeria

Nigerians negotiated independence from Britain, but a civil war broke out over who should control Nigeria and to stop the establishment of Biafra as an independent state from Nigeria. The North establishes a united Nigeria.

Tiananmen Square Massacre

Pro-democracy protestors demanded that the Chinese Communist party enact reforms such as freedom of press, and the protest went on for 7 weeks. Ultimately, the military came and attacked the protestors, so the Chinese government tried to censor the event from the news.

Quebecois Separatist Movement

Quebec in Canada was a French colony but the rest of Canada was occupied by the British, thus resulting in movements to make Quebec a separate state. However, these movements failed and Quebec remains united with Canada.

How did the government play a strong role in the economic development of Sri Lanka?

Sirimavo Bandaranaike becomes the world's first female prime minister, but Sri Lanka suffered under her socialist policies.

Influenza Pandemic

Soldiers returning from war carried the influenza virus back home, and it spread to the extent where it became a worldwide pandemic

Decolonization in Algeria

The Algerians violently rose up against French colonial rule, but the French did not want to let go of Algeria. The nationalism of the Algerians resulted in the initiation of the Algerian War for Independence.

Decolonization in French West Africa

The French ruled the colony with the cooperation of local West African governments, but when these relationships crumbled and French resources grew scarce, independence was negotiated.

White Revolution in Iran

The Iranian govt. forcibly bought land from wealthy landowners and sold it to peasants for less money

Land reform in Iran

The Iranian shah was supportive of Hitler, so the Allies took him out of power, invaded, and set up a new shah. The Iranians did not like this so they established their own prime minister, but Britain and Russia put an authoritarian leader back into place.

Newly independent state in Israel

The Jews wanted a separate state in Palestine in Israel, but Israel was occupied by Muslims. Jews immigrated from Europe to Palestine following the Holocaust, which the Muslims opposed. However, the United Nations partitioned Israel into Jewish and Arab sections. This resulted in war, and tension still exists today.

How did the failed Soviet invasion of Afghanistan result in the end of the Cold War?

The Soviets installed a new president in Afghanistan who was friendly to the Soviets themselves, but the people were not happy with this. The Soviets remained in Afghanistan to prevent rebellions, but the war lasted for a decade which put a strain on the Soviet economy. The Soviets lost this war.

Cuban Missile Crisis

The U.S. attempts but fails to remove Cuban communist leader Fidel Castro, prompting the Soviet Union to send nuclear missiles to aid Cuba, though Cuba did not actually fire these missiles. The missiles only served as a threat to the U.S., in the same way that the nuclear missiles the U.S. placed in Turkey (which bordered the Soviet Union) was a threat to the Soviets.

What was the effect of Japan expanding into Southeast Asia?

The U.S. imposes harsh economic sanctions on Japan, as the U.S. was one of the western nations that controlled SE Asian nations

Great Depression

The U.S. stock market crashes, thus affecting other countries involved in WWI

What was the largest driving force of the Cold War?

The U.S.'s possession of knowledge of the atomic bomb without telling allies pushed Russia over the edge

What is the Battle for Seattle?

The WTO held a meeting in Seattle in 1999, and 40,000 protestors showed up to promote free trade

What actually sparked WWI?

The assassination of Franz Ferdinand, the Archduke of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, by the Black Hand, a Serbian terrorist group

Effect of the economic sanctions imposed on Japan by the U.S.

The attack of Pearl Harbor, which prompts Franklin Delano Roosevelt to declare war on Japan, and the U.S. drops atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, resulting in Japan surrendering and ending WWII

What is the Military Industrial Complex?

The close relationship between military spending and the military industry. If military spending went up, so did the reliance of people on this spending because of their jobs in the military industry. If there was a decrease in military spending, the jobs and financial stability of many people would be on the line.

Land reform in Vietnam

The communists gained power in North Vietnam and seized land from landowners to sell it to the poor

What was the outcome of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women?

The establishment of an international Bill of Rights for women

How did alliances lead to WWI?

The existing alliances dragged nations into the war

What is the Green Revolution?

The genetic modification of crops such as wheat by scientists to yield more abundant harvests and resist pests.

What is a metropole?

The home territory (parent nation) of a colonial power.

New Deal

The idea of Franklin Delano Roosevelt which promoted people to work jobs building public infrastructure to resolve the poor economic conditions in the U.S. resulting from the Great Depression. An example of government intervention in the economy.

Genocide

The intentional slaughter of a large group of people who belong to a certain ethnicity or nationality

Mohandas Gandhi

The leader of the Indian Independence movement of non-violent protests and civil disobedience (such as making their own clothes to protest the corrupt British textile industry)

Who was Mikhail Gorbachev?

The leader of the Russia who put an end to the Soviet Union with Perestroika (allowed free enterprise in the Soviet economy) and Glasnost (allowed for an open political process and more freedom). This also resulted in the Soviet Union no longer repressing other countries.

What is the Dalit?

The lowest caste in India, which was discriminated against, thus resulting in the Caste Reservation System, which reserved jobs and education for the Dalit.

Why didn't the US and the Soviet Union want to engage in direct military conflict?

The nuclear weapons they created were so dangerous and devastating that firing them at each other would result in Mutual Assured Destruction

Institutional Revolutionary Party

The party which helped to improve the Mexican economy after the Mexican Revolution by nationalizing their oil industry

How have poor living conditions such as pests (like mosquitoes), urban living conditions, contaminated water, and limited access to healthcare affected those in poverty?

They are more susceptible to diseases such as malaria, tuberculosis, and cholera

After WWI, what happened to colonies?

They experienced their own nationalism and desired freedom and self-rule from their parent country

How does the rise of global consumerism with companies such as Apple, Nike, and Amazon reflect a change from earlier times?

This global consumerism contrasts with exchange on routes such as the Silk Road because it is significantly faster and more widespread.

How did the immigration of those who lived in colonies to metropoles affect both groups?

This migration allowed the metropoles and former colonies to maintain cultural and economic ties.

What is the purpose of the International Monetary Fund/World Bank?

To reduce global poverty (however it is believed that they favored richer nations over poorer ones)

How has the use of new energy technologies influenced the environment and production?

Use of petroleum and natural gas instead of coal increased productivity in manufacturing, yet causes significant pollution as it is non-renewable, as opposed to nuclear energy (cleaner and is renewable), which is no longer used due to the disaster at the Chernobyl power plant in the Soviet Union which released substantial amounts of radiation in the environment.

Newly independent state in Cambodia

Vietnam invades Cambodia to help over throw corrupt communist leader Pol Pot, but ends up actually occupying Cambodia, which the people did not like. When Vietnam leaves, Cambodia becomes a democratic state with free elections.