APEH
Petrarch
"Father of humanism" and first modern writer, literature was no longer subordinate to religion. Saw the Medieval period as the "Dark Ages"
Isabella d'Este (1474-1539)
"First Lady" of the Renaissance - Set an example for women to break away from their traditional roles as mere ornaments to their husbands. Ruled Mantua after her husband died; extremely well educated and a big patron of the arts. Founded a school for young women
Xenophobia (anti-immigration)
"Guest Workers" became a major source of tension among right-wing nationalists
Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)
"Star Wars": 1983, Reagan announced his intention to pursue a high-technology missile-defense system
Charles II
"The Merry Monarch" Stuarts restored to the throne
Frederick I
"The Ostentatious" (1688-1713); 1st "King of Prussia". Allied with Habsburgs in War of League of Augsburg and War of Spanish Succession to preserve the balance of power in Europe
Paul Valéry
"cruelly injured mind" besieged by doubts and suffering from anxieties due to economic, political ,and social disruptions of the 1920s.
Willy Brandt
"eastern initiative" -- West German chancellor, began to improve relations with Eastern Europe. Sought a comprehensive peace settlement for central Europe and a new resolution of the "German Question."
Henrik Ibsen (1828-1906)
"father of modern drama"; realism in his plays
David Ricardo
"iron law of wages": plentiful supply of workers would keep wages low, to the detriment of the working class.
David Ricardo (1772-1823)
"iron law" of wages -- argued that the high pressure of population would cause wages to always be low.
The "Belle Époque" (c. 1895-1914)
"the good old days"; Increased standard of living in all industrialized countries (e.g. Britain, France, Germany), Increased leisure time resulted with higher wages and salaries
Established "People's' Republic of China"
("Red China"), established by Mao Zedong
Perestroika
("restructuring"), aimed to revive sagging Soviet economy by adopting many of the free-market practices of the West; by 1987 the program had clearly failed
Perestroika
("restructuring"): aimed to revive sagging Soviet economy by adopting many of the free-market practices of the West; by 1987 the program had clearly failed
Ivan III the Great
(1442-1505) Ended Mongol domination of Muscovy. Established himself as hereditary ruler of Muscovy, Saw Moscow as the "Third Rome": Assumed leadership of Orthodox Christian Church. Ivan Reduced power of the boyars in return for granting them more power over the serfs
Ivan IV the Terrible
(1533-1584), first to take title "tsar". Conquered Baltic, Far East, and Black Sea region. Began westernizing: encouraged trade with England and the Netherlands. Peasants fled oppressive rule: became "Cossacks"; led to more severe serfdom by gov't edict
Michael Romanov
(1613-1645) Created a Russian empire across Asia to the Pacific (largest nation by 1689)
Frederick William The "Great Elector"
(1640-1688). Brandenburg-Prussia: rule consolidated after 30 Years' War via military force & taxation. Created most efficient army in Europe
The Protectorate
(1653-1659), Oliver Cromwell Lord Protector (Puritan dictatorship). Puritans tried to regulate lives of the people: illegalized drinking, theater and dancing
Peter the Great
(1682-1725) 1698, put down revolt by strelski (Moscow Guards), thus securing his reign. Royal military and artillery academies were established, Built large navy on the Baltic (though it declined after his death). sought to replace old Boyar nobility with a new service-based nobility loyal to the tzar.
Baron de Montesquieu
(1689-1755): Spirit of the Laws (1748): advocated separation of powers in government via three branches to provide for checks and balances
Francois Quesnay
(1694-1774), "physiocrats": opposed to mercantilist economic theory. advocated reform of the agrarian order; too much land ownership by nobles stifled agricultural production
Frederick William I
(1713-1740) "The Soldiers' King". Established Prussian absolutism, "Sparta of the North": Largely a military state - best army in Europe. Junkers became officers caste in army in return for king's absolutism
War of Austrian Succession
(1740-1748) Prussia, France, Bavaria & Spain vs. Austria and Russia. Took Silesia from Austria; Prussia now most powerful German state: "Great Power"
Olympia
(1863) offended the Salon for its casual nude portrayal of a prostitute
Reds
(Bolsheviks)
Jansenism
(Catholic sect) in France argued against idea of an uninvolved or impersonal God
Le Déjeuner sur l'herbe
(Luncheon on the Grass) 1863, shocked audiences by portraying a female nude and two male clothed companions in an everyday park setting
George Eliot
(Mary Ann Evans) (1819-1880)--examined ways in which people are shaped by their social class as well as their own inner strivings, conflicts, and moral choices.
Impressionism
(began in France) Artists sought to capture the momentary overall feeling, or impression, of light falling on a real-life scene before their eyes.
Price revolution
(long slow upward trend); increased food prices, increased volume of money, influx of gold & silver
Soviet Union Dissolves
12/25/19991
Unification of Spain
1492
Time of Troubles
1584, period of chaos after Ivan the Terrible's death
Interregnum
1649-1660 rule without a king; Oliver Cromwell
Interregnum
1649-1660 rule without king
John Kay
1733, flying shuttle for faster weaving
James Hargreaves
1764, spinning jenny for thread spinning
Richard Arkwright
1769, water frame, which improved thread spinning.
Samuel Crompton
1779, invented the spinning mule which combined the best features of the spinning jenny and the water frame.
First Industrial Revolution
1780-1850 - textiles, coal, iron, railroads
Legislative Assembly
1791-1792: Jacobins vs Girondins
National Convention
1792-1795. France proclaimed a republic, September 17, 1792. New govt based on equality, liberty, fraternity
War of the Second Coalition
1798-1801, Napoleon ultimately victorious, Resulted in Austria's loss of her Italian possessions, German territory on west bank of the Rhine incorporated into France
Berlin Decree
1806: British ships not allowed in European ports
Milan Decree
1807: Napoleon proclaimed any ship stopping in Britain would be seized when it entered the Continent.
Battle of Leipzig ("Battle of Nations")
1813: Most of Napoleon's Grand Army destroyed
Corn Laws
1819, passed to benefit landowners
"Peterloo Massacre
1819; Pro-liberal crowd listening to anti-Corn law rhetoric attacked by police. Press brought under more firm control and mass meetings abolished.
Poor Law
1834: required healthy unemployed workers to live in workhouses.
10 Hour Act
1847: limited work hours for women and children to 10 hours per day
Emperor Napoleon III
1851: took control of gov't in a coup d'etat (December 1851) and became emperor the following year (97% of voters made him emperor in 1853)
Austro-Prussian War (German Civil War)
1866; Bismarck made diplomatic preparations for war with Austria by negotiating with France, Italy, and Russia for noninterference. Prussia defeated Austria and unified much of Germany without Austria
Ausgleich
1867, Transformed Austria into the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Hungarians would have their own assembly, cabinet, and administrative system, and would support and participate in the Imperial army and in the Imperial gov't.
The Eastern Question
1870s, constant crisis in the Balkans (who would control region?)
Congress of Berlin
1878: sought to solve the "Eastern Question". Russia defeated the Ottoman Empire in war but received no territory as a result
Berlin Conference
1884-85: established the "rules" for conquest of Africa. Sponsored by Bismarck & Jules Ferry ; sought to prevent conflict over imperialism o Congress coincided with Germany's rise as an imperial power. Agreed to stop slavery and slave trade in Africa.
Boxer Rebellion
1900: Patriotic uprising by Chinese nationalists against Western encroachment, was put down by imperial powers in 1900; Manchu dynasty would soon fall
Triple Entente
1907: Britain, France and Russia; formed to counter the Triple Alliance
Lusitania
1915: U-boats sank passenger liner killing 1,200
Paris Peace Conference
1919 Big Four: Lloyd George (Br.), Clemenceau (Fr.), Wilson (US), Orlando (It). Central powers excluded from negotiations; France concerned with its future security
Ernest Rutherford
1919, demonstrated the atom could be split.
Versailles Treaty
1919. Mandates for former colonies and territories of the Central Powers. League of Nations created
Mein Kampf
1923, written while in jail: became the blueprint for Hitler's future plans
Beer Hall Putsch
1923: Hitler failed to overthrow Bavaria and sentenced to 1 year in jail
Locarno Pact
1925: "spirit of Locarno" no longer relevant once Hitler took power
Werner Heisenberg
1927, "principle of uncertainty"-- as it is impossible to know the
Kellogg-Briand Pact
1928: "war is illegal"; not enforceable
1st Five Year Plan
1928; marked end of the NEP. Objectives: Total industrial output to increase, collectivization
Hitler withdraws from LoN
1933: secretly began rearmament
Nuremberg Laws
1935, deprived Jews of all rights of citizenship.
Italian invasion of Ethiopia
1935: League of Nations ineffective in its actions and protests
Spanish Civil War
1936: Mussolini and Hitler use conflict as a testing ground for their military forces: Italy's army; Germany's airforce -- Luftwaffe
Kristallnacht ("The Night of Broken Glass")
1938: ordered by Hitler. Well-organized wave of violence destroyed homes, synagogues, and businesses. Thousands of Jews were arrested and made to pay for the damage.
Munich Conference
1938; arranged by British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain. Attended by Britain, France, Italy & Germany; Czechoslovakia or Russia not invited British. Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain adopted a policy of appeasement. Agreement: Czechoslovakia forced to give away Sudetenland
Tripartite Pact
1940: Japan added to Rome-Berlin axis for mutual defense and military support.
Yalta Conference
1945: "Big Three" met again for the 2nd time. Stalin agreed to enter Pacific war against Japan within 3 months after Germany surrendered. "Declaration of Liberated Europe" which called for free elections.
Marshall Plan
1947: Massive aid package to help war-torn Europe recover from the war. Purpose: prevent communism from spreading into economically devastated regions. Result: Western and Central Europe recovered economically -- the "economic miracle" o Soviets refused to allow U.S. aid to countries in eastern Europe
Truman Doctrine
1947: U.S. gave aid to Greece and Turkey to defeat communist forces there.
Schuman Plan
1950 created the European Coal and Steel Community. Immediate economic goal: a single competitive market w/o national tariffs or quotas.
Korean War: 1950-1953
1950, communist North Korea (supported by Soviet resources) invaded South Korea o United Nations (led by U.S.) sent forces to push back communists. Result: cease-fire and border at 38th parallel restored; still in existence today
Korean War
1950-1953. communist North Korea (supported by Soviet resources) invaded South Korea, United Nations (led by U.S.) sent forces to push back communists. Result: cease-fire and border at 38th parallel restored; still in existence today
Geneva Summit
1955: U.S., USSR, Britain, & France began discussions on European security
XXth Party Congress
1956: Khrushchev took startling initiative against hard-liners by denouncing Stalin's crimes in a closed session.
Sputnik
1957: A Russian satellite was sent into orbit on a rocket and was brought back safely to the USSR; scientifically, this was an unprecedented achievement.
Fall of Khrushchev
1964; cold war policies were erratic & ultimately unsuccessful (Berlin, Cuban Missile Crisis), agricultural projects backfired.
French student revolt
1968; Students took over the universities, leading to violent clashes with police. Most students demanded changes in curriculum and real voice in running the university. Appealed to industrial workers for help; spontaneous general strike spread across France
Helsinki Conference
1975; final act
Maastricht Treaty
1991. Promised most radical revision of the EC since its beginning. Eurodollar became the single currency of the EU in 1999 integrating the currency of 11 western and central European nations.
Coup in Moscow
1991: communist hard-liners, frustrated by loss of Soviet power and prestige, attempted to overthrow Gorbachev
Dayton Agreements
1995: Agreed to divide Bosnia between Muslims and Serbs
Kosovo crisis
1999; Milosevic attempted to ethnically cleanse Kosovo (province of Serbia) of ethnic-Albanians
St. Bartholomew Day Massacre
20,000 Huguenots massacred at Catherine's order after Huguenots rioted in protested of a Guise assassination of a Huguenot leader. Led to the War of the Three Henrys
Henry VIII
2nd of Tudor kings, Initially was a strong ally of Pope: Defense of Seven Sacraments; "Defender of the Faith". Sought a divorce from his wife, Catherine of Aragon, because they could not conceive a son. Pope refused to have the marriage annulled; Cardinal Thomas Wolsey: failed to get Henry's divorce. Henry then broke away from the Catholic church and gained his annulment which was granted by Thomas Cranmer. Henry excommunicated by Pope Paul III
Jesuits (Society of Jesus) (1540)
3 goals: reform church through education, preach the Gospel to pagan peoples, fight Protestantism
Johann Kepler (1571-1630)
3 laws of planetary motion: orbits are elliptical
Religious Wars: 30 FEDS
30 Years' War, French Civil Wars, English Civil War, Dutch Revolt, Spanish Armada
Sputnik, 1957
A Russian satellite was sent into orbit on a rocket and was brought back safely to the USSR; scientifically, this was an unprecedented achievement.
Querelles des Femmes ("The Problem of Women")
A new debate emerged over the proper role of women in society (starting with Christine de Pisan in the 14 century; the debate continued for six hundred years.
July Revolution (1830)
A radical revolt in Paris forced the reactionary King Charles X to abdicate his throne. sparked a wave of revolutions throughout Europe.
Kant
Accepted rationalism of the Enlightenment while preserving belief in human freedom, immortality, & existence of God.
Beer Hall Putsch
Adolf Hitler failed to take overthrow state Bavaria and sentenced to jail where he wrote Mein Kampf.
Battle of the Marne (Sept. 1914)
After Germans came within sight of Paris, French and British forces pushed German forces back.
Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498)
After Medici were removed from power, he established a theocracy in Florence between 1494-98, with the help of France ,Burned at the stake in 1498 after the French were removed from Italy
Thomas Paine
Age of Reason advocates deism
Algerian Crisis (mied-1950s)
Algeria's large French population considered Algeria an integral part of France. This feeling led to war; atypical of decolonization. General Charles de Gaulle, who had returned to power as part of the movement to keep Algeria Civil War in Yugoslavia Cause: 1990, President Slobodan Milosevic sought greater Serbian nationalism throughout Yugoslavia; established tighter central control over previously autonomous regions. Bosnia declared its independence in March 1992 and the civil war spread there. Ethnic cleansing: Bosnian Serbs tried to liquidate or remove Muslims by shelling cities, confiscating or destroying of houses, gang rape, expulsion, and murder
Positivism
All intellectual activity progresses through predictable stages; thus humans would soon discover the eternal laws of human relations through the study of sociology
Theory of evolution
All life had gradually evolved from a common ancestral origin in an unending "struggle for survival;" species most able to adapt survived
Church of England
Anglican Church
The Clarendon Code (1661)
Anglicans excluded Puritans from politics
Balfour Doctrine (1917)
Arabs & Jews in Palestine promised autonomy if they joined the Allies.
Revisionism
As workers gained right to vote and to participate politically in the nation-state, their attention focused more on elections than on revolutions
Duma
Assembly created that would serve as an advisory body to the czar, Tsar retained absolute veto
Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact
Aug. 1939; Hitler sought assurances USSR would not attack Germany if Germany invaded Poland. Private agreement: Germany and USSR would invade Poland and split the country in half.
Declaration of Pillnitz
August, 1791: issued by Prussia and Austria
Seven Years' War (1756-1763)
Austria and Russia (with support from France) sought to destroy Prussia
Hungarian war against Austria
Austrian empire collapsed; Metternich fled
Scientific Method
Bacon's inductive method, coupled with Descartes deductive reason formed the backbone
War of the Third Coalition (1805-1807)
Battle of Trafalgar, Napoleon forced to cancel invasion of Britain, Battle of Austerlitz
Louis Philippe (r. 1830-1848)
Became new king under a constitutional monarchy; known as the "Bourgeoisie King"
Enclosure movement (England)
Began in 16th century; intensified in 18th century End to common lands and open-field system Enabled almost all land to be cultivated - Resulted in commercialization of agriculture; investment of capital
Baroque Music
Belief that the text should dominate the music; the lyrics and libretto were most important Baroque composers developed the modern system of major-minor tonalities. Dissonance was used much more freely than during the Renaissance
Count Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825)
Believed industrialization, aided by science, would bring a wondrous new age to Europe led by scientists, engineers and industrialists (not nobles, lawyers and clergy)
Pierre Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865)
Believed property was profit stolen from the worker, who was the source of all wealth.
Christian Socialism
Believed the evils of industrialism would be ended by following Christian principles. Attempted to bridge the gap between the anti-religious drift of socialism and the need for Christian social justice for workers.
English Civil War
Biggest reason for the war: Persecution of Puritans by Anglicans and the king
Kulturkampf
Bismarck sought to limit influence of Catholic Party but failed
Audiencias
Board of 12 to 15 judges served as advisor to viceroy and highest judicial body.
John Hus (1369-1415)
Bohemia; Ideas were similar to Wyclif's, Eventually burned at the stake for his criticism of the Church
Four phases of the war
Bohemian, Danish, Swedish, French
Henry IV (Henry of Navarre) (1589-1610)
Bourbon dynasty, Weakened the power of the nobility
Legitimacy
Bourbons restored to power in France; Papal States returned to the pope; dynasties restored in Netherlands, Sardinia, Tuscany and Modena
Napoleon abdicates
Bourbons restored to throne
SALT I
Brezhnev and Nixon signed treaty to reduce nuclear ballistic missiles
SALT I
Brezhnev and Nixon signed treaty to reduce nuclear ballistic missiles o Helsinki Conference, 1975
Diplomatic Revolution of 1756
Britain allied with Prussia (but of little value) while France allied with the Austrian-Habsburgs. Peter III of Russia let Prussia off the hook at a critical moment
Treaty of Utrecht (1713)
Britain was biggest winner: gained the asiento (slave trade) from Spain; gained Gibraltar and Minorca. Spanish Netherlands (Belgium) was given to Austria (became the "Austrian Netherlands"). Treaty prevented the unification of Bourbon dynasties.
Allies (Triple Entente)
Britain, France, Russia (later, Japan, Italy and U.S.) Western Front
War of the Fourth Coalition (1813-1814)
Britain, Prussia, Austria, Russia
Gallipoli Campaign
British and Australian forces failed to take Dardanelles as a step toward taking Constantinople and defeating the Turks
El Alamein
British drove the Germans out of Egypt
Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1661-1683)
Brought mercantilism to its peak, goal was economic self-sufficiency for France. Promoted bullionism, Built roads & canals; gov't supported monopolies; cracked down on guilds; reduced local tolls and tariffs; organized French trading companies for international trade: East India
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
Built best observatory in Europe and compiled a mass of scientific data from observations of the heavens. Data used later by Kepler, Galileo and others
British Imperialism
Burma, Malay Peninsula, North Borneo
Containment
By 1947, the U.S. pledged to prevent the further spread of communism
The Six
By 1958 coal and steel moved freely among six nations of the European Coal and Steel Community. Far-reaching political goal: bind six member nations so closely together economically that war among them would become unthinkable and virtually impossible.
British Religious toleration
Calvinist (majority) vs. Arminianism (Calvinism without belief of predestination), Catholics and Jews enjoyed religious toleration but had fewer rights
Protestant work ethic
Calvinists later emphasized the importance of hard work and accompanying financial success as a sign that God was pleased
Germany took control of
Cameroon, Togo, southwest Africa, & East Africa
English society in the 17th century
Capitalism played a major role in the high degree of social mobility in England, Both King James I and Charles I believed in "divine right" of kings; Parliament disagreed
June Days Revolution
Caused by the closing of national workshops. Workers sought war against poverty and redistribution of income.
Declaration of Indulgence (1673)
Charles II granted free worship to Catholics
Declaration of Breda
Charles agreed to abide by Parliament's demands
Second Opium War (1856-1860)
China forced to accept trade and investment on unfavorable terms, Extraterritoriality subjected Westerners in China to their home country's laws rather than China's. Safeguarding the Suez Canal (completed in 1869) played a key role in the British occupation of Egypt and its bloody conquest of the Sudan.
Janissary corps
Christian children not selected for the bureaucracy were dedicated fully to the Ottoman military
Atlantic Charter
Churchill and FDR meet secretly after invasion of Soviet Union. Decide once Axis Powers defeated, there would be no territorial changes contrary to the wishes inhabitants (self-determination)
Warsaw Pact, 1955
Collective security organization of eastern bloc nations to counter NATO.
Bernini (1598-1650)
Colonnade for piazza in front of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome was his greatest architectural achievement. Sculpted the Canopy over the high altar of St. Peter's Cathedral, His altarpiece sculpture, The Ecstasy of St. Teresa, evokes tremendous emotion, david
French Philosophes
Committed to fundamental reform in society, Significant in popularizing Enlightenment ideas to the masses, Believed in progress through discovering the natural laws governing nature and human existence, Radically optimistic about how people should live and govern themselves
"New" Monarchs (c. 1460-1520)
Consolidated power and created an early foundation for Europe's first modern nation-states in France, England and Spain. Identity tended to be much more local or regional. Reduced the power of the nobility through taxation, confiscation of lands (from uncooperative nobles), and hiring of mercenary armies or the creation of standing armies
The "Age of Montesquieu"
Constitutional Monarchy, 1789-1792, National Assembly: 1789-1791, Tennis Court Oath, Storming of the Bastille, Great Fear and abolition of feudalism, Civil Constitution of the Clergy, Declaration of the Rights of Man. Legislative Assembly: 1791-92, Jacobins vs. Girondins, War of the First Coalition, Paris Commune, September Massacres
Scientific Revolution = Cops Bring Kids Great Big Donuts Now
Copernicus Brahe Kepler Galileo Bacon Descartes Newton
Law of Suspects
Created Revolutionary Tribunals at the local level to hear cases of accused enemies brought to "justice"
Charter of 1814
Created by louis xviii, constitutional monarchy; bicameral legislature
European Economic Community (EEC)
Created by the Treaty of Rome in 1957 - Signed by same six nations in the ECSC - "the Six". First goal of treaty: Gradual reduction of all tariffs among the Six in order to create a single market almost as large as the U.S.
Creation of "Great Britain
Cromwell invaded Ireland to suppress Catholic opposition, Cromwell conquered Scotland
Creation of "Great Britain"
Cromwell invaded Ireland to suppress Catholic opposition; conquered Scotland
Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962
Cuba became a communist country in 1959 and an ally of the Soviet Union. Oct. 1962: U.S. demanded Soviets remove their newly installed nuclear missiles from Cuba. Khrushchev agreed to remove missiles in return for U.S. removing its missiles from Turkey and vowing not to invade Cuba in the future.
Michelangelo
David, the Pieta
Stalingrad
Dec. 1942: first Nazi defeat on land; Soviets began the 2.5 year campaign of pushing the German army back to Berlin
Battle of the Bulge
Dec. 1944: Hitler's last gasp offensive to drive Allies away from western German border; after it failed, Allies quickly penetrated deep into Germany in 1945.
Velvet Revolution
Dec. 1989. Vaclav Havel, the dissident playwright, become president of czechoslovakia
Pearl Harbor
Dec. 7, 1941, resulted in U.S. entry into the war
Bohemian Phase
Defenestration of Prague triggers war in Bohemia. Protestant forces eventually defeated; Protestantism eliminated in Bohemia
Socialism
Desire to reorganize society to establish cooperation and a new sense of community.
Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592)
Developed the essay form, which became a vehicle for testing new ideas
Dutch Style
Did not fit the Baroque style of trying to overwhelm the viewer. Reflected the Dutch Republic's wealth and religious toleration of secular subjects o Reflected the urban and rural settings of Dutch life during the "Golden Age of the Netherlands". Many works were commissioned by merchants or government organizations
Crimean War (1855-56)
Dispute between two groups of Christians over privileges in the Holy Land (Palestine). Czar Nicholas I ordered Russian troops to occupy several Turkish provinces in the Danube region. Russia would withdraw once Turks had guaranteed rights for Orthodox Christians. Turks declared war on Russia in 1853 when Nicholas refused to withdraw. 1854, Britain & France declared war against Russia (surprise! Turks were not Christians). Most of the war was fought on the Crimean peninsula in the Black Sea region
Reform Bill of 1867
Disraeli's "leap in the dark" in order to appeal to working people. Expanded Reform Bill of 1832, Redistributed seats to provide more equitable representation in House of Commons, The industrial cities & boroughs gained seats at expense of some depopulated areas in the north and west ("rotten boroughs")
Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616)
Don Quixote (1605-15) - Masterpiece of Spanish literature; critical of excessive religious idealism & chivalric romance
Skepticism
Doubt that true knowledge could be obtained. Believed that the skeptic must be cautious, critical and suspend judgment. Thus, one must be tolerant of others' views
Cornelius Vermuyden
Drainage of swamp lands: Significant impact on southern England
Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669)
Dutch painter. Perhaps the greatest of all Baroque artists although he doesn't fit neatly into any category. Scenes covered an enormous range throughout his career. Used extremes of light in the Baroque style. Works were far more intimate and psychological than typical Baroque works. Painted with the restraint of the classicist style
cahiers de doleance
Each estate expected to compile list of suggestions and grievances and present them to the king during upcoming Estates General
Differences between absolutism in E. Europe and W. Europe
Eastern Europe had a powerful nobility, small weak middle class, and serfdom among the peasantry; Western Europe (esp. in France) controlled the nobility, had a stronger middle-class and little to no serfdom.
Britain took control of
Egypt in 1883 (model for "New Imperialism")
"Elizabethan Settlement"
Elizabeth and Parliament required conformity to the Church of England but people were, in effect, allowed to worship Protestantism and Catholicism privately
William Shakespeare (1564-1616)
Elizabethan era; comedies, tragedies, histories & sonnets. Greatest of the English Renaissance authors. His works reflected the Renaissance ideas of classical Greek and Roman culture, individualism and humanism
Northern Renaissance Christian Humanism
Emphasis on early church writings (esp. New Testament) for answers to improve society, Studied Hebrew and Greek texts of the Bible and writings of the Church fathers, Emphasized education and power of human intellect to bring about institutional change and moral improvement. Writings led to criticism of the Catholic Church and paved the way for the Reformation.
Denis Diderot (1713-1784)
Encyclopedia (1751-72): compendium of the greatest and most representative intellectual achievements of the philosophes
Treaty of Westphalia: EF-CHIP
End of Wars of Religion, France emerges as Europe's most powerful country, Calvinism added to the Peace of Augsburg, Holy Roman Empire effectively destroyed, Independence for the Netherlands and Switzerland, Prussia emerges as a great power
Grand Alliance (war of spanish succession)
England, Dutch Rep, HRE, Brandenburg, Portugal, Savoy
John Wyclif (1329-1384)
England; Stated the Bible was the sole authority. Stressed a personal relationship with god. His followers were known as Lollards
Act of Union (1707)
English and Scottish Parliaments merged = Great Britain
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-97)
English woman who promoted political and educational equality for women
Congress System
European international relations controlled by series of meetings held by great powers to monitor and defend the status quo
Gadget revolution
Europeans bought washing machines, vacuum cleaners, refrigerators, dishwashers, radios, TVs, and stereos.
Edward Bernstein
Evolutionary Socialism (1899): argued Marx's predictions of greater poverty for workers & greater concentration of wealth in fewer hands had been proved false
Dutch East India Company
Expelled Portuguese from Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and other Spice Islands (Indonesia). By 1650, began challenging Spain in the New World and controlled much of the
Roots of Nazism
Extreme nationalism + racism
Realpolitik
Failure of the Revolutions of 1848 for liberals and romantics demonstrated that strong idealism was not enough to accomplish revolutionary goals. A political outgrowth of realism was the notion of ___: the accomplishing of one's political goals via practical means (rather than having idealism drive political decisions)
Blackshirts
Fascist paramilitary forces attacked Communists, socialists, and other enemies of the fascist program (later, Hitler's "Brown Shirts" followed this example)
Caterina Sforza
Female ruler of Milan
Glorious Revolution (1688)
Final act in the struggle for political sovereignty in England. William III of Orange) and Mary were declared joint sovereigns by Parliament
Duke of Sully (1560-1641)
Finance Minister whose reforms enhanced the power of the monarchy. Improved transportation. Mercantilism
Napoleon Bonaparte
First Consul: can be viewed as the last of the "enlightened despots"
Great Terror (1934-38)
First directed against peasants after 1929, terror used increasingly on leading Communists, powerful administrators, and ordinary people, often for no apparent reason. Resulted in 8 million arrests
Great Terror (1934-38)
First directed against peasants after 1929, terror used increasingly on leading Communists, powerful administrators, and ordinary people, often for no apparent reason. o The "Great Terror" resulted in 8 million arrests
Jan Van Eyck (c. 1339- c. 1441)
Flemish painter. Most famous and innovative Flemish painter of the 15th century, Perfected oil painting; wood panel paintings used much religious symbolism. Employed incredible detail in his works. Arnolfini and his Wife (1434) is perhaps his most famous work.
Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640)
Flemish painter. Worked much for the Habsburg court in Brussels (the capital of the Spanish Netherlands). Emphasized color and sensuality; animated figures and melodramatic contrasts;
Bolsheviks (the "majority")
Followed Lenin's ideas
Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528)
Foremost northern Renaissance artist; master of the woodcut, First northerner artist to master Italian Renaissance techniques of proportion, perspective, and modeling
Fashoda Incident (1898)
France & Britain nearly went to war over Sudan; France backed down in the face of the Dreyfus Affair
War of Devolution (First Dutch War)
France gained 12 fortified towns along the French-Belgian border but gave up Burgundy in return.
American Revolution
France helped U.S. win its independence from Britain
American Revolution
France helped the U.S. defeat Britain; this weakened the British empire Spain's Latin American colonies helped revitalize the Spanish empire in the 18th century
Treaty of Paris (1763)
France lost its North American possessions to Britain
Diplomatic Revolution of 1756
France sided with Austria against Britain and Prussia.
Treaty of Paris (1814)
France surrendered all lands gained since 1792 Allies imposed no indemnity or reparations
February Days
France; sparked rebellion for liberal reforms.
Huguenots
French Calvinists; brutally suppressed in France
Èmigrès
French nobles who fled France sought support of foreign countries.
Russian Campaign (1812)
French troops invaded all the way to Moscow but eventually driven back and destroyed
Bosch (c. 1450-1516)
From the netherlands, Master of symbolism and fantasy. Surrealistic, focused on death and torments of hell
Battle of Omdurman (1898)
General Horatio H. Kitchener defeated Sudanese tribesmen and killed 11,000 (use of machine gun) while only 28 Britons died
The Rocket
George Stephenson's, made railway locomotive commercially
Second Moroccan Crisis (1911)
German gunboat sent to Morocco to protest French occupation of the city of Fez. Britain supported France again; Germany backed down for minor concessions in Africa
Schlieffen Plan
German plan to invade France through Belgium, defeat France quickly (6 weeks) by sweeping around Paris, and then move to the east to defeat Russia
Lebensraum ("living space")
Germans should expand east, liquidate the Jews and turn the Slavs of eastern Europe into slave labor
Argonne offensive (spring 1918)
Germans transferred divisions from east (after defeating Russia) to the western front and mounted a massive offensive.
Anschluss
Germany annexed Austria, 1938
Results of 30 Years' War
Germany physically devastated, End to wars of religion, rise of France as dominant European power; also Britain & Netherlands, Balance of power diplomacy emerged in Europe
Zimmerman Telegram
Germany proposed an alliance with Mexico; would return most of southwestern U.S. to Mexico if Central Powers won.
Triple Alliance
Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy
Central Powers (Triple Alliance)
Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire (also Bulgaria)
Deism
God created universe and then stepped back and left it running (like a clock). Grew out of Newton's theories regarding natural law
Causes for exploration
God, glory, and gold
Constitutionalism
Government power is limited by law. There is a delicate balance between the power of government and the rights and liberties of individuals. Constitutionalism took root essentially in three countries in the 17th century: England, the Netherlands, and Sweden
Causes of the Reformation
Great Schism, conciliar movement, church corruption, renaissance humanism
Immanuel Kant (1724-1794)
Greatest German philosopher of the Enlightenment. Separated science and morality into separate branches of knowledge. Science could describe natural phenomena of material world but could not provide a guide for morality
Edict of Restitution (1629)
HRE emperor declared all church territories secularized since 1552 automatically restored to Catholic Church
Fall of HOP, rise of RAP
HRE, Ottoman Empire, Poland gives way to Russia, Austria, and Prussia
Flemish style of the Low Countries
Heavily influenced by the Italian Renaissance, More detail throughout paintings (especially the background) than the Italian Renaissance. Use of oil paints (in contrast to Italian Renaissance that used tempera). More emotional than the Italian style. Works often preoccupied with death
Statute of the Six Articles
Henry attempts to maintain all 7 Catholic sacraments
Social Darwinism
Herbert Spencer applied Darwin's ideas to human society -- "survival of the fittest"; natural laws dictated why certain people were successful and others were not.
Jean Baptiste Racine (1639-1699)
His plays often focused on social struggles, Made fun of the aristocracy, upper bourgeoisie and high church officials
Henry IV (of Navarre)
His rise to power ended the French Civil Wars, politique
Sudetenland
Hitler demanded the German-speaking province in Czechoslovakia
"Night of Long Knives" (June 1934)
Hitler realized the army and big business were suspicious of the S.A, SS arrested and shot without trial about 1,000 S.A. leaders and other political enemies.
Habsburg Empire
Holy Roman Empire, consisted of about 300 semi-autonomous German states. Center of power in Austria
Battle of Trafalgar (1805)
Horatio Nelson of Britain destroyed French navy. Established supremacy of British navy for over a century
Prussia
House of Hohenzollern
Peace of Alais (1629)
Huguenots lost fortified cities & Protestant armies, Began dictionary to standardize the French language
Louis Kossuth (1802-1894)
Hungarian (Magyar) leader demanded independence
Hungarian Uprising, 1956
Hungarian nationalists staged huge demonstrations demanding non-communist parties be legalized; turned into armed rebellion and spread throughout the country.
Magyars
Hungarian nobility
Pan-Slavism
Idea of uniting all Slavs in Europe under one gov't (Russia)
Erasmus (1466-1536)
In Praise of Folly (1513): Criticized the immorality and hypocrisy of Church leaders and the clergy; some say that "he lay the egg that Luther hatched". Made new "purer" translations of the Greek and Latin versions of the New Testament, Most famous intellectual of his time
Entente Cordiale (1904)
In the face of Anglo-German naval arms race, Britain and France settled all outstanding colonial disputes in Africa.
India was divided into two nations
India (Hindu) and Pakistan (Muslim)
Encomienda
Indians worked for owner certain # days per week; retained other parcels to work for themselves
French Imperialism
Indochina
French Phase
International Phase. Cardinal Richelieu allied with Protestants (like in earlier Habsburg-Valois Wars) to defeat the HRE
Second Dutch War (1672-78)
Invasion of the Dutch Rhineland. France took Franche-Comté from Spain, gained some Flemish towns, and took Alsace Represented the furthest extent of Louis XIV's expansion
Countries where Calvinism did not spread
Ireland, Spain, Italy - heavily Catholic
Spanish Inquisition
Isabella sought to enforce the authority of the national church. Overseen by Tomás de Torquemada
Origins of Renaissance
Jacob Burckhardt, a 19th-century historian, claimed the Renaissance period stood in distinct contrast to the Middle Ages
Bloody Sunday
Jan.1905: 200,000 worker/peasants marched peacefully to the "Winter
Storming of the Bastille
July 14, 1789:"Parisian" revolution due to food shortages, soaring bread prices, unemployment, and fear of military repression. Significance: inadvertently saved the National Assembly from king's repression
Potsdam Conference
July 1945: Stalin, Harry Truman and Clement Atlee Issued warning to Japan of unconditional surrender or face utter devastation. Stalin reversed his position on eastern Europe stating there would be no free elections
Tennis Court Oath
June 17, 3rd Estate declared itself the true National Assembly of France o Oath: swore not to disband until they had given France a constitution o Bourgeoisie dominated the National Assembly
Battle of Waterloo
June 1815: Napoleon defeated by Duke of Wellington o Napoleon exiled to St. Helena
Kruger Telegram (1902)
Kaiser Wilhelm II, dispatched telegram to Boers, congratulating them on defeating British invaders without need of German assistance. Anger swept through Britain aimed at Germany.
Act of Supremacy (1534)
King is now the head of the English Church. Catholic lands (about 25% of all English lands) were confiscated by the King, Monasteries closed down, Execution of Thomas More occurred when he refused to take an oath of loyalty to Henry
Millicent Garrett Fawcett (1847-1929)
Leader of National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) Used political means to put pressure on Parliament to grant suffrage. Her influence spread to international women's rights movements
Catherine II "the Great" of Russia (r. 1762-1798)
Least "enlightened" of the Enlightened Despots, although one of greatest rulers in Euro history. Westernization: architecture, sculpture, music—supported the philosophes. Reforms: Allowed some limited religious toleration (Jews granted civil equality), Some educational improvement; more books published during her reign, Increased local control, gained support from nobility by granting greater control over serfs: high point for nobles—low point for serfs, Territorial expansion
Independent Labor Party
Led by Keir Hardie, became the third party in England. Designed to guarantee each citizen with a decent standard of living
Solidarity in Poland
Led by Lech Walesa. Demands included right to form free trade unions, right to strike, freedom of speech, release of political prisoners and economic reforms.
War of the First Coalition
Legislative Assembly declared war in April, 1792. Austrian armies defeated French armies but divisions over eastern Europe saved France
Principles of Settlement
Legitimacy, Compensation, Balance of Power
April Theses
Lenin rejected all cooperation with the "bourgeois" provisional gov't, Called for a "Socialist revolution" and establishment of a Soviet republic Nationalization of banks and landed estates
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Dec. 1917)
Lenin took Russia out of the war but forced to give Germans 1/4 of Russian territory
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
Leviathan, 1651. State of nature: anarchy results; central drive in every man is power. Man's life in a "state of nature" was "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short strong," o Ideas most closely identified with Voltaire: Enlightened Despotism (18th c.)
Frankfurt Parliament (May, 1848)
Liberal, romantic, & nationalist leaders called for elections to a constituent assembly from all states in the German Bund, for the purpose of unifying the German states. Sought war with Denmark to annex Schleswig & Holstein; Prussia declared war on Denmark. Presented constitution for a united German federation. Selected Prussian King Frederick William IV as emperor; he declined claiming "divine right of kings"
George Frideric Handel (1685-1759)
Like Bach, wrote in a variety of genres. His masterpiece is the oratorio The Messiah
Reasons England Industrialized First
Location, abundance of capital, empire
Election of 1848
Louis Napoleon defeated Cavignac
Louis XIV's Religious Policies
Louis considered himself the head of the Gallican Church and thus did not allow the pope to exercise political power in France
Edict of Worms
Luther outlawed by Charles V and the Holy Roman Empire
Technological advancements = MUTTAGG
Machine Guns, U-Boats, Trench Warfare, Tanks, Airplanes, Gas
Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880)
Madame Bovary -- portrays the provincial middle class as petty, smug, and hypocritical
Reform Bill of 1832
Made the House of Commons the supreme power in Britain, Sought to increase number of voters from 6% of population to 12%, Sought to eliminate underpopulated electoral districts ("rotten boroughs") and replace them with representation from new manufacturing districts and cities
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
March 1918, took Russia out of WWI
95 Theses (1517)
Martin Luther Criticized the Church's sale of indulgences
Social Democratic Party (S.P.D.)
Marxist; advocated sweeping social legislation, the realization of genuine democracy, and the demilitarization of the German gov't. Bismarck unsuccessful in limiting its growth (despite its being driven underground)
Estates General
May 1789: 1st time meeting since 1614
Mountain ousts Girondins
May 1793: urged to do so by sans-culottes who feared Girondins might ally with conservatives and royalists to maintain power
V-E Day
May 8, 1945: Germany surrenders (Hitler committed suicide a few days earlier)
MF Republic of Florence (included Republic of Genoa)
Medici family. Medici power rested on banking and commerce
Causes of WWI = MANIA
Militarism Alliances Nationalism Imperialism Assassination
Leonardo (1452-1519)
Mona Lisa, The Last Supper
Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971)
Most important composer of the 20th century. "Rite of Spring" experimented with new tonalities (many of them dissonant) and aggressive primitive rhythms
Pope Paul III (1534-1549)
Most important pope in reforming the Church and challenging Protestantism
Alexander III (1881-1894)
Most reactionary czar of the 19th century: "Autocracy, Orthodoxy, and Russification (nationalism)". Encouraged anti-semitism: pogroms resulted in severe persecution of Jews (many emigrated)
Dreyfus Affair (1894)
Most serious threat to the 3rd republic. Military falsely charged Dreyfus, a Jew, with supplying secrets to the Germans. Monarchists (with support of Catholic church) used incident to discredit republicans. Leftists supported the Republic and in 1906 the case was closed when Dreyfus was declared innocent and returned to the ranks
Threat of war European and Asian invaders
Motivation for eastern European monarchs' drive to consolidate power
Factions of the French Republic
Mountain vs Girondins
Post-impressionism
Movement in the 1890s united in its desire to know and depict worlds other than the visible world. Portrayed unseen, inner worlds of emotion and imagination (like early-19th century romantics).
Romantic Music
Music often conveyed human emotion or nationalistic feelings
Kronstadt Rebellion (1921)
Mutiny by previously pro-Bolshevik sailors in March at Kronstadt naval base had to be crushed with machine gun fire.
Kronstadt Rebellion (1921)
Mutiny by previously pro-Bolshevik sailors in March at Kronstadt naval base had to be crushed with machine gun fire. Caused by impact of the economic disaster and social upheaval of the Russian Civil War. o Major cause for Lenin instituting NEP
Maria Theresa (r. 1740-1780)
NOT considered an "Enlightened despot", centralized control of the Habsburg empire. Brought the Catholic Church in Austria under state control. Reduced serfdom, Promoted economic development
Concordat of 1801
Napoleon ended the rift between the church and the state, Papacy renouncing claims over church property seized during the Revolution
Falloux Law
Napoleon returned control of education to the Church (in return for its support)
100 Days (March 20-June 22, 1815)
Napoleon returns from exile and organizes new army
Battle of Austerlitz (Dec. 1805)
Napoleon smashed Austrian army and gained more territory. Third Coalition collapsed leaving Napoleon the master over much of Europe
The "Age of Voltaire"
Napoleonic Era, 1799-1815, Consulate: 1799-1804, Code Napoleon, Concordat of 1801, War of the 2nd Coalition. Napoleonic Empire: 1804-15, Confederation of the Rhine, Continental System, Treaty of Tilsit, Peninsular War, Russian Campaign, Waterloo
Hitler Youth
Nazis indoctrinated German youths to obey the state
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)
New World divided by Spain and Portugal; Pope Leo VI
"Prague Spring"
New period of rebirth for czechoslovakia
Louis XV (1715-1774)
Nobility gained influence during his reign, Madame de Pompadour, Parlement of Paris (partial to nobles) blocked Louis' absolutist ambitions - consisted of robe nobles
Renaissance Italy: (c. 1300-1527)
Northern Italian cities developed international trade: Genoa, Venice, Milan - profits from trade led to enormous patronage of the arts
Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1520-1569)
Not influenced much by the Italian Renaissance. Focused on lives of ordinary people (e.g. Peasant Dance (1568) Peasant Wedding (c.1568), and The Battle Between Carnival and Lent (1559)
Coup d'État Brumaire
November 1799: Napoleon invited by Abbé Sieyès to lead France, Directory overthrown and Napoleon becomes First Consul
March on Rome
October 1922: led to Mussolini taking power. Mussolini demanded resignation of existing gov't and his own appointment by the king.
Women's march on versailles
October 5, 1789: as part of bread riot, women march to Versailles; accelerate the revolution. Forced the king to move to Paris
Final Act
Officially ended World War II by finally legitimizing the Soviet-dictated boundaries of Poland and other East European countries.
Final Act
Officially ended World War II by finally legitimizing the Soviet-dictated boundaries of Poland and other East European countries. In return, Soviets guaranteed more liberal exchanges of people and information between East and West and the protection of certain basic "human rights" (though little improved)
The Protectorate (1653-1659)
Oliver Cromwell Lord Protector (Puritan dictatorship). Created in response to Parliament's desire to disband Cromwell's army. Puritans tried to regulate lives of the people: illegalized drinking, theater and dancing
John Stuart Mill
On Liberty (1859): classic statement on liberty of the individual.
William Harvey (1578-1657)
On the Movement of the Heart and Blood (1628)-- blood circulation
Charles Darwin
On the Origin of Species by the Means of Natural Selection, 1859
Aleksandr Solzenitsyn
One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (1962) - Portrays in grim detail life in Stalinist concentration camp (he had been a prisoner)
Aleksandr Solzenitsyn
One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (1962) Portrays in grim detail life in Stalinist concentration camp (he had been a prisoner)
Causes of Student Revolts in the late 1960s
Opposition to U.S. war in Vietnam triggered revolutionary ferment among youths. Influenced by Marxist current in French universities after 1945 & "New Left" thinking in U.S. Believed older generation & U.S. fighting immoral & imperialistic war against Vietnam.
Thomas Cromwell
Oversaw development of king's bureaucracy
Humanism in Renaissance art
Pagan themes evident in Botticelli's Birth of Venus, Raphael's School of Athens. Glorification of the human body evident in such works as Michelangelo's David, and the Creation of Adam on the Sistine Chapel
Jan Vermeer (1632-1675)
Paintings of interior domestic settings of ordinary people in simple scenes
Petition of Right
Parliament attempt to bribe king (taxes) in return for accepting Parliament's right to tax, habeas corpus, no quartering, and no martial law in peacetime
Combination Acts (1799)
Parliament fearful of radicalism of French Revolution, made unions illegal; largely ignored by workers; repealed in 1824
The Restoration (1660-1688)
Parliament in 1660 re elected according to the old voting system: Anglicans back in power. Scotland gained its independence in 1660 as result
Petition of Right (1628)
Parliament sought to guarantee certain civil liberties in exchange for granting Charles I's request for taxes. These rights included: only Parliament had the right to levy taxes, no one should be imprisoned or detained without due process of law. o All had right to habeas corpus (trial), No forced quartering of soldiers in homes of private citizens, martial law could not be declared in peacetime
Whigs and Tories
Parliament split into two political parties
Lenin
Peace, Land, Bread. Lenin gave land to peasants (although peasants already took it, like French Revolution), gave direct control of individual factories to local workers' committees.
Claude Monet (1840-1926)
Perhaps most well known for his "series paintings" of the countryside at Giverny (e.g. water lilies)
Artemisia Gentileschi (1593-1651)
Perhaps the first female artist to gain recognition in the post-Renaissance era. First woman to paint historical and religious scenes: e.g. her "Judith" paintings, Female artists at this time were consigned to portrait painting and imitative poses
Russian Imperialism
Persia, outlying provinces of China
Catholic Crusade under Philip II
Philip II (1556-98): fanatically seeks to reimpose Catholicism in Europe (like his father, Charles V) Built the Escorial: new royal palace (and monastery and mausoleum)
Moliere (1622-1673)
Plays were written in the classical style (e.g. adherence to the three unities) Wrote some of the most intense emotional works for the stage.
Revolution of 1905
Poor economy and strains of war led peasants and middle class to demand reforms.
Pedro Cabral (1467-1520)
Portuguese; discovered Brazil
Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460)
Portuguese; financed exploration along coast of West Africa
Amerigo Vespucci (1454-1512)
Portuguese; perhaps first European to realize a new continent had been found; "America" named after him
Vasco da Gama (1469-1525)
Portuguese; rounded south of Africa and found all-water route to India. Major blow to Italian city-states' monopoly on trade with Asia.
Bartholomew Diaz (1450-1500)
Portuguese; rounded southern tip of Africa
French Civil Wars (at least 9 wars between 1559 and 1589)
Power struggle between three noble families began in 1559. Catherine de Medicis (1519-1589): dominated her sons who were French kings as she tried to maintain Catholic control over France. She was a member of the Valois faction who opposed the Catholic Guise faction and the Huguenot Bourbon faction.
Hans Holbein the Younger (1497-1543)
Premier portrait artist of his era: painted Erasmus, More, numerous portraits of King Henry VIII and also his family members
Rump Parliament
Pride's Purge (1648), removed all non-Puritans and Presbyterians from Parliament (Charles I tried to win Presbyterians and Scots over to his side)
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1747)
Principia - law of universal gravitation. Deism
Jean de Condorcet (1743-1794)
Progress of the Human Mind, His utopian ideas undermined the legitimacy of the Enlightenment
Charles Fourier (1772-1837)
Proposed a planned economy and socialist communities. Described socialist utopia in lavish mathematical detail.
Tragedy at Münster
Protestant and Catholic forces captured the city and executed Anabaptist leaders
Swedish Phase
Protestants liberate territory lost in previous phase. Holy Roman Emperor annuls Edict of Restitution
Brunswick Manifesto
Prussia & Austria threatened to destroy Paris if royal family harmed o In response, King stormed at Tuileries, Swiss Guards killed; king taken prisoner
Seven Years War (1756-1763)
Prussia alone in fighting France, Russia & Austria (outnumbered 15-1)
Humiliation of Olmutz
Prussia dropped plan to unify Germany, leaving Austria as the dominant German state in the Bund.
Treaty of Paris (1763)
Prussia retained Silesia; remained a "Great Power"
Quadruple Alliance
Prussia, England, Austria and Russia ("PEAR")
Frederick II the Great
Prussia; At war for first half of his reign,Became a reformer during 2nd half of his reign - saw ruler as the "first servant of the state" - reforms essentially geared to increase the power of the state. Religious freedom (although less so for Jews), Promoted education in schools and universities, Codified laws, Ended serfdom on crown lands (peasants were needed for the army), Improved state bureaucracy by requiring examinations for civil servants, Reduced censorship, Promoted industry and agriculture, Encouraged immigration, Social structure remained heavily stratified: serfdom; extended privileges for the nobility, Junkers became heart of the military; difficult upward mobility for middle class leadership
Junkers
Prussian nobility, sided with the king for stability; hereditary serfdom in 1653
Vichy France
Puppet gov't in southern France. Hitler did not wish to waste time subduing all of France
Roundheads
Puritans opposed the king
Collectivization
Purpose to bring peasantry under absolute control of the communist state
Spain v. England
Queen Mary Tudor (Philip's wife) reimposes Catholicism in England. Queen Elizabeth I reverses Mary's edict; refuses to marry Philip II. Elizabeth helps United Provinces of the Netherlands gain independence from Spain
Levellers
Radical religious revolutionaries; sought social and political reform
Mannerism
Reaction against the High Renaissance ideals of balance, symmetry, simplicity and realistic use of color, Works often used unnatural colors while shapes were elongated or otherwise exaggerated
Russian Civil War
Reds vs Whites
Edmund Burke
Reflections on the Revolution in France, Conservative viewpoint: opposed the revolution as mob rule
Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814)
Regarded as "father" of German nationalism. Saw Germans as superior to other peoples and was especially critical of Jews
Louis XVI (1774-1792)
Reinstated Parlement of Paris (due to strong public opinion) & dismissed Maupeou. Royal struggle with aristocracy and bourgeoisie resulted in the French Revolution.
Ruhr Crisis, 1923
Reparations: Allies announced in 1921 Germany had to pay almost $34 billion. France, led by Raymond Poincaré, occupied industrial Ruhr region of Germany. Runaway inflation occurred when Germany printed money to pay reparations. Brought about social revolution in Germany: Accumulated savings of many retired and middle-class people were wiped out; middle-class resented gov't; blamed Western gov't, big business, workers, Jews, and communists for nation's woes.
Gosplan
Resources shifted from heavy industry and the military toward consumer goods and agriculture - Centralized Economic Planning
Humanism
Revival of antiquity (Greece and Rome) in literature, individualism, human potential, virtu
Paris Commune
Revolutionary municipal gov't set up in Paris, which usurped powers of the Legislative Assembly
Thomas Paine
Rights of Man: responded to Burke's indictment by defending the Enlightenment principles of the revolution
Caravaggio (1571-1610)
Roman painter, perhaps 1st important painter of the Baroque era. Depicted highly emotional scenes
Nicolas Poussin (1593-1665)
French classicism in art most evident in his work
SA
"Brown Shirts" terrorized political opponents on the streets
Dadaism
"Dada" was a nonsensical word that mirrored a post-WWI world that no longer
Mary Tudor ("Bloody Mary")
Ruled England (1553-1558)
Elizabeth I
Ruled England (1558-1603)
Catherine de Mèdici
Ruled France as regent from 1559 to 1589
Great Northern War (1700-1721)
Russia defeated Sweden and gained Baltic states, Russia's "window to the West" o Promoted westernization (modernization): mostly for military purposes. By 1725, Russia out-produced England in iron production (but not Germany or Sweden). Industrial serfdom existed where workers could be bought or sold
Peace of Paris
Russia emerged as the big loser in the conflict and had to return all occupied territories back to the Ottoman Empire.
Congress of Berlin (1878)
Russia left the conference with little despite defeating the Turks. Recognition of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro as independent states. Establishment of the autonomous principality of Bulgaria (still within Ottoman Empire). Austrian acquisition of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Transfer of Cyprus to Great Britain, not far from the Suez Canal. Though Disraeli was most responsible for the agreements, Russia blamed Bismarck. Russian hostility toward Germany led Bismarck (1789) to embark upon a new system of alliances which transformed European diplomacy and effectively killed remnants of the Concert of Europe
Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)
Russians had established a sphere of influence in Manchuria and now sought Korea. Humiliating defeat of Russian fleet by Japan and bloody war on land resulted in Russia turning away from east Asia and focusing instead on the Balkans.
Traditional statement of Lutheran beliefs:
Salvation through faith alone, Bible is the sole authority, "Priesthood of all believers:" Church consists of entire Christian community, Only two sacraments are valid: baptism and communion
Raphael (1483-1520)
School of Athens, numerous Madonna and Child paintings
Scientific Revolution in Medicine
Scientists began challenging Greco-Roman medical authority (esp. Galen-2nd c. AD)
John Locke (1632-1704)
Second Treatise - natural rights: life, liberty and property. Philosophical justification for the supremacy of Parliament in the "Glorious Revolution"
Cheka
Secret police formed to hunt down and execute thousands of real or supposed opponents, such as the tsar and his family and other "class enemies."
Francois Rabelais (1494-1553)
Secular works portrayed his confidence in human nature and reflected Renaissance tastes.
Robert Bakewell
Selective breeding of livestock
Second Balkan War (1913)
Serbia defeated Bulgaria over Macedonia and gained Albania; Russia backed Serbia. Austria, with German support against Russia, prevented Serbia from holding Albania. Serbia frustrated it had no access to Adriatic Sea; Russia humiliated
First Balkan War (1908)
Serbia, Greece, and Bulgaria allied to drive the Turks out of the Balkans. Serbia sought coast on the Adriatic; failed when Austria created Albania to deter Serbia.
MF Duchy of Milan
Sforza family
The Great Depression (1929-1933)
Shattered the fragile optimism of political leaders in the late 1920s, Most important reason for the fall of the Weimar Republic and rise of the Nazis
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-78)
Social Contract (1762): general will (the majority) should govern the nation. Believed that man in a simpler state of nature was good—a "noble savage"—and was corrupted by the materialism of civilization. Emile (1762): encouraged progressive education and self-expression; "learning by doing"; can be seen as a transitional figure between the Enlightenment and the Romanticism
Catholic Counter reformation = SAINT PAUL
Society of Jesus, Abuses reformed in Church practices, Index of Prohibited Books, No significant change in Church doctrine, Council of Trent, Pope Paul III, Anti-Protestant, Ursuline Order of Nuns, Latin Vulgate
Edward VI (1547-1553)
Son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymore (Henry's 3rd wife). England moved towards Calvinism during his short reign
Ursuline Order of Nuns (1544)
Sought to combat heresy through Christian education
NEP - New Economic Policy
Sought to eliminate harsh aspects of War Communism: response to peasant revolts, military, mutiny, and economic ruin
Concert of Europe
Sought to guarantee the enforcement of the status quo as defined by the Vienna settlement.
Brezhnev Doctrine
Soviet Union and its allies had right to intervene in any socialist country whenever they saw the need
Berlin Crisis (1948-49)
Soviets attempted to remove Allies from Berlin by cutting off access, results in Berlin Airlift
Battle of Lepanto
Spain defeated Turkish navy off coast of Greece (reminiscent of earlier Christian Crusades)
Philip's invasion of England
Spain's navy largely destroyed thus ending plans for invasion. Signaled the rise of England as a world naval power
Hermandades
Spanish alliance of cities to oppose nobles; reduced power of the nobility
Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)
Spanish; 1492, first European to reach the New World since the Vikings
Vasco Nunez de Balboa (1475-1517)
Spanish; first to sight the Pacific Ocean; explored the isthmus of Panama
Bartholomew de las Casas
Spanish; writings about Columbus and his successors' cruel treatment of Indians helped spread "black legend" Protestant countries regarding the Spanish empire
Peasant and lower-class women in the renaissance
Status did not change much compared to Middle Ages
Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457)
Strong belief in individualism and the great potential of human beings
American Revolution
Strong classical liberalism ideals
Cabinet System
System evolved during reign of the Hanoverian Kings: George I, George II, George III; Prime minister became leader of the cabinet and responsible to majority party in the House of Commons
Peace of Augsburg, 1555
Temporarily ended the struggle in Germany over Lutheranism. Princes in Germany could choose either Protestantism or Catholicism Resulted in the permanent religious division of Germany
Thomas Hardy
Tess of the d'Urbervilles; portrayed a woman who was ostracized for having premarital sex
Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715)
The "Sun King", The quintessential model of absolutism in Europe. L'état, c'est moi ("I am the state")
Christine de Pisan (c.1363-c.1434)
The City of Ladies; The Book of Three Virtues Chronicled accomplishments of great women of history.
Betty Friedan
The Feminine Mystique (1963) -- American. Criticized norms where women were expected to conform to false, infantile pattern of femininity and live for husbands and children. Founded National Organization for Women (NOW); inspired European groups
Honoré de Balzac (1799-1850)
The Human Comedy -- depicts urban society as a struggle, amoral and brutal, characterized by a Darwinian struggle for wealth and power
Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527)
The Prince (1513), Emphasized practical politics: "the end justifies the means"; "it is better to be feared than
The "Age of Rousseau"
The Republic, 1792-1799, Nat'l Convention: 1792-1795, Creation of the Republic, Execution of Louis XVI, Committee of Public Safety, Reign of Terror, Thermidorian Reaction. The Directory: 1795-99, Ruling bourgeoisie vs. aristocracy and sans-culottes, Coup d'etat Brumaire
Olympe de Gouges
The Rights of Woman, 1791: demanded equal rights and economic and educational opportunities
Simone de Beauvoir
The Second Sex (1949) -- existentialist ideas. Argued women were in essence free but had almost always been trapped by particularly inflexible and limiting conditions.
Andreas Vesalius (1514-64)
The Structure of the Human Body (1543): renewed and modernized study of anatomy
Heisenberg's principle
The dynamics of an experiment alters the state of the subject.
Émile Zola (1840-1902)
The giant of realist literature. Portrayed gritty, animalistic view of working-class life
Violent revolution
The increasing gap between proletariat and bourgeoisie will be so great that the working classes will rise up in revolution and overthrow the elite bourgeoisie.
War communism
The socialization (nationalization) of all means of production & central planning of the economy
Results of the Reformation
The unity of Western Christianity was shattered: Northern Europe (Scandinavia, England, much of Germany, parts of France, Switzerland, Scotland) adopted Protestantism. Germany remained fragmented; unification stunted until the late 19th century. Religious enthusiasm was rekindled - similar enthusiasm not seen since far back into the Middle Ages. Abuses remedied in the Catholic Church: simony, pluralism, immoral or badly educated clergy. Religious wars broke out in Europe for well over a century.
War of Spanish Succession
The will of Charles II (Spanish Habsburg king) gave all Spanish territories to grandson of Louis XIV; other countries feared France would dominate. Grand Alliance sought to preserve the balance of power
Karl Marx
Theory of dialectical materialism. The economic interpretation of history: all human history has been determined by economic factors (mainly who controls the means of production and distribution). The class struggle: Since the beginning of time there has been a class struggle between the rich and the poor or the exploiters and the exploited.
Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
Theory of relativity (1905) of time and space challenged 2 traditional ideas of Newtonian physics (E=MC )
Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
Theory of relativity in time and space challenge the traditional ideas of Newtonian physics.
Popular Front
Threat of fascism prompted coalition of republicans, socialists, communists
Ems Dispatch
To provoke war, Bismarck boasted a French diplomat had been kicked out of Germany after requesting William I not interfere with the succession to the Spanish throne
Viscount Charles
Townsend experimented with turnips when rotating crops
Diet of Worms (1521)
Tribunal of the Holy Roman Empire with power to outlaw and sentence execution through stake-burning
France took control of
Tunisia, Algeria, French West Africa (including Morocco, Sahara, Sudan, Congo basin)
John Locke
Two Treatises on Civil Government: justified supremacy of England's Parliament; natural rights. Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690): tabula rasa ("blank slate")
U-2 incident
U.S. spy plane shot down over USSR, thus deteriorating U.S-USSR relations
U2 incident
U.S. spy plane shot down over USSR, thus deteriorating U.S-USSR relations
Geneva Summit, 1955
US, USSR, Britain, & France began discussions on European security
Second French Republic Constitution
Unicameral legislature (National Assembly); strong executive power; popularly-elected president of the Republic
Isabella I
Unified Spain along with her husband Ferdinand.
Michael Servetus (1511-1553)
Unitarian beliefs; burned at stake
Dutch Revolt
United Provinces of the Netherlands formed in 1581 (Dutch Republic). William of Orange I led 17 provinces against the Spanish Inquisition; Philip sought to crush the rise of Calvinism in the Netherlands
Targets of the Great European Witch Hunt
Unmarried women, midwives,
The Catholic Church
Used witch hunts to gain control over village life in rural areas.
Thomas More (1478-1536)
Utopia, Created an ideal society on an island; but to achieve harmony and order people had to sacrifice individual rights. Saw accumulation of property as a root cause for society's ills: gap between rich & poor
Mary Wollstonecraft
Vindication of the Rights of Woman, 1792: supported Gouges
Anabaptists (founded in 1525)
Voluntary association of believers with no connection to any state ("left wing of the Protestant Reformation"), Rejected child baptism, Believed the end of the world was near, Rejected the Trinity, Led by John of Leyden
Bauhaus movement
Walter Gropius (1883-1969) broke sharply with the past in his design of the Fagus shoe factory at Alfeld, Germany.
Mensheviks (the "minority")
Wanted to await the evolution of capitalism and the proletariat; sought a more democratic party with mass membership.
Adam Smith (1727-1790)
Wealth of Nations (1776): The "Bible" of capitalism; laissez faire. Believed the economy is governed by the natural laws of supply and demand
Welfare State
Western European countries sought to provide universal services to all their people
Abbé Sieyès
What is the Third Estate? Answer: everything!
War of the League of Augsburg (1688-97)
William of Orange (now king of England) brought England in against France.
February Revolution
Working class and liberals unhappy with King Louis Philippe, especially his minister Francois Guizot (who opposed electoral reform); King forced to abdicate
Confessions of Augsburg, 1530
Written by Luther's friend Philip Melanchthon. Attempted compromise statement of religious faith to unite Lutheran and Catholic princes of the HRE; rejected by Catholic princes
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)
Wrote in Thus Spake Zarathustra that "God is Dead": Claimed Christianity embodied a "slave morality," which glorified weakness, envy, and mediocrity. Believed only creativity of a few supermen (übermenschen) could reorder the world.
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980)
Wrote that humans simply exist
Colloquy of Marburg (1529)
Zwingli splits with Luther over issue of Eucharist
Politique
a monarch who favor practical solutions (rather than ideological)
Bullionism
a nation's policy of accumulating as much precious metal (gold and silver) as possible while preventing its outward flow to other countries.
Law of Maximum
a planned economy to respond to food shortages and other economic problems; foreshadowed socialism
The Commonwealth (1649-1653)
a republic - abolished the monarchy and House of Lords
Tsar ruled by decree
absolute power
Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations (1776)
advocated economic individualism
Continental System
aimed to isolate Britain and promote Napoleon's mastery over Europe. Ended up as a major failure: failed to hurt Britain; European countries grew tired of it
Glasnost
aimed to open Soviet society by introducing free speech and some political liberty, while ending party censorship; more successful than perestroika
Navigation Laws
aimed to reduce Dutch trade in the Atlantic (1st in 1651 under Cromwell)
D-Day
aka Operation Overlord, June 6, 1944: invasion of Normandy (northern French coast). Western front established; spelled end of Nazi domination of Europe. Hitler now fighting on three fronts: Russia, France and Italy
Reform Act of 1884
aka Representation of the People Act of 1884, Granted suffrage to adult males in the counties on the same basis as in the boroughs
Marxism
aka Scientific Socialism; developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
Test Act of 1673
all officeholders must take communion in Anglican Church
Cosimo de' Medici (1389-1464)
allied with other powerful families of Florence and became the unofficial ruler of the republic, Most powerful of the Medici rulers
The Communist Manifesto (1830)
also Das Kapital (1861): Intended to replace utopian hopes and dreams with a brutal, militant blueprint for socialist working class success.
The People's Charter
also demanded secret balloting, no property qualifications for members of Parliament, salaries for member of Parliament, equal electoral districts (end to "rotten boroughs"), annual elections for Parliament.
Fabian Society (1883)
among the most significant: advanced a form of revisionist Marxism. Sought political democracy and economic socialism
Rome-Berlin Axis
an alliance between fascist Italy and Germany
Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446)
architect of cathedrals (Il Duomo in Florence)
Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472)
architect of cathedrals.
Disraeli
argued for aggressive foreign policy, expansion of British Empire, and reluctantly supported democratic reforms.
German pietism
argued need for spiritual conversion and religious experience
Conservatism
arose in reaction to liberalism and became a popular alternative for those frightened by the violence, terror and social disorder of the French Revolution.
Zemstvos
assemblies that administered local areas - Significant step towards popular participation
Claudio Monteverdi (1547-1643)
baroque; developed the opera and the modern orchestra J. S. Bach (1685-1750) greatest of the baroque composers, Often wrote dense and polyphonic structures (in contrast to the later balance and restraint of the Classical Period—Mozart & Haydn). Wrote in a variety of genres, both choral and instrumental, for a variety of instruments
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens
became constitutional blueprint for France
Robert Walpole (1721-1742)
became first prime minister
Alexander Kerensky
became leader of the Russian Provisional Gov't
Serfdom
beginning in 16th century and continuing into 18th century, mass of peasants became serfs
James I (r. 1603-1625)
belief in "divine right of kings". claimed "no bishop, no king" to Puritan demand to end bishop control.
nihilism
belief in nothing but science and that the social order should be completely wiped out and built up from scratch.
Predestination
belief that God is all-knowing and therefore has already chosen who has been saved and who has not; "good works" was not sufficient for salvation
Realism
belief that literature and art should depict life as it really was. Largely a reaction to the failed Revolutions of 1848-49 and subsequent loss of idealism
Thomas Malthus
believed human population would eat itself out of existence.
Joseph Stalin
believed in "Socialism in one Country": first, Russia had to be strong Establishment of a Socialist economy without the aid of the West
Quakers
believed in "inner light"; rejected church authority; pacifists; women allowed to minister
Leon Trotsky
believed in "permanent revolution": continuing a world revolution
Third Balkan War
between Austria and Serbia became World War I. Immediate causes of World War I
Parlement of Paris
blocked tax increases
sfumato
blurring or softening sharp lines in painting; developed by Leonardo
Ghiberti (1378-1455)
bronze doors for Florentine baptistery ("Gates of Paradise")
COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION
brought about age of discovery and exploration - chartered companies, joint stock companies, stock markets, putting-out industry
The Crystal Palace
built in 1851, symbolized Britain's economic/industrial might
Berlin Wall
built in 1961 because 2 million East Germans escaped to West Berlin between 1949-1961; Soviets frustrated
Berlin Wall
built in 1961, 2 million East Germans escaped to West Berlin between 1949-1961; Soviets frustrated
New type of party
cadre of educated professional revolutionaries to serve development of political class consciousness & guidance of the "Dictatorship of Proletariat"
Carlsbad Diet (1819)
called by Metternich; issued the Carlsbad Decrees that cracked down
The English Civil War
cavaliers vs roundheads
Michelangelo (1475-1564)
ceiling of the Sistine Chapel
German Imperialism
certain Pacific islands
New Physics
challenged long-held ideas and led to uncertainty
Mestizos
children of mixed white and Indian descent o Creoles: American-born Spaniards
Putting-out system
city manufacturers took advantage of cheaper labor in the countryside
War of the Three Henrys (1584-98)
civil wars between Valois, Guise, and Huguenot
First Estate
clergy, Gallican Church (less than 1% of population)
Wars of Louis XIV
coalition of countries kept France from dominating Europe
Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907)
codified rules of chemistry in the periodic law and the periodic table in 1869.
Gustave Courbet (1819-1877)
coined the term "realism"
o Franco-Prussian war and capture of Napoleon III resulted in
collapse of the 2nd Empire
Coup in Moscow, 1991
communist hard-liners, frustrated by loss of Soviet power and prestige, attempted to overthrow Gorbachev. Coup failed when the Soviet military refused to crush popular resistance.
Cubism
concentrated on a complex geometry of zigzagging lines and sharply angled, overlapping planes.
Deductive method
conclusion is reached by logic
Giotto (1266-1336)
considered the first Renaissance artist; use of chiaroscuro
Grand Empire
consisted of an enlarged France and satellite kingdoms
Spiritual Exercises
contained ideas used to train Jesuits
Italian Risorgimento
continued Mazzini's dream
Cardinal Jules Mazarin (1602-1661)
controlled France while Louis XIV was a child
Naples, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
controlled by Spain after 1435
Rome, the Papal States
controlled by the "Renaissance popes"
Fall of Ottoman Empire
could not maintain possessions in eastern Europe and the Balkans
Bill of Rights (1689)
created a constitutional monarchy
Georges Clemenceau
created a french dictatorship during WWI
Guillotine
created as an instrument of mercy.
Comintern (Third Communists International)
created in 1919, goal to serve as the preliminary step towards the world wide victory of Communism.
Comintern (Third Communists International)
created in 1919. Was to serve as the preliminary step towards the world wide victory of Communism o Ruthless oppression: secret police (Cheka) liquidated about 250,000 opponents
Council of Europe
created in 1948. European federalists hoped Council would quickly evolve into a true European parliament with sovereign rights, but this did not happen.
Weimar Constitution
created in August 1919: bicameral legislature; president served 7-year term
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy
created national church with 83 bishops and diocese; biggest blunder of the National Assembly
National workshops
created to provide work for the unemployed
National Assembly (1871-75)
created with Adolphe Thiers as chief executive
John Maynard Keynes
criticized Versailles Treaty declaring its punishment of Germany would damage the European economy.
Easter Rebellion (1916)
crushed by British troops
2nd Treaty of Paris
dealt more harshly w/ France; large indemnity, some minor territories
John Eck (1486-1543)
debated Luther at Leipzig in 1520
Victor Emmanuel
declared King of Italy in February 1861 (Rome and Venice still independent)
Organic Statute of 1832
declared Poland to be an integral part of the Russian empire.
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
deductive, "I think, therefore I am", cartesian dualism, Developed analytical geometry
Thirty-Nine Articles
defined creed of Anglican Church under Elizabeth I
Cult of the Supreme Being
deistic naturalist religion; Catholics now opposed to the revolution,Notre Dame Cathedral was turned into the Temple of Reason
Unitarianism
denied deity of Christ but believed in Christian principles.
Joseph Lister
developed "antiseptic principle" in performing surgeries.
Trench warfare
developed after Battle of the Marne; lasted four bloody years
Max Planck
developed basis for quantum physics in 1900
Duke of Bridgewater
developed canal system (with use of steam power)
Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)
developed germ theory of disease, pasteurization
Prague Conference
developed notion of Austroslavism, constitution and autonomy within Habsburg empire.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)
developed powerful microscopes. First to see and write about bacteria, yeast plants, living organisms in a drop of water and the circulation of blood corpuscles in capillaries.
taille
direct head tax on all land and property
Marie Curie (1867-1934)
discovered the first radioactive element in 1910 (radium)
Renè de Maupeou
dissolved Parlement of Paris
Cartesian dualism
divided all existence into the spiritual and material. The spiritual can only be examined through deductive reasoning (logic),The material is subject to the experimental method
Michelangelo
dome atop St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican
Klemens Von Metternich (1773-1859)
dominant figure at the Congress of Vienna; conservative
OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries)
dramatically increased oil prices in Europe and U.S. in retaliation for their support of Israel in the Yom Kippur War against Egypt and Syria.
Young Ireland movement (1848)
echoed nationalistic movements on the Continent
Jean Monnet
economic pragmatism and architect of European unity.
Civic Humanism
education should prepare leaders who would be active in civic affairs. Often, more secular and lay dominated
Table of Ranks
educational training for new civil service (mostly of nobles)
Carlsbad Decrees of 1819
effectively restricted freedom throughout Germany.
Rococo style
elegance, pleasantness, frivolity; contrasts emotional grandeur of Baroque
Sovereignty
embodied in the person of the ruler
David Hume (1711-76)
emphasized limitations of human reasoning; human mind is nothing but a bundle of impressions; later became dogmatic skeptic that undermined Enlightenment
Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
empiricism and inductive
The Ambassadors (1533)
encompasses some of the major themes of the era: exploration, religious discord, preoccupation with death (the skull in the foreground) and the rising tide of international relations in an age of expansion
Revolutions of 1989
end to communist control of eastern Europe
Revolutions of 1989
end to communist control of eastern Europe. Costs of maintaining satellite countries for USSR both politically and economically were too
Thermidorian Reaction (1794)
ended "Reign of Terror". Robespierre executed, July 1794. Economic controls lifted: ended influence of sans-culottes
Treaty of Westphalia (1648)
ended Catholic Reformation in Germany. Renewal of Peace of Augsburg (but added Calvinism as accepted faith in Germany). Dissolution of Holy Roman Empire confirmed - Dutch and Swiss independence
Battle of Borodino (1812)
ended in draw but Napoleon overextended himself
Treaty of Nanking
ended the First Opium War (1839-1841), Forced China to cede Hong Kong to Britain forever, pay large indemnity and open up 4 large cities to foreign trade with low tariffs.
Treaty of Paris (1763)
ended the Seven Years War (1756-1763). Britain gained all French territory in North America, Britain controlled more of northeastern India (Bengal), France got back islands in West Indies and some territories in India
Treaty of Utrecht (1713)
ended the War of Spanish Succession (1701-1713). Britain received asiento (slave trade) from Spain. Britain allowed to send one ship of merchandise annually into Panama.
Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559)
ended the habsburg-valois wars
Baruch Spinoza (1632-77)
equated God and nature; impersonal mechanical universe; denied free will
Council of Trent (3 sessions 1545-1563)
established Catholic dogma four next four centuries
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
established a theocracy in Zurich, Switzerland. Disagreed with Luther over the Eucharist (Communion); saw it as only symbolic while Luther believed the spirit of Christ existed in the Eucharist--consubstantiation; Catholics believed in transubstantiation—that the wine and bread consumed during Communion turned into the actual body and blood of Christ in the believer.
Third French Republic
established in 1875. Chamber of Deputies had most power (elected by universal suffrage; president was weak).
Jules Ferry
established tax-supported secular compulsory public education and reform
Sans-culottes
extremely influential, working-class, extremely radical
The Fronde
failed revolution by nobility directed against Mazarin; inspired Louis later to suppress the nobility
Florence Nightingale
famous for superb nursing (more men died of disease than combat)
Missionary work
far more successful in Africa than in Asia and Islamic world.
Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
father of "sociology"
Nepotism
favoring family members e.g. Medicis
George Sand (1804-76)
female writer: Themes of romantic love of nature and moral idealism
Pasteurization
fermentation caused by growth of living organisms and the activity of these organisms could be suppressed by heating the beverage.
Jacques Necker
finance minister who tried to raise taxes; privileged classes refused
King Louis XVI (1774-1792)
financial mismanagement; 1/2 of budget went to pay interest
Cottage Industry
first and foremost a family enterprise (also called the "putting-out" system, Occurred during and as a response to the Agricultural Revolution
Arkwright
first to use steam engine to power looms; factory production of textiles
Robert Fulton
first useful steamship; went up the Hudson River (U.S.)
Dr. David Livingston
first white man to do humanitarian and religious work in south and central Africa
Empiricism
first-hand study of scientific subjects
Habsburg-Valois Wars
five wars between 1521 and 1555 (Francis I vs. Charles V) France tried to keep Germany divided (although ironically, France was Catholic)
Factory Act of 1831
forbade child labor under age of nine
Corvée
forced labor several days per year for nobles
League of Schmalkalden, 1531
formed by newly Protestant (Lutheran) princes to defend themselves against emperors drive to re-Catholicize Germany.
Grand Alliance
formed in 1942: Britain, Soviet Union and U.S. and 2 dozen other countries
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
formed in 1949; Collective security organization consisting of democracies in Europe, U.S. & Canada to prevent against Soviet expansion in Europe.
Committee of Public Safety
formed in Summer 1793 as emergency gov't. Led by Maximilien Robespierre; also Louis Saint-Just
Warsaw Pact
formed in response to NATO; Included Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Rumania, Bulgaria.
Politburo
formed to organize the october revolution: included Lenin, Trotsky, Stalin
Angela Merici (1474-1540)
founded Ursuline Order of Nuns during the Catholic Reformation
Utilitarianism
founded by Jeremy Bentham. Utility of any proposed law or institution based on "the greatest happiness of the greatest
Mennonites
founded by Menno Simons later became descendants of Anabaptists
Royal Society
founded in England (1662) to promote scientific research; other academies founded in Europe
Social Democratic Workers' party
founded in Minsk with Lenin as leader; Lenin exiled Lenin became the heir to Marx in socialist thought
John Wesley (1703-91)
founder of Methodism in England
Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556)
founder; organized the Jesuits in military fashion
Samuel de Champlain
french; founded modern-day Canada in 1608
Plombiérès (1859)
gained promise from Napoleon III that France would support a Sardinian-Piedmont war with Austria for the creation of a northern Italian kingdom Sardinia gained Lombardy, though France backed away from Plombiérès agreement
Jean Bodin (1530-96)
gave theoretical basis for absolutist states; wrote during Fr. civil wars
Plebiscite
general referendum overwhelmingly voted for Napoleon
Lettre de cachet
gov't could imprison anyone without trial or jury
Versailles Palace
grandest and most impressive palace in Europe. In effect, became a pleasure prison for the French nobility, over which Louis gained control. Repressed Jansenism (a kind of Calvinism within Catholic Church)
Act of Toleration (1689)
granted religious freedom (except to Catholics, Jews, and Unitarians)
Edict of Nantes
granted religious toleration to Huguenots
Leo Tolstoy
greatest Russian realist. War and Peace: story of Russian society during the Napoleonic wars
Joseph II (r. 1765-1790)
greatest of Enlightened despots ("greatest good for greatest number"). Abolished serfdom in 1781, Freedom of press, Freedom of religion & civic rights to Protestants and Jews, More equitable justice system, Made German the official language (to assimilate minorities), Increased control over Catholic education, expanded state schools, left the empire in economic and political turmoil
Titian (c. 1485-1576)
greatest painter of the Venetian school
Maximilian I (r. 1493-1519)
habsburg; gained much territory in eastern France with his marriage to Mary of Burgundy, sparking a fierce dynastic struggle between the Valois in France and the Habsburgs that would last until 1559 (Habsburg-Valois Wars).
Kaiser Wilhelm I (r. 1871-1888)
had ultimate power over germany
Corn Law of 1815
halted importation of cheaper foreign grains; higher prices hurt ordinary people
John McAdam (1756-1836)
hard-surfaced roads in England
Danish Phase
height of Catholic forces during the war
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
heliocentric view (refutes the Medieval geocentric view): earth revolves around the sun By the early 16th century, the Catholic Church viewed Copernicus' theory as heretical
Star Chamber
henry vii tried nobles without a jury and were often tortured Nobles not allowed to have own private armies
Stagflation
hit in the mid 1970s: increased prices and increased unemployment
Battle of Verdun/the Somme
horrific casualties; neither side could break through
Intelligentsia
hostile group of intellectuals who believed they should eventually take over society
Declaration of Independence
huge impact of Locke and the Enlightenment (e.g. natural rights)
Baron Paul d'Holbach (1723-1789)
humans were machines governed by outside forces. Freewill, God, and immortality of soul were foolish myths; severe blow to unity of the Enlightenment
Axial rudder (side rudder)
improved ability of ships to change direction Gunpowder and cannons: provided protection from hostile ships and enabled
Robert Owen (1771-1858)
in 1834, founded Grand National Consolidated Trades Union. Movement failed; after 1851 unions were moving toward craft unions
The Peninsular War (1808-1814
in Spain: first great revolt against Napoleon's power o Guerrilla war against France aided by Britain and led by Duke of Wellington
Carnot Lazare
in charge of universal military conscription (levee en masse)
League of Augsburg (formed in 1686 to counter France's growing power)
included the HRE, Spain, Sweden, Bavaria, Saxony, Dutch Republic
Agricultural Revolution
increased crop and animal yields fed more people,growing crops on reclaimed wastelands and uncultivated common lands, livestock raising linked to crop growing; increasing yields in each area.
Mercantilism
increased role of state in the economy Reduced royal debt, reformed tax collection
John Stuart Mill, On Liberty (1859)
influential work on necessity to increase democracy
Wars of Louis XIV
initially successful but eventually ruinous to France. France created a massive modern army with the potential to dominate Europe
James Watt (1736-1819)
invented and patented the first efficient steam engine.
Edmund Cartwright (1753-1823)
invents loom powered by horses, water, or steam.
Joint-stock companies
investors pooled resources for common purpose (forerunner of modern corporation)
Total war
involved mass civilian populations in the war effort
Pragmatic Sanction (1713)
issued by Charles VI: Europe's major powers agreed that Habsburg territories were indivisible; all Habsburg lands would transfer to future Habsburg rulers (e.g. Maria Teresa)
Rerum Novarum
issued by Pope Leo XIII, Condemned socialism, While he found fault with capitalism regarding poverty, insecurity, and degradation of the laboring classes, he stated that capitalism could work if industrialists looked after the welfare of their workers
Decembrists
junior military officers, upper-class opponents of the autocratic Russian system
Concordat of Bologna (1516)
king now appointed bishops to the Gallican Church - Major reason why Reformation did not take hold in France
Tories
king's supporters, nobles
Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642)
laid foundation for absolutism in France (politique like Henry IV) during the reign of louis XIII. Increased mercantilism and taxation to fund the military
Ptolemy's Geography, 1475
largely improved navigation
Pugachev Rebellion (1773)
largest peasant uprising in Russian history;
Friedrich Engels (1820-1895)
lashed out at middle-class abuse of wage-earners o Luddites: attacked factories, broke machinery; believed factories taking their jobs
Siege of Vienna (1683)
last attempt by Turks to take Central Europe
Second Industrial Revolution
last half 19th century; steel production, oil, chemicals
Nicholas II (1868-1918)
last of the Romanov dynasty; Russia in a perpetual state of crisis
Queen Anne (1702-1714)
last of the Stuart monarchs
Thomas Malthus (1766-1834)
late 18th century economist who believed food supply could not keep up with population growth (pop. growth exponential; food production increased geometrically)
Leon Trotsky
leader of the Petrograd Soviet (and the Red Army), led Soviet overthrow and
Condottieri
leaders of private armies hired by cities for military purposes
Jacques Lefevre d'Etables (1454-1536)
leading French humanist; produced 5 versions of the Psalms that challenged a single authoritative Bible.
Charles VIII (r. 1483-1498)
led French invasions of Italy that made it a battleground for international ambitions between France and Spain and effectively ended the sovereignty of most Italian city-states
French Fourth Republic
led by Charles de Gaulle. Result: social reform and political transformation created foundations for a great European renaissance
Free French
led by General Charles De Gaulle, who fled to Britain
September Massacres
led by Paris Commune, aristocratic and clerical conspiracy with foreign invaders led to massacre of over 1,000 priests, bourgeoisie, and aristocrats
Anti-Corn Law League
led by Richard Cobden and John Bright who argued for lower
Second French Republic
led by liberal Alphonse Lamartine (allied w/ bourgeoisie)
Emmeline Pankhurst
led militant suffragettes. Her organization, the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU), destroyed railroad stations, works of art, store windows; chained themselves to gates in front of Parliament
Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658)
led the "New Model Army"
Ho Chi Minh
led the independence movement in the north of vietnam
Count Cavour (1810-1861)
led the struggle for Italian unification via realpolitik. Prime minister who built Sardinia-Piedmont into a liberal and economically sound state
Napoleonic Codes
legal unity provided first clear and complete codification of French law: code of civil procedure, criminal procedure, commercial code, and penal code.
Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle (1748)
legitimized Frederick's conquest.
Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882)
liberated southern Italy and Sicily. Exemplified the Romantic nationalism of earlier leaders such as Mazzini. 1860, Garibaldi and his thousand
Fall of Poland
liberum veto leads to weak gov't
Portuguese caravel
lighter, faster ships; could sail into the wind
Factory Act of 1833
limited hours per day; prohibited children under age 9
Weaknesses of British democracy
limited suffrage, unfair representation ("rotten boroughs"), open voting, religious-property requirements for office, hereditary House of Lords United, Government dominated by Calvinist bourgeoisie (burghers)
Teresa de Avila (1515-1582)
major Spanish leader of the reform movement for convents and monasteries
Caterina Sforza (1463-1509)
major art patron (e.g. Leonardo da Vinci), Major enemy of Florence throughout much of the Renaissance
Scientific Revolution
major cause of the new world view in the 16th and 17th centuries
Lorenzo "the Magnificent" de' Medici (1449-1492)
major patron of the arts
Lateen sail and rope riggings
maneuverable sails took advantage of wind power from
Countryside Hierarchy
manorial lords, peasants, landless workers
Heavy industry
manufacture of machinery and materials used in production
clerical ignorance
many priests were illiterate
Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659)
marked end of Spain as a Great Power.
City Hierarchy
merchants (bourgeoisie), artisans, laborers
Congress of Vienna (1814-15)
met to end the Napoleonic wars and to keep France in check.
Whigs
middle-class and merchants; also high aristocracy
Joseph Goebbels
minister of propaganda effectively glorified Hitler and the Nazi state
Causes of the Great European Witch Hunt
misogyny, religious wars,
factory work
more discipline required; increased loss of personal freedom
Girondins
more moderate faction; represented countryside
Louis Blanc (1811-1882)
more practical approach than other early French socialists.
Isabella d'Este (1474-1539)
most famous Renaissance female ruler (ruled Mantua)
Madame de Pompadour
most famous of Louis XV's mistress of the 18th c. as she charmed the king and gained decision-making power
Francis Xavier (1506-1552)
most important Catholic missionary in the East Indies
Pablo Picasso (1881-1973)
most important artist of the 20th century. Developed cubism along with Georges Braque
Edwin Chadwick
most important reformer of living conditions in cities.
Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)
most important war of the 17th century
Reign of Terror (1793-94)
most notorious event of French Revolution
Defeat in 30 Years' War
most politically and economically disastrous of Louis XIV's wars:
Charles V (r. 1519-1556)
most powerful ruler in Europe (1st Holy Roman Emperor), sacked Rome in 1527. Sought to prevent spread of Protestant Reformation in Germany
Calvinism
most significant of the new Protestant sects, predestination, Calvin established a theocracy in Geneva
Parliament Act of 1911
most significant political reform during Liberal party rule. Eliminated powers of House of Lords; House of Commons now center of national power. Life-span of Parliament was reduced from 7 to 5 years.
Suleiman the Magnificent (d. 1566)
nearly conquered Austria in 1529, captured Belgrade (Serbia), nearly 1/2 of Eastern Europe including all Balkan territories, most of Hungary, and part of southern Russia
Blitzkrieg ("lightning war")
new form of warfare used by Germany to quickly defeat an enemy
Revolutionary Calendar
new non-Christian calendar instituted
Assignats
new paper currency; former church lands guaranteed value of currency
Proletariat
new wage-earning class of factory workers
Robe nobles
new; purchased their titles from the monarchy and became high officials in the government and remained loyal to the king.
Habeas Corpus Act (1679)
no arbitrary arrest and speedy trial
Second Estate
nobility (2-4% of population)
Robot
non-serf peasants owed lord 3 to 4 days a week of forced labor
Pluralism
official holding more than one office
Absenteeism
official not participating in benefices
Sword nobles
older, hereditary nobles; not allowed to influence the royal council
United Nations created two states
one Arab (Palestine) and one Jewish (Israel).
Berthe Morisot (1841-1895)
one of few females in 19th c. that had the opportunity to be a first-rate artist
Battle of Britain
one of most critical battles of the war. Hitler sought to soften Britain up for an invasion. Luftwaffe (led by Herman Goring) sent to destroy Royal Air Force (RAF). RAF recovered and ultimately defeated Luftwaffe: Hitler forced to call off invasion of Britain. Significance: Hitler had to guard against a future two-front war; D-Day launched from Britain
Act of Settlement (1701)
only Anglican could succeed to the throne
Ulster (Protestant counties in northern Ireland)
opposed Irish Home Rule as they started to enjoy remarkable economic growth from the mid-1890s.
laissez-faire
opposed gov't intervention in social and economic affairs, even if the need for action seemed great to social critics and reformers
Valois Dynasty
oversaw France's recovery after the 100 Years' War
February Revolution
overthrew the Czar and instituted the Provisional Government. started by women rioting for bread in Petrograd; workers and soldiers joined in
Albrecht von Wallenstein (1583-1634)
paid by emperor to fight for HRE
Masaccio (1401-1428)
painted real, nude human figures
Sandro Botticelli (1444-1510)
painter: Birth of Venus, La Primavera
Enabling Act (March 1933)
passed by Reichstag. Gave Hitler absolute dictatorial power for four years; only Nazi party was legal.
sale of indulgences
paying a fee to the Church so that a person (or his loved ones) could escape purgatory and go to heaven
Twelve Articles,1525
peasants demanded an end to feudalism, Inspired by Luther's writings. Luther was a conservative in that he believed people should obey their secular rulers.
Voltaire (1694-1778)
perhaps most influential of all Enlightenment philosophes. Advocated religious toleration and blasted the Church's oppression - "Crush the infamous thing" (meaning religious intolerance). Advocated "enlightened despotism" (his ideas were somewhat similar to Thomas Hobbes) o Candide (1759): satire on the evils of society
Alexander II (1855-1881)
perhaps most liberal ruler in Russian history prior to 20th century, abolished serfdom, est. zemstvos, judiciary improved, censorship relaxed (but not removed), education liberalized. Increasingly became more liberal. assassinated in 1881 by anarchists who bombed his carriage in St. Petersburg
Article 231
placed sole blame for war on Germany; Germany would be severely punished
Wilson's 14 Points (Jan. 1918)
plan to end the war along liberal, democratic lines. Abolish secret treaties, freedom of the seas, free trade; Reduction of armament burdens; Promise of independence ("self-determination") to oppressed minority groups (e.g. Poles, Czechs), millions of which lived in Germany and Austria-Hungary.
Madame de Geoffrin
played major role patronizing Diderot's Encyclopedia
Jacobins
political club that dominated Legislative Assembly
Nuclear family
poor people tended to be unable to support extended families
Causes of the commercial revolution
population growth, price revolution, rise of capitalism
Alfonso d'Albuquerque (1453-1515)
portuguese; Laid foundation for Portuguese imperialism in the 16th and 17th century. Established empire in Indonesia after 1510
Francis Xavier
portuguese; led Jesuit missionaries to Asia where by 1550 thousands of natives had been converted to Christianity in India, Indonesia, and Japan
Vasco Da Gama
portuguese; set up posts in India
Gamal Abdel Nasser
pres of egypt, nationalized the Suez canal in 1956
Boris Yeltsin's
pres of russia, gov't failed to significantly improve the Russian economy
William Tyndale
produced the first English version of the Bible (highly illegal!); executed
Mines Act of 1842
prohibited all children under age 10 from working underground
Russian-German Reinsurance Treaty of 1887
promised neutrality if other was attacked
Holy Alliance
proposed by Alexander I in 1815: proposed for all monarchs to sign a statement agreeing to uphold Christian principles of charity and peace; plan was impractical and few took it seriously
The Bank of England (1694)
provided an important source of capital for economic development
Australian Ballot Act (1872)
provided for the secret ballot (earlier Chartist demand)
King Gustavus Adolphus (1594-1632)
pushed back Catholic forces to Bohemia
El Greco (1541-1614)
quintessential mannerist who spent most of his creative life in Spain. Burial of Count Orgaz (1586) is among his most famous works
White Man's Burden
racist patronizing that preached that the "superior" Westerners had an obligation to bring their culture to "uncivilized" peoples in other parts of the world.
Girondins
radical Jacobins who were advanced party of the revolution and brought the country to war
Diggers
radical group (foreshadowed anarchy in 19th century)
The Mountain
radical republicans; urban class (Danton, Robespierre, Marat)
Paris Commune (1870-71)
radical; gained much power and lay siege to Paris. Fought a bloody struggle with the troops of the National Assembly; thousands died and 20,000 were subsequently executed
Madame de Stael
ran a salon and wrote books deploring subordination of women
Counter-Culture
rebellion against parents, authority figures and status quo
Treaty of Adrianople (1829)
recognized Greek independence. 3 out of 5 members of Concert of Europe supported nationalism signaling a shift from united conservatism to nationalistic self-interest.
Baron von Haussmann
redeveloped Paris: wide boulevards (partially to prevent barricades), better middle-class housing on outskirts, demolition of slums, creation of parks and open spaces.
Dètente
reducing of US SU tension
Baroque Art
reflected the ideas of the Catholic Reformation; goal to teach in a concrete and emotional way and demonstrate the glory and power of the Catholic Church
Francesco Ximenes de Cisneros (1436-1517)
reformed Spanish clergy and church, Grand Inquisitor of the Spanish Inquisition
Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803)
regarded as father of modern nationalism. Believed every people is unique and possesses a distinct national character—Volksgeist— which has evolved over many centuries.
Louis XIII (1610-43)
regency plagued by corruption & mismanagement (mom ruled until he was of age)
Vendèe
region in western France that opposed revolution saw thousands executed o Danton and followers executed in 1794
Fall of HRE
religious divisions and war in 16th and 17th century
Failure of Peace of Augsburg
religious tension in the Holy Roman Empire continued
Reconquista
removed last of Moors, Expulsion of Jews
Gustavus Adolphus
reorganized the swedish government
The Commonwealth (1649-1653)
republic - abolished the monarchy and House of Lords
Old Believers (The Raskolniki)
resisted westernization, severely persecuted.
Third Estate
rest of population (paid both tithes to church and taille to gov't)
Constitution of 1795
restored some order but the new gov't was very ineffective
Peace of Lodi (1454)
resulted in a balance of power and peace between Milan, Florence, and Naples that lasted until the French invasions of the 1490s
October Revolution
resulted in a communist dictatorship
Sino-Japanese War
revealed China's helplessness, triggered a rush for foreign concessions and protectorates in china.
Edict of Fontainebleau (1685)
revoked the Edict of Nantes, thus ending religious toleration for Huguenots
Dr. Sun Yat-sen
revolutionary, sought to overthrow the Manchu dynasty and establish a republic; sparked the beginning of a Chinese nationalist movement
Benito Mussolini (1883-1945)
rises to power ("Il Duce") o Organized the Fascist party. Combination of socialism and nationalism: territorial expansion, benefits for workers, and land reform for peasants.
Boyars
russian nobles
Simony
sale of church offices
Gargantua and Pantagruel
satirized French society, emphasized education, attacked clerical education and monastic orders
Inductive method
scientific conclusion is reached after much observation
Caused the end of witch hunts
scientific revolution, advances in medicine, reformation because it emphasized God as the only spiritual force in the universe
Donatello (1386-1466)
sculptor: David
The Carbonari
secret nationalist societies advocated force to achieve national unification.
Guiseppe Mazzini (1805-72)
secret revolutionary society—Young Italy.
Jethro Tull
seed drill (more efficient than scattering seeds by hand)
President Louis Napoleon
seen by voters as a symbol of stability and greatness. Dedicated to law and order, opposed to socialism and radicalism, and favored the conservative classes—the Church, army, property-owners, and business.
Bank of France
served interests of the state and financial oligarchy
Algeciras Conference
settled First Moroccan Crisis
INF Treaty
signed by Gorbachev and Reagan in Dec. 1987. All intermediate-range nuclear missiles in Europe were banned.
Petit bourgeoisie
small industrialists, merchants and professionals who demanded security and stability from the government.
From Europe to the New World
smallpox, measles, bubonic plague, influenza, typhus, wheat, sugar, rice coffee, horses, cows, pigs, sheep, goats, chickens
Louis Blanc
socialist thinker emerged as a leader among the working classes.
ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM
some monarchs adopted certain Enlightenment ideas including toleration of religious minorities, simplified legal codes, and promotion of practical education. Yet, Absolutists more vigorously sought reforms to strengthen the state and allow them to compete militarily with their neighbors.
Chartists
sought political democracy for all men
Winter Palace
sought to emulate Versailles
Marquis de Beccaria (1738-94)
sought to humanize the criminal law based on Enlightenment concepts of reason and equality before the law; criticized torture. Influenced the "Enlightened despots": Frederick the Great, Catherine the Great, Joseph II
James II (1685-1688)
sought to re-Catholicize England; Parliament forced him to abdicate
Charles I (1625-1649)
sought to rule without Parliament and to control the Anglican Church. Dissolved parliament in 1629
Nationalism
sought to turn cultural unity into self-government
Intendant System
sought to weaken nobility, Replaced local officials w/ civil servants who reported directly to the king; largely filled by middle-class. continued to increase the power of the king at the expense of the old nobles.
Chartists
sought universal suffrage
Asiento
spanish slave trade
Hernando Cortès (1485-1547)
spanish; conquered Aztecs in Mesoamerica
Francisco Pizarro (1478-1541)
spanish; conquered Incas in South America
Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521)
spanish; his ship was the first to circumnavigate the globe
Social Democrats
split into two factions - mensheviks vs bolsheviks
Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937)
split the atom in 1919
Open Door Policy
sponsored by the U.S. in 1899, sought to open commerce to imperial latecomers like itself, urged the Europeans to allow free trade within China while respecting its territorial integrity.
Gulags
stalin's forced labor camps
Chartered companies
state provided monopolies in certain regions (BEIC, DEIC)
State-regulated monopolies
stifled economic growth
Tenebrism
stressed broad areas of light and shadow rather than on linear arrangements of the High Renaissance.
Max Planck (1858-1947)
studied sub-atomic energy which shook the foundations of the Newtonian view of the universe
Vladimir Putin
succeeded Yeltsin in 2000 and began to centralize power
Leopold I (1658-1705)
successfully repelled Turks
General Strike
support of miners who feared a dramatic drop in their low wages swept the country; the gov't outlawed such labor actions in 1927
Gladstone
supported Irish Home Rule, fiscal policy, free trade, and extension of democratic principles while opposing imperialism
Cavaliers
supported the king
Armies of Charles V, sack of Rome in 1527
symbolized end of Renaissance in Italy
Treaty of Tilsit (1807)
symbolized height of Napoleon's success
Defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588)
symbolized the rise of England as a world power and the limits of Spanish dominance
From the New World to Europe
syphilis, potatoes, corn, tomatoes, pineapple, tobacco, beans, vanilla, chocolate, turkeys, gold, and silver
Methodism
taught need for spiritual regeneration and a moral life that would demonstrate the reality of the conversion
Wealthier people (and some landowning peasants)
tended to have extended families based mostly on economic considerations; not love
Martin Behaim
terrestrial globe, 1492
Irish Republican Army (IRA)
terrorized English cities demanding that Northern Ireland be
Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603)
the "Virgin Queen", Held strong Protestant beliefs; Catholics saw her as "illegitimate". Effectively oversaw the development of Protestantism in England. a practical politician who carefully navigated a middle ground between Anglicanism and Protestantism
Rousseau's Social Contract
the "general will" should prevail (3rd Estate)
IMPERIALISM
the control of one people by another (can be political, economic or cultural)
Classical liberalism
the political and economic outgrowth of the Enlightenment. Belief in liberty of the individual and equality before the law (but NOT democracy), "Natural rights" philosophy played a profound role in the American and French Revolutions
virtú
the quality of being a great man in whatever noble pursuit
Theory of Surplus Value
the true value of a product was labor and, since the worker received a small portion of his just labor price, the difference was surplus value, "stolen" from him by the capitalist.
William of Orange
thwarted Louis' expansionism, later, King William III of England
Whig Party
transformed into Liberal Party under Gladstone
Tory Party
transformed into the Conservative Party under Disraeli
Mary Tudor ("Bloody Mary") (r. 1553-1558)
tried to reimpose Catholicism. Protestants fled England fearing persecution. Executed many
Henry VII (1485-1509)
tudor; Reduced the power of the nobility. English Parliament still had influence over taxation and government policy
The Act of Union (1707)
unified England and Scotland; the Scots sought the benefits of trade within the English empire.
Bourgeoisie
upper middle class; well-to-do but resented 1st and 2nd Estates had all the power and privilege
Sturm und Drang
used by German romantics in 1770s and 80s conveying emotional intensity.
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
used the telescope to prove Copernicus's heliocentric theory. Forced by the Roman Inquisition to retract his support of the Copernican theory. Also developed laws of motion
Francis I (1515-1547)
valois; concordat of bologna, taille, Large royal army
Louis XI "Spider King" (1461-83)
valois; large royal army, ruthlessly suppressed nobles, taxes, power over clergy, actively encouraged economic growth
German reoccupation of Rhineland
violated Versailles Treaty and Locarno Pact
Liberum veto
voting in Polish parliament had to be unanimous
Pope Pius IX's Syllabus of Errors
warned Catholics against liberalism, rationalism, socialism, separation of church and state, and religious liberty.
Great Fear of 1789
wave of violence and hysteria in countryside against propertied class
Kulaks
wealthiest russian peasants, Stalin ordered party workers to "liquidate them as a class."
Gentry
wealthy landowners who dominated politics in the House of Commons
League of Nations
without (US & USSR) didn't have will nor support to maintain peace.
Representation of the Peoples Act (1928)
women over age 21 gained the right to vote.
Leonardo Bruni (1370-1444)
wrote history of Florence; division of historical periods; narrative form; civic humanist; first to use the term "humanism"
Theodor Herzl
zionism -- advocated a Jewish homeland in the Holy Land