APEH

Petrarch

"Father of humanism" and first modern writer, literature was no longer subordinate to religion. Saw the Medieval period as the "Dark Ages"

Isabella d'Este (1474-1539)

"First Lady" of the Renaissance - Set an example for women to break away from their traditional roles as mere ornaments to their husbands. Ruled Mantua after her husband died; extremely well educated and a big patron of the arts. Founded a school for young women

Xenophobia (anti-immigration)

"Guest Workers" became a major source of tension among right-wing nationalists

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)

"Star Wars": 1983, Reagan announced his intention to pursue a high-technology missile-defense system

Charles II

"The Merry Monarch" Stuarts restored to the throne

Frederick I

"The Ostentatious" (1688-1713); 1st "King of Prussia". Allied with Habsburgs in War of League of Augsburg and War of Spanish Succession to preserve the balance of power in Europe

Paul Valéry

"cruelly injured mind" besieged by doubts and suffering from anxieties due to economic, political ,and social disruptions of the 1920s.

Willy Brandt

"eastern initiative" -- West German chancellor, began to improve relations with Eastern Europe. Sought a comprehensive peace settlement for central Europe and a new resolution of the "German Question."

Henrik Ibsen (1828-1906)

"father of modern drama"; realism in his plays

David Ricardo

"iron law of wages": plentiful supply of workers would keep wages low, to the detriment of the working class.

David Ricardo (1772-1823)

"iron law" of wages -- argued that the high pressure of population would cause wages to always be low.

The "Belle Époque" (c. 1895-1914)

"the good old days"; Increased standard of living in all industrialized countries (e.g. Britain, France, Germany), Increased leisure time resulted with higher wages and salaries

Established "People's' Republic of China"

("Red China"), established by Mao Zedong

Perestroika

("restructuring"), aimed to revive sagging Soviet economy by adopting many of the free-market practices of the West; by 1987 the program had clearly failed

Perestroika

("restructuring"): aimed to revive sagging Soviet economy by adopting many of the free-market practices of the West; by 1987 the program had clearly failed

Ivan III the Great

(1442-1505) Ended Mongol domination of Muscovy. Established himself as hereditary ruler of Muscovy, Saw Moscow as the "Third Rome": Assumed leadership of Orthodox Christian Church. Ivan Reduced power of the boyars in return for granting them more power over the serfs

Ivan IV the Terrible

(1533-1584), first to take title "tsar". Conquered Baltic, Far East, and Black Sea region. Began westernizing: encouraged trade with England and the Netherlands. Peasants fled oppressive rule: became "Cossacks"; led to more severe serfdom by gov't edict

Michael Romanov

(1613-1645) Created a Russian empire across Asia to the Pacific (largest nation by 1689)

Frederick William The "Great Elector"

(1640-1688). Brandenburg-Prussia: rule consolidated after 30 Years' War via military force & taxation. Created most efficient army in Europe

The Protectorate

(1653-1659), Oliver Cromwell Lord Protector (Puritan dictatorship). Puritans tried to regulate lives of the people: illegalized drinking, theater and dancing

Peter the Great

(1682-1725) 1698, put down revolt by strelski (Moscow Guards), thus securing his reign. Royal military and artillery academies were established, Built large navy on the Baltic (though it declined after his death). sought to replace old Boyar nobility with a new service-based nobility loyal to the tzar.

Baron de Montesquieu

(1689-1755): Spirit of the Laws (1748): advocated separation of powers in government via three branches to provide for checks and balances

Francois Quesnay

(1694-1774), "physiocrats": opposed to mercantilist economic theory. advocated reform of the agrarian order; too much land ownership by nobles stifled agricultural production

Frederick William I

(1713-1740) "The Soldiers' King". Established Prussian absolutism, "Sparta of the North": Largely a military state - best army in Europe. Junkers became officers caste in army in return for king's absolutism

War of Austrian Succession

(1740-1748) Prussia, France, Bavaria & Spain vs. Austria and Russia. Took Silesia from Austria; Prussia now most powerful German state: "Great Power"

Olympia

(1863) offended the Salon for its casual nude portrayal of a prostitute

Reds

(Bolsheviks)

Jansenism

(Catholic sect) in France argued against idea of an uninvolved or impersonal God

Le Déjeuner sur l'herbe

(Luncheon on the Grass) 1863, shocked audiences by portraying a female nude and two male clothed companions in an everyday park setting

George Eliot

(Mary Ann Evans) (1819-1880)--examined ways in which people are shaped by their social class as well as their own inner strivings, conflicts, and moral choices.

Impressionism

(began in France) Artists sought to capture the momentary overall feeling, or impression, of light falling on a real-life scene before their eyes.

Price revolution

(long slow upward trend); increased food prices, increased volume of money, influx of gold & silver

Soviet Union Dissolves

12/25/19991

Unification of Spain

1492

Time of Troubles

1584, period of chaos after Ivan the Terrible's death

Interregnum

1649-1660 rule without a king; Oliver Cromwell

Interregnum

1649-1660 rule without king

John Kay

1733, flying shuttle for faster weaving

James Hargreaves

1764, spinning jenny for thread spinning

Richard Arkwright

1769, water frame, which improved thread spinning.

Samuel Crompton

1779, invented the spinning mule which combined the best features of the spinning jenny and the water frame.

First Industrial Revolution

1780-1850 - textiles, coal, iron, railroads

Legislative Assembly

1791-1792: Jacobins vs Girondins

National Convention

1792-1795. France proclaimed a republic, September 17, 1792. New govt based on equality, liberty, fraternity

War of the Second Coalition

1798-1801, Napoleon ultimately victorious, Resulted in Austria's loss of her Italian possessions, German territory on west bank of the Rhine incorporated into France

Berlin Decree

1806: British ships not allowed in European ports

Milan Decree

1807: Napoleon proclaimed any ship stopping in Britain would be seized when it entered the Continent.

Battle of Leipzig ("Battle of Nations")

1813: Most of Napoleon's Grand Army destroyed

Corn Laws

1819, passed to benefit landowners

"Peterloo Massacre

1819; Pro-liberal crowd listening to anti-Corn law rhetoric attacked by police. Press brought under more firm control and mass meetings abolished.

Poor Law

1834: required healthy unemployed workers to live in workhouses.

10 Hour Act

1847: limited work hours for women and children to 10 hours per day

Emperor Napoleon III

1851: took control of gov't in a coup d'etat (December 1851) and became emperor the following year (97% of voters made him emperor in 1853)

Austro-Prussian War (German Civil War)

1866; Bismarck made diplomatic preparations for war with Austria by negotiating with France, Italy, and Russia for noninterference. Prussia defeated Austria and unified much of Germany without Austria

Ausgleich

1867, Transformed Austria into the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Hungarians would have their own assembly, cabinet, and administrative system, and would support and participate in the Imperial army and in the Imperial gov't.

The Eastern Question

1870s, constant crisis in the Balkans (who would control region?)

Congress of Berlin

1878: sought to solve the "Eastern Question". Russia defeated the Ottoman Empire in war but received no territory as a result

Berlin Conference

1884-85: established the "rules" for conquest of Africa. Sponsored by Bismarck & Jules Ferry ; sought to prevent conflict over imperialism o Congress coincided with Germany's rise as an imperial power. Agreed to stop slavery and slave trade in Africa.

Boxer Rebellion

1900: Patriotic uprising by Chinese nationalists against Western encroachment, was put down by imperial powers in 1900; Manchu dynasty would soon fall

Triple Entente

1907: Britain, France and Russia; formed to counter the Triple Alliance

Lusitania

1915: U-boats sank passenger liner killing 1,200

Paris Peace Conference

1919 Big Four: Lloyd George (Br.), Clemenceau (Fr.), Wilson (US), Orlando (It). Central powers excluded from negotiations; France concerned with its future security

Ernest Rutherford

1919, demonstrated the atom could be split.

Versailles Treaty

1919. Mandates for former colonies and territories of the Central Powers. League of Nations created

Mein Kampf

1923, written while in jail: became the blueprint for Hitler's future plans

Beer Hall Putsch

1923: Hitler failed to overthrow Bavaria and sentenced to 1 year in jail

Locarno Pact

1925: "spirit of Locarno" no longer relevant once Hitler took power

Werner Heisenberg

1927, "principle of uncertainty"-- as it is impossible to know the

Kellogg-Briand Pact

1928: "war is illegal"; not enforceable

1st Five Year Plan

1928; marked end of the NEP. Objectives: Total industrial output to increase, collectivization

Hitler withdraws from LoN

1933: secretly began rearmament

Nuremberg Laws

1935, deprived Jews of all rights of citizenship.

Italian invasion of Ethiopia

1935: League of Nations ineffective in its actions and protests

Spanish Civil War

1936: Mussolini and Hitler use conflict as a testing ground for their military forces: Italy's army; Germany's airforce -- Luftwaffe

Kristallnacht ("The Night of Broken Glass")

1938: ordered by Hitler. Well-organized wave of violence destroyed homes, synagogues, and businesses. Thousands of Jews were arrested and made to pay for the damage.

Munich Conference

1938; arranged by British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain. Attended by Britain, France, Italy & Germany; Czechoslovakia or Russia not invited British. Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain adopted a policy of appeasement. Agreement: Czechoslovakia forced to give away Sudetenland

Tripartite Pact

1940: Japan added to Rome-Berlin axis for mutual defense and military support.

Yalta Conference

1945: "Big Three" met again for the 2nd time. Stalin agreed to enter Pacific war against Japan within 3 months after Germany surrendered. "Declaration of Liberated Europe" which called for free elections.

Marshall Plan

1947: Massive aid package to help war-torn Europe recover from the war. Purpose: prevent communism from spreading into economically devastated regions. Result: Western and Central Europe recovered economically -- the "economic miracle" o Soviets refused to allow U.S. aid to countries in eastern Europe

Truman Doctrine

1947: U.S. gave aid to Greece and Turkey to defeat communist forces there.

Schuman Plan

1950 created the European Coal and Steel Community. Immediate economic goal: a single competitive market w/o national tariffs or quotas.

Korean War: 1950-1953

1950, communist North Korea (supported by Soviet resources) invaded South Korea o United Nations (led by U.S.) sent forces to push back communists. Result: cease-fire and border at 38th parallel restored; still in existence today

Korean War

1950-1953. communist North Korea (supported by Soviet resources) invaded South Korea, United Nations (led by U.S.) sent forces to push back communists. Result: cease-fire and border at 38th parallel restored; still in existence today

Geneva Summit

1955: U.S., USSR, Britain, & France began discussions on European security

XXth Party Congress

1956: Khrushchev took startling initiative against hard-liners by denouncing Stalin's crimes in a closed session.

Sputnik

1957: A Russian satellite was sent into orbit on a rocket and was brought back safely to the USSR; scientifically, this was an unprecedented achievement.

Fall of Khrushchev

1964; cold war policies were erratic & ultimately unsuccessful (Berlin, Cuban Missile Crisis), agricultural projects backfired.

French student revolt

1968; Students took over the universities, leading to violent clashes with police. Most students demanded changes in curriculum and real voice in running the university. Appealed to industrial workers for help; spontaneous general strike spread across France

Helsinki Conference

1975; final act

Maastricht Treaty

1991. Promised most radical revision of the EC since its beginning. Eurodollar became the single currency of the EU in 1999 integrating the currency of 11 western and central European nations.

Coup in Moscow

1991: communist hard-liners, frustrated by loss of Soviet power and prestige, attempted to overthrow Gorbachev

Dayton Agreements

1995: Agreed to divide Bosnia between Muslims and Serbs

Kosovo crisis

1999; Milosevic attempted to ethnically cleanse Kosovo (province of Serbia) of ethnic-Albanians

St. Bartholomew Day Massacre

20,000 Huguenots massacred at Catherine's order after Huguenots rioted in protested of a Guise assassination of a Huguenot leader. Led to the War of the Three Henrys

Henry VIII

2nd of Tudor kings, Initially was a strong ally of Pope: Defense of Seven Sacraments; "Defender of the Faith". Sought a divorce from his wife, Catherine of Aragon, because they could not conceive a son. Pope refused to have the marriage annulled; Cardinal Thomas Wolsey: failed to get Henry's divorce. Henry then broke away from the Catholic church and gained his annulment which was granted by Thomas Cranmer. Henry excommunicated by Pope Paul III

Jesuits (Society of Jesus) (1540)

3 goals: reform church through education, preach the Gospel to pagan peoples, fight Protestantism

Johann Kepler (1571-1630)

3 laws of planetary motion: orbits are elliptical

Religious Wars: 30 FEDS

30 Years' War, French Civil Wars, English Civil War, Dutch Revolt, Spanish Armada

Sputnik, 1957

A Russian satellite was sent into orbit on a rocket and was brought back safely to the USSR; scientifically, this was an unprecedented achievement.

Querelles des Femmes ("The Problem of Women")

A new debate emerged over the proper role of women in society (starting with Christine de Pisan in the 14 century; the debate continued for six hundred years.

July Revolution (1830)

A radical revolt in Paris forced the reactionary King Charles X to abdicate his throne. sparked a wave of revolutions throughout Europe.

Kant

Accepted rationalism of the Enlightenment while preserving belief in human freedom, immortality, & existence of God.

Beer Hall Putsch

Adolf Hitler failed to take overthrow state Bavaria and sentenced to jail where he wrote Mein Kampf.

Battle of the Marne (Sept. 1914)

After Germans came within sight of Paris, French and British forces pushed German forces back.

Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498)

After Medici were removed from power, he established a theocracy in Florence between 1494-98, with the help of France ,Burned at the stake in 1498 after the French were removed from Italy

Thomas Paine

Age of Reason advocates deism

Algerian Crisis (mied-1950s)

Algeria's large French population considered Algeria an integral part of France. This feeling led to war; atypical of decolonization. General Charles de Gaulle, who had returned to power as part of the movement to keep Algeria Civil War in Yugoslavia Cause: 1990, President Slobodan Milosevic sought greater Serbian nationalism throughout Yugoslavia; established tighter central control over previously autonomous regions. Bosnia declared its independence in March 1992 and the civil war spread there. Ethnic cleansing: Bosnian Serbs tried to liquidate or remove Muslims by shelling cities, confiscating or destroying of houses, gang rape, expulsion, and murder

Positivism

All intellectual activity progresses through predictable stages; thus humans would soon discover the eternal laws of human relations through the study of sociology

Theory of evolution

All life had gradually evolved from a common ancestral origin in an unending "struggle for survival;" species most able to adapt survived

Church of England

Anglican Church

The Clarendon Code (1661)

Anglicans excluded Puritans from politics

Balfour Doctrine (1917)

Arabs & Jews in Palestine promised autonomy if they joined the Allies.

Revisionism

As workers gained right to vote and to participate politically in the nation-state, their attention focused more on elections than on revolutions

Duma

Assembly created that would serve as an advisory body to the czar, Tsar retained absolute veto

Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact

Aug. 1939; Hitler sought assurances USSR would not attack Germany if Germany invaded Poland. Private agreement: Germany and USSR would invade Poland and split the country in half.

Declaration of Pillnitz

August, 1791: issued by Prussia and Austria

Seven Years' War (1756-1763)

Austria and Russia (with support from France) sought to destroy Prussia

Hungarian war against Austria

Austrian empire collapsed; Metternich fled

Scientific Method

Bacon's inductive method, coupled with Descartes deductive reason formed the backbone

War of the Third Coalition (1805-1807)

Battle of Trafalgar, Napoleon forced to cancel invasion of Britain, Battle of Austerlitz

Louis Philippe (r. 1830-1848)

Became new king under a constitutional monarchy; known as the "Bourgeoisie King"

Enclosure movement (England)

Began in 16th century; intensified in 18th century End to common lands and open-field system Enabled almost all land to be cultivated - Resulted in commercialization of agriculture; investment of capital

Baroque Music

Belief that the text should dominate the music; the lyrics and libretto were most important Baroque composers developed the modern system of major-minor tonalities. Dissonance was used much more freely than during the Renaissance

Count Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825)

Believed industrialization, aided by science, would bring a wondrous new age to Europe led by scientists, engineers and industrialists (not nobles, lawyers and clergy)

Pierre Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865)

Believed property was profit stolen from the worker, who was the source of all wealth.

Christian Socialism

Believed the evils of industrialism would be ended by following Christian principles. Attempted to bridge the gap between the anti-religious drift of socialism and the need for Christian social justice for workers.

English Civil War

Biggest reason for the war: Persecution of Puritans by Anglicans and the king

Kulturkampf

Bismarck sought to limit influence of Catholic Party but failed

Audiencias

Board of 12 to 15 judges served as advisor to viceroy and highest judicial body.

John Hus (1369-1415)

Bohemia; Ideas were similar to Wyclif's, Eventually burned at the stake for his criticism of the Church

Four phases of the war

Bohemian, Danish, Swedish, French

Henry IV (Henry of Navarre) (1589-1610)

Bourbon dynasty, Weakened the power of the nobility

Legitimacy

Bourbons restored to power in France; Papal States returned to the pope; dynasties restored in Netherlands, Sardinia, Tuscany and Modena

Napoleon abdicates

Bourbons restored to throne

SALT I

Brezhnev and Nixon signed treaty to reduce nuclear ballistic missiles

SALT I

Brezhnev and Nixon signed treaty to reduce nuclear ballistic missiles o Helsinki Conference, 1975

Diplomatic Revolution of 1756

Britain allied with Prussia (but of little value) while France allied with the Austrian-Habsburgs. Peter III of Russia let Prussia off the hook at a critical moment

Treaty of Utrecht (1713)

Britain was biggest winner: gained the asiento (slave trade) from Spain; gained Gibraltar and Minorca. Spanish Netherlands (Belgium) was given to Austria (became the "Austrian Netherlands"). Treaty prevented the unification of Bourbon dynasties.

Allies (Triple Entente)

Britain, France, Russia (later, Japan, Italy and U.S.) Western Front

War of the Fourth Coalition (1813-1814)

Britain, Prussia, Austria, Russia

Gallipoli Campaign

British and Australian forces failed to take Dardanelles as a step toward taking Constantinople and defeating the Turks

El Alamein

British drove the Germans out of Egypt

Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1661-1683)

Brought mercantilism to its peak, goal was economic self-sufficiency for France. Promoted bullionism, Built roads & canals; gov't supported monopolies; cracked down on guilds; reduced local tolls and tariffs; organized French trading companies for international trade: East India

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)

Built best observatory in Europe and compiled a mass of scientific data from observations of the heavens. Data used later by Kepler, Galileo and others

British Imperialism

Burma, Malay Peninsula, North Borneo

Containment

By 1947, the U.S. pledged to prevent the further spread of communism

The Six

By 1958 coal and steel moved freely among six nations of the European Coal and Steel Community. Far-reaching political goal: bind six member nations so closely together economically that war among them would become unthinkable and virtually impossible.

British Religious toleration

Calvinist (majority) vs. Arminianism (Calvinism without belief of predestination), Catholics and Jews enjoyed religious toleration but had fewer rights

Protestant work ethic

Calvinists later emphasized the importance of hard work and accompanying financial success as a sign that God was pleased

Germany took control of

Cameroon, Togo, southwest Africa, & East Africa

English society in the 17th century

Capitalism played a major role in the high degree of social mobility in England, Both King James I and Charles I believed in "divine right" of kings; Parliament disagreed

June Days Revolution

Caused by the closing of national workshops. Workers sought war against poverty and redistribution of income.

Declaration of Indulgence (1673)

Charles II granted free worship to Catholics

Declaration of Breda

Charles agreed to abide by Parliament's demands

Second Opium War (1856-1860)

China forced to accept trade and investment on unfavorable terms, Extraterritoriality subjected Westerners in China to their home country's laws rather than China's. Safeguarding the Suez Canal (completed in 1869) played a key role in the British occupation of Egypt and its bloody conquest of the Sudan.

Janissary corps

Christian children not selected for the bureaucracy were dedicated fully to the Ottoman military

Atlantic Charter

Churchill and FDR meet secretly after invasion of Soviet Union. Decide once Axis Powers defeated, there would be no territorial changes contrary to the wishes inhabitants (self-determination)

Warsaw Pact, 1955

Collective security organization of eastern bloc nations to counter NATO.

Bernini (1598-1650)

Colonnade for piazza in front of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome was his greatest architectural achievement. Sculpted the Canopy over the high altar of St. Peter's Cathedral, His altarpiece sculpture, The Ecstasy of St. Teresa, evokes tremendous emotion, david

French Philosophes

Committed to fundamental reform in society, Significant in popularizing Enlightenment ideas to the masses, Believed in progress through discovering the natural laws governing nature and human existence, Radically optimistic about how people should live and govern themselves

"New" Monarchs (c. 1460-1520)

Consolidated power and created an early foundation for Europe's first modern nation-states in France, England and Spain. Identity tended to be much more local or regional. Reduced the power of the nobility through taxation, confiscation of lands (from uncooperative nobles), and hiring of mercenary armies or the creation of standing armies

The "Age of Montesquieu"

Constitutional Monarchy, 1789-1792, National Assembly: 1789-1791, Tennis Court Oath, Storming of the Bastille, Great Fear and abolition of feudalism, Civil Constitution of the Clergy, Declaration of the Rights of Man. Legislative Assembly: 1791-92, Jacobins vs. Girondins, War of the First Coalition, Paris Commune, September Massacres

Scientific Revolution = Cops Bring Kids Great Big Donuts Now

Copernicus Brahe Kepler Galileo Bacon Descartes Newton

Law of Suspects

Created Revolutionary Tribunals at the local level to hear cases of accused enemies brought to "justice"

Charter of 1814

Created by louis xviii, constitutional monarchy; bicameral legislature

European Economic Community (EEC)

Created by the Treaty of Rome in 1957 - Signed by same six nations in the ECSC - "the Six". First goal of treaty: Gradual reduction of all tariffs among the Six in order to create a single market almost as large as the U.S.

Creation of "Great Britain

Cromwell invaded Ireland to suppress Catholic opposition, Cromwell conquered Scotland

Creation of "Great Britain"

Cromwell invaded Ireland to suppress Catholic opposition; conquered Scotland

Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962

Cuba became a communist country in 1959 and an ally of the Soviet Union. Oct. 1962: U.S. demanded Soviets remove their newly installed nuclear missiles from Cuba. Khrushchev agreed to remove missiles in return for U.S. removing its missiles from Turkey and vowing not to invade Cuba in the future.

Michelangelo

David, the Pieta

Stalingrad

Dec. 1942: first Nazi defeat on land; Soviets began the 2.5 year campaign of pushing the German army back to Berlin

Battle of the Bulge

Dec. 1944: Hitler's last gasp offensive to drive Allies away from western German border; after it failed, Allies quickly penetrated deep into Germany in 1945.

Velvet Revolution

Dec. 1989. Vaclav Havel, the dissident playwright, become president of czechoslovakia

Pearl Harbor

Dec. 7, 1941, resulted in U.S. entry into the war

Bohemian Phase

Defenestration of Prague triggers war in Bohemia. Protestant forces eventually defeated; Protestantism eliminated in Bohemia

Socialism

Desire to reorganize society to establish cooperation and a new sense of community.

Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592)

Developed the essay form, which became a vehicle for testing new ideas

Dutch Style

Did not fit the Baroque style of trying to overwhelm the viewer. Reflected the Dutch Republic's wealth and religious toleration of secular subjects o Reflected the urban and rural settings of Dutch life during the "Golden Age of the Netherlands". Many works were commissioned by merchants or government organizations

Crimean War (1855-56)

Dispute between two groups of Christians over privileges in the Holy Land (Palestine). Czar Nicholas I ordered Russian troops to occupy several Turkish provinces in the Danube region. Russia would withdraw once Turks had guaranteed rights for Orthodox Christians. Turks declared war on Russia in 1853 when Nicholas refused to withdraw. 1854, Britain & France declared war against Russia (surprise! Turks were not Christians). Most of the war was fought on the Crimean peninsula in the Black Sea region

Reform Bill of 1867

Disraeli's "leap in the dark" in order to appeal to working people. Expanded Reform Bill of 1832, Redistributed seats to provide more equitable representation in House of Commons, The industrial cities & boroughs gained seats at expense of some depopulated areas in the north and west ("rotten boroughs")

Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616)

Don Quixote (1605-15) - Masterpiece of Spanish literature; critical of excessive religious idealism & chivalric romance

Skepticism

Doubt that true knowledge could be obtained. Believed that the skeptic must be cautious, critical and suspend judgment. Thus, one must be tolerant of others' views

Cornelius Vermuyden

Drainage of swamp lands: Significant impact on southern England

Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669)

Dutch painter. Perhaps the greatest of all Baroque artists although he doesn't fit neatly into any category. Scenes covered an enormous range throughout his career. Used extremes of light in the Baroque style. Works were far more intimate and psychological than typical Baroque works. Painted with the restraint of the classicist style

cahiers de doleance

Each estate expected to compile list of suggestions and grievances and present them to the king during upcoming Estates General

Differences between absolutism in E. Europe and W. Europe

Eastern Europe had a powerful nobility, small weak middle class, and serfdom among the peasantry; Western Europe (esp. in France) controlled the nobility, had a stronger middle-class and little to no serfdom.

Britain took control of

Egypt in 1883 (model for "New Imperialism")

"Elizabethan Settlement"

Elizabeth and Parliament required conformity to the Church of England but people were, in effect, allowed to worship Protestantism and Catholicism privately

William Shakespeare (1564-1616)

Elizabethan era; comedies, tragedies, histories & sonnets. Greatest of the English Renaissance authors. His works reflected the Renaissance ideas of classical Greek and Roman culture, individualism and humanism

Northern Renaissance Christian Humanism

Emphasis on early church writings (esp. New Testament) for answers to improve society, Studied Hebrew and Greek texts of the Bible and writings of the Church fathers, Emphasized education and power of human intellect to bring about institutional change and moral improvement. Writings led to criticism of the Catholic Church and paved the way for the Reformation.

Denis Diderot (1713-1784)

Encyclopedia (1751-72): compendium of the greatest and most representative intellectual achievements of the philosophes

Treaty of Westphalia: EF-CHIP

End of Wars of Religion, France emerges as Europe's most powerful country, Calvinism added to the Peace of Augsburg, Holy Roman Empire effectively destroyed, Independence for the Netherlands and Switzerland, Prussia emerges as a great power

Grand Alliance (war of spanish succession)

England, Dutch Rep, HRE, Brandenburg, Portugal, Savoy

John Wyclif (1329-1384)

England; Stated the Bible was the sole authority. Stressed a personal relationship with god. His followers were known as Lollards

Act of Union (1707)

English and Scottish Parliaments merged = Great Britain

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-97)

English woman who promoted political and educational equality for women

Congress System

European international relations controlled by series of meetings held by great powers to monitor and defend the status quo

Gadget revolution

Europeans bought washing machines, vacuum cleaners, refrigerators, dishwashers, radios, TVs, and stereos.

Edward Bernstein

Evolutionary Socialism (1899): argued Marx's predictions of greater poverty for workers & greater concentration of wealth in fewer hands had been proved false

Dutch East India Company

Expelled Portuguese from Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and other Spice Islands (Indonesia). By 1650, began challenging Spain in the New World and controlled much of the

Roots of Nazism

Extreme nationalism + racism

Realpolitik

Failure of the Revolutions of 1848 for liberals and romantics demonstrated that strong idealism was not enough to accomplish revolutionary goals. A political outgrowth of realism was the notion of ___: the accomplishing of one's political goals via practical means (rather than having idealism drive political decisions)

Blackshirts

Fascist paramilitary forces attacked Communists, socialists, and other enemies of the fascist program (later, Hitler's "Brown Shirts" followed this example)

Caterina Sforza

Female ruler of Milan

Glorious Revolution (1688)

Final act in the struggle for political sovereignty in England. William III of Orange) and Mary were declared joint sovereigns by Parliament

Duke of Sully (1560-1641)

Finance Minister whose reforms enhanced the power of the monarchy. Improved transportation. Mercantilism

Napoleon Bonaparte

First Consul: can be viewed as the last of the "enlightened despots"

Great Terror (1934-38)

First directed against peasants after 1929, terror used increasingly on leading Communists, powerful administrators, and ordinary people, often for no apparent reason. Resulted in 8 million arrests

Great Terror (1934-38)

First directed against peasants after 1929, terror used increasingly on leading Communists, powerful administrators, and ordinary people, often for no apparent reason. o The "Great Terror" resulted in 8 million arrests

Jan Van Eyck (c. 1339- c. 1441)

Flemish painter. Most famous and innovative Flemish painter of the 15th century, Perfected oil painting; wood panel paintings used much religious symbolism. Employed incredible detail in his works. Arnolfini and his Wife (1434) is perhaps his most famous work.

Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640)

Flemish painter. Worked much for the Habsburg court in Brussels (the capital of the Spanish Netherlands). Emphasized color and sensuality; animated figures and melodramatic contrasts;

Bolsheviks (the "majority")

Followed Lenin's ideas

Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528)

Foremost northern Renaissance artist; master of the woodcut, First northerner artist to master Italian Renaissance techniques of proportion, perspective, and modeling

Fashoda Incident (1898)

France & Britain nearly went to war over Sudan; France backed down in the face of the Dreyfus Affair

War of Devolution (First Dutch War)

France gained 12 fortified towns along the French-Belgian border but gave up Burgundy in return.

American Revolution

France helped U.S. win its independence from Britain

American Revolution

France helped the U.S. defeat Britain; this weakened the British empire Spain's Latin American colonies helped revitalize the Spanish empire in the 18th century

Treaty of Paris (1763)

France lost its North American possessions to Britain

Diplomatic Revolution of 1756

France sided with Austria against Britain and Prussia.

Treaty of Paris (1814)

France surrendered all lands gained since 1792 Allies imposed no indemnity or reparations

February Days

France; sparked rebellion for liberal reforms.

Huguenots

French Calvinists; brutally suppressed in France

Èmigrès

French nobles who fled France sought support of foreign countries.

Russian Campaign (1812)

French troops invaded all the way to Moscow but eventually driven back and destroyed

Bosch (c. 1450-1516)

From the netherlands, Master of symbolism and fantasy. Surrealistic, focused on death and torments of hell

Battle of Omdurman (1898)

General Horatio H. Kitchener defeated Sudanese tribesmen and killed 11,000 (use of machine gun) while only 28 Britons died

The Rocket

George Stephenson's, made railway locomotive commercially

Second Moroccan Crisis (1911)

German gunboat sent to Morocco to protest French occupation of the city of Fez. Britain supported France again; Germany backed down for minor concessions in Africa

Schlieffen Plan

German plan to invade France through Belgium, defeat France quickly (6 weeks) by sweeping around Paris, and then move to the east to defeat Russia

Lebensraum ("living space")

Germans should expand east, liquidate the Jews and turn the Slavs of eastern Europe into slave labor

Argonne offensive (spring 1918)

Germans transferred divisions from east (after defeating Russia) to the western front and mounted a massive offensive.

Anschluss

Germany annexed Austria, 1938

Results of 30 Years' War

Germany physically devastated, End to wars of religion, rise of France as dominant European power; also Britain & Netherlands, Balance of power diplomacy emerged in Europe

Zimmerman Telegram

Germany proposed an alliance with Mexico; would return most of southwestern U.S. to Mexico if Central Powers won.

Triple Alliance

Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy

Central Powers (Triple Alliance)

Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire (also Bulgaria)

Deism

God created universe and then stepped back and left it running (like a clock). Grew out of Newton's theories regarding natural law

Causes for exploration

God, glory, and gold

Constitutionalism

Government power is limited by law. There is a delicate balance between the power of government and the rights and liberties of individuals. Constitutionalism took root essentially in three countries in the 17th century: England, the Netherlands, and Sweden

Causes of the Reformation

Great Schism, conciliar movement, church corruption, renaissance humanism

Immanuel Kant (1724-1794)

Greatest German philosopher of the Enlightenment. Separated science and morality into separate branches of knowledge. Science could describe natural phenomena of material world but could not provide a guide for morality

Edict of Restitution (1629)

HRE emperor declared all church territories secularized since 1552 automatically restored to Catholic Church

Fall of HOP, rise of RAP

HRE, Ottoman Empire, Poland gives way to Russia, Austria, and Prussia

Flemish style of the Low Countries

Heavily influenced by the Italian Renaissance, More detail throughout paintings (especially the background) than the Italian Renaissance. Use of oil paints (in contrast to Italian Renaissance that used tempera). More emotional than the Italian style. Works often preoccupied with death

Statute of the Six Articles

Henry attempts to maintain all 7 Catholic sacraments

Social Darwinism

Herbert Spencer applied Darwin's ideas to human society -- "survival of the fittest"; natural laws dictated why certain people were successful and others were not.

Jean Baptiste Racine (1639-1699)

His plays often focused on social struggles, Made fun of the aristocracy, upper bourgeoisie and high church officials

Henry IV (of Navarre)

His rise to power ended the French Civil Wars, politique

Sudetenland

Hitler demanded the German-speaking province in Czechoslovakia

"Night of Long Knives" (June 1934)

Hitler realized the army and big business were suspicious of the S.A, SS arrested and shot without trial about 1,000 S.A. leaders and other political enemies.

Habsburg Empire

Holy Roman Empire, consisted of about 300 semi-autonomous German states. Center of power in Austria

Battle of Trafalgar (1805)

Horatio Nelson of Britain destroyed French navy. Established supremacy of British navy for over a century

Prussia

House of Hohenzollern

Peace of Alais (1629)

Huguenots lost fortified cities & Protestant armies, Began dictionary to standardize the French language

Louis Kossuth (1802-1894)

Hungarian (Magyar) leader demanded independence

Hungarian Uprising, 1956

Hungarian nationalists staged huge demonstrations demanding non-communist parties be legalized; turned into armed rebellion and spread throughout the country.

Magyars

Hungarian nobility

Pan-Slavism

Idea of uniting all Slavs in Europe under one gov't (Russia)

Erasmus (1466-1536)

In Praise of Folly (1513): Criticized the immorality and hypocrisy of Church leaders and the clergy; some say that "he lay the egg that Luther hatched". Made new "purer" translations of the Greek and Latin versions of the New Testament, Most famous intellectual of his time

Entente Cordiale (1904)

In the face of Anglo-German naval arms race, Britain and France settled all outstanding colonial disputes in Africa.

India was divided into two nations

India (Hindu) and Pakistan (Muslim)

Encomienda

Indians worked for owner certain # days per week; retained other parcels to work for themselves

French Imperialism

Indochina

French Phase

International Phase. Cardinal Richelieu allied with Protestants (like in earlier Habsburg-Valois Wars) to defeat the HRE

Second Dutch War (1672-78)

Invasion of the Dutch Rhineland. France took Franche-Comté from Spain, gained some Flemish towns, and took Alsace Represented the furthest extent of Louis XIV's expansion

Countries where Calvinism did not spread

Ireland, Spain, Italy - heavily Catholic

Spanish Inquisition

Isabella sought to enforce the authority of the national church. Overseen by Tomás de Torquemada

Origins of Renaissance

Jacob Burckhardt, a 19th-century historian, claimed the Renaissance period stood in distinct contrast to the Middle Ages

Bloody Sunday

Jan.1905: 200,000 worker/peasants marched peacefully to the "Winter

Storming of the Bastille

July 14, 1789:"Parisian" revolution due to food shortages, soaring bread prices, unemployment, and fear of military repression. Significance: inadvertently saved the National Assembly from king's repression

Potsdam Conference

July 1945: Stalin, Harry Truman and Clement Atlee Issued warning to Japan of unconditional surrender or face utter devastation. Stalin reversed his position on eastern Europe stating there would be no free elections

Tennis Court Oath

June 17, 3rd Estate declared itself the true National Assembly of France o Oath: swore not to disband until they had given France a constitution o Bourgeoisie dominated the National Assembly

Battle of Waterloo

June 1815: Napoleon defeated by Duke of Wellington o Napoleon exiled to St. Helena

Kruger Telegram (1902)

Kaiser Wilhelm II, dispatched telegram to Boers, congratulating them on defeating British invaders without need of German assistance. Anger swept through Britain aimed at Germany.

Act of Supremacy (1534)

King is now the head of the English Church. Catholic lands (about 25% of all English lands) were confiscated by the King, Monasteries closed down, Execution of Thomas More occurred when he refused to take an oath of loyalty to Henry

Millicent Garrett Fawcett (1847-1929)

Leader of National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) Used political means to put pressure on Parliament to grant suffrage. Her influence spread to international women's rights movements

Catherine II "the Great" of Russia (r. 1762-1798)

Least "enlightened" of the Enlightened Despots, although one of greatest rulers in Euro history. Westernization: architecture, sculpture, music—supported the philosophes. Reforms: Allowed some limited religious toleration (Jews granted civil equality), Some educational improvement; more books published during her reign, Increased local control, gained support from nobility by granting greater control over serfs: high point for nobles—low point for serfs, Territorial expansion

Independent Labor Party

Led by Keir Hardie, became the third party in England. Designed to guarantee each citizen with a decent standard of living

Solidarity in Poland

Led by Lech Walesa. Demands included right to form free trade unions, right to strike, freedom of speech, release of political prisoners and economic reforms.

War of the First Coalition

Legislative Assembly declared war in April, 1792. Austrian armies defeated French armies but divisions over eastern Europe saved France

Principles of Settlement

Legitimacy, Compensation, Balance of Power

April Theses

Lenin rejected all cooperation with the "bourgeois" provisional gov't, Called for a "Socialist revolution" and establishment of a Soviet republic Nationalization of banks and landed estates

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Dec. 1917)

Lenin took Russia out of the war but forced to give Germans 1/4 of Russian territory

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

Leviathan, 1651. State of nature: anarchy results; central drive in every man is power. Man's life in a "state of nature" was "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short strong," o Ideas most closely identified with Voltaire: Enlightened Despotism (18th c.)

Frankfurt Parliament (May, 1848)

Liberal, romantic, & nationalist leaders called for elections to a constituent assembly from all states in the German Bund, for the purpose of unifying the German states. Sought war with Denmark to annex Schleswig & Holstein; Prussia declared war on Denmark. Presented constitution for a united German federation. Selected Prussian King Frederick William IV as emperor; he declined claiming "divine right of kings"

George Frideric Handel (1685-1759)

Like Bach, wrote in a variety of genres. His masterpiece is the oratorio The Messiah

Reasons England Industrialized First

Location, abundance of capital, empire

Election of 1848

Louis Napoleon defeated Cavignac

Louis XIV's Religious Policies

Louis considered himself the head of the Gallican Church and thus did not allow the pope to exercise political power in France

Edict of Worms

Luther outlawed by Charles V and the Holy Roman Empire

Technological advancements = MUTTAGG

Machine Guns, U-Boats, Trench Warfare, Tanks, Airplanes, Gas

Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880)

Madame Bovary -- portrays the provincial middle class as petty, smug, and hypocritical

Reform Bill of 1832

Made the House of Commons the supreme power in Britain, Sought to increase number of voters from 6% of population to 12%, Sought to eliminate underpopulated electoral districts ("rotten boroughs") and replace them with representation from new manufacturing districts and cities

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

March 1918, took Russia out of WWI

95 Theses (1517)

Martin Luther Criticized the Church's sale of indulgences

Social Democratic Party (S.P.D.)

Marxist; advocated sweeping social legislation, the realization of genuine democracy, and the demilitarization of the German gov't. Bismarck unsuccessful in limiting its growth (despite its being driven underground)

Estates General

May 1789: 1st time meeting since 1614

Mountain ousts Girondins

May 1793: urged to do so by sans-culottes who feared Girondins might ally with conservatives and royalists to maintain power

V-E Day

May 8, 1945: Germany surrenders (Hitler committed suicide a few days earlier)

MF Republic of Florence (included Republic of Genoa)

Medici family. Medici power rested on banking and commerce

Causes of WWI = MANIA

Militarism Alliances Nationalism Imperialism Assassination

Leonardo (1452-1519)

Mona Lisa, The Last Supper

Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971)

Most important composer of the 20th century. "Rite of Spring" experimented with new tonalities (many of them dissonant) and aggressive primitive rhythms

Pope Paul III (1534-1549)

Most important pope in reforming the Church and challenging Protestantism

Alexander III (1881-1894)

Most reactionary czar of the 19th century: "Autocracy, Orthodoxy, and Russification (nationalism)". Encouraged anti-semitism: pogroms resulted in severe persecution of Jews (many emigrated)

Dreyfus Affair (1894)

Most serious threat to the 3rd republic. Military falsely charged Dreyfus, a Jew, with supplying secrets to the Germans. Monarchists (with support of Catholic church) used incident to discredit republicans. Leftists supported the Republic and in 1906 the case was closed when Dreyfus was declared innocent and returned to the ranks

Threat of war European and Asian invaders

Motivation for eastern European monarchs' drive to consolidate power

Factions of the French Republic

Mountain vs Girondins

Post-impressionism

Movement in the 1890s united in its desire to know and depict worlds other than the visible world. Portrayed unseen, inner worlds of emotion and imagination (like early-19th century romantics).

Romantic Music

Music often conveyed human emotion or nationalistic feelings

Kronstadt Rebellion (1921)

Mutiny by previously pro-Bolshevik sailors in March at Kronstadt naval base had to be crushed with machine gun fire.

Kronstadt Rebellion (1921)

Mutiny by previously pro-Bolshevik sailors in March at Kronstadt naval base had to be crushed with machine gun fire. Caused by impact of the economic disaster and social upheaval of the Russian Civil War. o Major cause for Lenin instituting NEP

Maria Theresa (r. 1740-1780)

NOT considered an "Enlightened despot", centralized control of the Habsburg empire. Brought the Catholic Church in Austria under state control. Reduced serfdom, Promoted economic development

Concordat of 1801

Napoleon ended the rift between the church and the state, Papacy renouncing claims over church property seized during the Revolution

Falloux Law

Napoleon returned control of education to the Church (in return for its support)

100 Days (March 20-June 22, 1815)

Napoleon returns from exile and organizes new army

Battle of Austerlitz (Dec. 1805)

Napoleon smashed Austrian army and gained more territory. Third Coalition collapsed leaving Napoleon the master over much of Europe

The "Age of Voltaire"

Napoleonic Era, 1799-1815, Consulate: 1799-1804, Code Napoleon, Concordat of 1801, War of the 2nd Coalition. Napoleonic Empire: 1804-15, Confederation of the Rhine, Continental System, Treaty of Tilsit, Peninsular War, Russian Campaign, Waterloo

Hitler Youth

Nazis indoctrinated German youths to obey the state

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

New World divided by Spain and Portugal; Pope Leo VI

"Prague Spring"

New period of rebirth for czechoslovakia

Louis XV (1715-1774)

Nobility gained influence during his reign, Madame de Pompadour, Parlement of Paris (partial to nobles) blocked Louis' absolutist ambitions - consisted of robe nobles

Renaissance Italy: (c. 1300-1527)

Northern Italian cities developed international trade: Genoa, Venice, Milan - profits from trade led to enormous patronage of the arts

Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1520-1569)

Not influenced much by the Italian Renaissance. Focused on lives of ordinary people (e.g. Peasant Dance (1568) Peasant Wedding (c.1568), and The Battle Between Carnival and Lent (1559)

Coup d'État Brumaire

November 1799: Napoleon invited by Abbé Sieyès to lead France, Directory overthrown and Napoleon becomes First Consul

March on Rome

October 1922: led to Mussolini taking power. Mussolini demanded resignation of existing gov't and his own appointment by the king.

Women's march on versailles

October 5, 1789: as part of bread riot, women march to Versailles; accelerate the revolution. Forced the king to move to Paris

Final Act

Officially ended World War II by finally legitimizing the Soviet-dictated boundaries of Poland and other East European countries.

Final Act

Officially ended World War II by finally legitimizing the Soviet-dictated boundaries of Poland and other East European countries. In return, Soviets guaranteed more liberal exchanges of people and information between East and West and the protection of certain basic "human rights" (though little improved)

The Protectorate (1653-1659)

Oliver Cromwell Lord Protector (Puritan dictatorship). Created in response to Parliament's desire to disband Cromwell's army. Puritans tried to regulate lives of the people: illegalized drinking, theater and dancing

John Stuart Mill

On Liberty (1859): classic statement on liberty of the individual.

William Harvey (1578-1657)

On the Movement of the Heart and Blood (1628)-- blood circulation

Charles Darwin

On the Origin of Species by the Means of Natural Selection, 1859

Aleksandr Solzenitsyn

One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (1962) - Portrays in grim detail life in Stalinist concentration camp (he had been a prisoner)

Aleksandr Solzenitsyn

One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (1962) Portrays in grim detail life in Stalinist concentration camp (he had been a prisoner)

Causes of Student Revolts in the late 1960s

Opposition to U.S. war in Vietnam triggered revolutionary ferment among youths. Influenced by Marxist current in French universities after 1945 & "New Left" thinking in U.S. Believed older generation & U.S. fighting immoral & imperialistic war against Vietnam.

Thomas Cromwell

Oversaw development of king's bureaucracy

Humanism in Renaissance art

Pagan themes evident in Botticelli's Birth of Venus, Raphael's School of Athens. Glorification of the human body evident in such works as Michelangelo's David, and the Creation of Adam on the Sistine Chapel

Jan Vermeer (1632-1675)

Paintings of interior domestic settings of ordinary people in simple scenes

Petition of Right

Parliament attempt to bribe king (taxes) in return for accepting Parliament's right to tax, habeas corpus, no quartering, and no martial law in peacetime

Combination Acts (1799)

Parliament fearful of radicalism of French Revolution, made unions illegal; largely ignored by workers; repealed in 1824

The Restoration (1660-1688)

Parliament in 1660 re elected according to the old voting system: Anglicans back in power. Scotland gained its independence in 1660 as result

Petition of Right (1628)

Parliament sought to guarantee certain civil liberties in exchange for granting Charles I's request for taxes. These rights included: only Parliament had the right to levy taxes, no one should be imprisoned or detained without due process of law. o All had right to habeas corpus (trial), No forced quartering of soldiers in homes of private citizens, martial law could not be declared in peacetime

Whigs and Tories

Parliament split into two political parties

Lenin

Peace, Land, Bread. Lenin gave land to peasants (although peasants already took it, like French Revolution), gave direct control of individual factories to local workers' committees.

Claude Monet (1840-1926)

Perhaps most well known for his "series paintings" of the countryside at Giverny (e.g. water lilies)

Artemisia Gentileschi (1593-1651)

Perhaps the first female artist to gain recognition in the post-Renaissance era. First woman to paint historical and religious scenes: e.g. her "Judith" paintings, Female artists at this time were consigned to portrait painting and imitative poses

Russian Imperialism

Persia, outlying provinces of China

Catholic Crusade under Philip II

Philip II (1556-98): fanatically seeks to reimpose Catholicism in Europe (like his father, Charles V) Built the Escorial: new royal palace (and monastery and mausoleum)

Moliere (1622-1673)

Plays were written in the classical style (e.g. adherence to the three unities) Wrote some of the most intense emotional works for the stage.

Revolution of 1905

Poor economy and strains of war led peasants and middle class to demand reforms.

Pedro Cabral (1467-1520)

Portuguese; discovered Brazil

Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460)

Portuguese; financed exploration along coast of West Africa

Amerigo Vespucci (1454-1512)

Portuguese; perhaps first European to realize a new continent had been found; "America" named after him

Vasco da Gama (1469-1525)

Portuguese; rounded south of Africa and found all-water route to India. Major blow to Italian city-states' monopoly on trade with Asia.

Bartholomew Diaz (1450-1500)

Portuguese; rounded southern tip of Africa

French Civil Wars (at least 9 wars between 1559 and 1589)

Power struggle between three noble families began in 1559. Catherine de Medicis (1519-1589): dominated her sons who were French kings as she tried to maintain Catholic control over France. She was a member of the Valois faction who opposed the Catholic Guise faction and the Huguenot Bourbon faction.

Hans Holbein the Younger (1497-1543)

Premier portrait artist of his era: painted Erasmus, More, numerous portraits of King Henry VIII and also his family members

Rump Parliament

Pride's Purge (1648), removed all non-Puritans and Presbyterians from Parliament (Charles I tried to win Presbyterians and Scots over to his side)

Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1747)

Principia - law of universal gravitation. Deism

Jean de Condorcet (1743-1794)

Progress of the Human Mind, His utopian ideas undermined the legitimacy of the Enlightenment

Charles Fourier (1772-1837)

Proposed a planned economy and socialist communities. Described socialist utopia in lavish mathematical detail.

Tragedy at Münster

Protestant and Catholic forces captured the city and executed Anabaptist leaders

Swedish Phase

Protestants liberate territory lost in previous phase. Holy Roman Emperor annuls Edict of Restitution

Brunswick Manifesto

Prussia & Austria threatened to destroy Paris if royal family harmed o In response, King stormed at Tuileries, Swiss Guards killed; king taken prisoner

Seven Years War (1756-1763)

Prussia alone in fighting France, Russia & Austria (outnumbered 15-1)

Humiliation of Olmutz

Prussia dropped plan to unify Germany, leaving Austria as the dominant German state in the Bund.

Treaty of Paris (1763)

Prussia retained Silesia; remained a "Great Power"

Quadruple Alliance

Prussia, England, Austria and Russia ("PEAR")

Frederick II the Great

Prussia; At war for first half of his reign,Became a reformer during 2nd half of his reign - saw ruler as the "first servant of the state" - reforms essentially geared to increase the power of the state. Religious freedom (although less so for Jews), Promoted education in schools and universities, Codified laws, Ended serfdom on crown lands (peasants were needed for the army), Improved state bureaucracy by requiring examinations for civil servants, Reduced censorship, Promoted industry and agriculture, Encouraged immigration, Social structure remained heavily stratified: serfdom; extended privileges for the nobility, Junkers became heart of the military; difficult upward mobility for middle class leadership

Junkers

Prussian nobility, sided with the king for stability; hereditary serfdom in 1653

Vichy France

Puppet gov't in southern France. Hitler did not wish to waste time subduing all of France

Roundheads

Puritans opposed the king

Collectivization

Purpose to bring peasantry under absolute control of the communist state

Spain v. England

Queen Mary Tudor (Philip's wife) reimposes Catholicism in England. Queen Elizabeth I reverses Mary's edict; refuses to marry Philip II. Elizabeth helps United Provinces of the Netherlands gain independence from Spain

Levellers

Radical religious revolutionaries; sought social and political reform

Mannerism

Reaction against the High Renaissance ideals of balance, symmetry, simplicity and realistic use of color, Works often used unnatural colors while shapes were elongated or otherwise exaggerated

Russian Civil War

Reds vs Whites

Edmund Burke

Reflections on the Revolution in France, Conservative viewpoint: opposed the revolution as mob rule

Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814)

Regarded as "father" of German nationalism. Saw Germans as superior to other peoples and was especially critical of Jews

Louis XVI (1774-1792)

Reinstated Parlement of Paris (due to strong public opinion) & dismissed Maupeou. Royal struggle with aristocracy and bourgeoisie resulted in the French Revolution.

Ruhr Crisis, 1923

Reparations: Allies announced in 1921 Germany had to pay almost $34 billion. France, led by Raymond Poincaré, occupied industrial Ruhr region of Germany. Runaway inflation occurred when Germany printed money to pay reparations. Brought about social revolution in Germany: Accumulated savings of many retired and middle-class people were wiped out; middle-class resented gov't; blamed Western gov't, big business, workers, Jews, and communists for nation's woes.

Gosplan

Resources shifted from heavy industry and the military toward consumer goods and agriculture - Centralized Economic Planning

Humanism

Revival of antiquity (Greece and Rome) in literature, individualism, human potential, virtu

Paris Commune

Revolutionary municipal gov't set up in Paris, which usurped powers of the Legislative Assembly

Thomas Paine

Rights of Man: responded to Burke's indictment by defending the Enlightenment principles of the revolution

Caravaggio (1571-1610)

Roman painter, perhaps 1st important painter of the Baroque era. Depicted highly emotional scenes

Nicolas Poussin (1593-1665)

French classicism in art most evident in his work

SA

"Brown Shirts" terrorized political opponents on the streets

Dadaism

"Dada" was a nonsensical word that mirrored a post-WWI world that no longer

Mary Tudor ("Bloody Mary")

Ruled England (1553-1558)

Elizabeth I

Ruled England (1558-1603)

Catherine de Mèdici

Ruled France as regent from 1559 to 1589

Great Northern War (1700-1721)

Russia defeated Sweden and gained Baltic states, Russia's "window to the West" o Promoted westernization (modernization): mostly for military purposes. By 1725, Russia out-produced England in iron production (but not Germany or Sweden). Industrial serfdom existed where workers could be bought or sold

Peace of Paris

Russia emerged as the big loser in the conflict and had to return all occupied territories back to the Ottoman Empire.

Congress of Berlin (1878)

Russia left the conference with little despite defeating the Turks. Recognition of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro as independent states. Establishment of the autonomous principality of Bulgaria (still within Ottoman Empire). Austrian acquisition of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Transfer of Cyprus to Great Britain, not far from the Suez Canal. Though Disraeli was most responsible for the agreements, Russia blamed Bismarck. Russian hostility toward Germany led Bismarck (1789) to embark upon a new system of alliances which transformed European diplomacy and effectively killed remnants of the Concert of Europe

Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)

Russians had established a sphere of influence in Manchuria and now sought Korea. Humiliating defeat of Russian fleet by Japan and bloody war on land resulted in Russia turning away from east Asia and focusing instead on the Balkans.

Traditional statement of Lutheran beliefs:

Salvation through faith alone, Bible is the sole authority, "Priesthood of all believers:" Church consists of entire Christian community, Only two sacraments are valid: baptism and communion

Raphael (1483-1520)

School of Athens, numerous Madonna and Child paintings

Scientific Revolution in Medicine

Scientists began challenging Greco-Roman medical authority (esp. Galen-2nd c. AD)

John Locke (1632-1704)

Second Treatise - natural rights: life, liberty and property. Philosophical justification for the supremacy of Parliament in the "Glorious Revolution"

Cheka

Secret police formed to hunt down and execute thousands of real or supposed opponents, such as the tsar and his family and other "class enemies."

Francois Rabelais (1494-1553)

Secular works portrayed his confidence in human nature and reflected Renaissance tastes.

Robert Bakewell

Selective breeding of livestock

Second Balkan War (1913)

Serbia defeated Bulgaria over Macedonia and gained Albania; Russia backed Serbia. Austria, with German support against Russia, prevented Serbia from holding Albania. Serbia frustrated it had no access to Adriatic Sea; Russia humiliated

First Balkan War (1908)

Serbia, Greece, and Bulgaria allied to drive the Turks out of the Balkans. Serbia sought coast on the Adriatic; failed when Austria created Albania to deter Serbia.

MF Duchy of Milan

Sforza family

The Great Depression (1929-1933)

Shattered the fragile optimism of political leaders in the late 1920s, Most important reason for the fall of the Weimar Republic and rise of the Nazis

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-78)

Social Contract (1762): general will (the majority) should govern the nation. Believed that man in a simpler state of nature was good—a "noble savage"—and was corrupted by the materialism of civilization. Emile (1762): encouraged progressive education and self-expression; "learning by doing"; can be seen as a transitional figure between the Enlightenment and the Romanticism

Catholic Counter reformation = SAINT PAUL

Society of Jesus, Abuses reformed in Church practices, Index of Prohibited Books, No significant change in Church doctrine, Council of Trent, Pope Paul III, Anti-Protestant, Ursuline Order of Nuns, Latin Vulgate

Edward VI (1547-1553)

Son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymore (Henry's 3rd wife). England moved towards Calvinism during his short reign

Ursuline Order of Nuns (1544)

Sought to combat heresy through Christian education

NEP - New Economic Policy

Sought to eliminate harsh aspects of War Communism: response to peasant revolts, military, mutiny, and economic ruin

Concert of Europe

Sought to guarantee the enforcement of the status quo as defined by the Vienna settlement.

Brezhnev Doctrine

Soviet Union and its allies had right to intervene in any socialist country whenever they saw the need

Berlin Crisis (1948-49)

Soviets attempted to remove Allies from Berlin by cutting off access, results in Berlin Airlift

Battle of Lepanto

Spain defeated Turkish navy off coast of Greece (reminiscent of earlier Christian Crusades)

Philip's invasion of England

Spain's navy largely destroyed thus ending plans for invasion. Signaled the rise of England as a world naval power

Hermandades

Spanish alliance of cities to oppose nobles; reduced power of the nobility

Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)

Spanish; 1492, first European to reach the New World since the Vikings

Vasco Nunez de Balboa (1475-1517)

Spanish; first to sight the Pacific Ocean; explored the isthmus of Panama

Bartholomew de las Casas

Spanish; writings about Columbus and his successors' cruel treatment of Indians helped spread "black legend" Protestant countries regarding the Spanish empire

Peasant and lower-class women in the renaissance

Status did not change much compared to Middle Ages

Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457)

Strong belief in individualism and the great potential of human beings

American Revolution

Strong classical liberalism ideals

Cabinet System

System evolved during reign of the Hanoverian Kings: George I, George II, George III; Prime minister became leader of the cabinet and responsible to majority party in the House of Commons

Peace of Augsburg, 1555

Temporarily ended the struggle in Germany over Lutheranism. Princes in Germany could choose either Protestantism or Catholicism Resulted in the permanent religious division of Germany

Thomas Hardy

Tess of the d'Urbervilles; portrayed a woman who was ostracized for having premarital sex

Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715)

The "Sun King", The quintessential model of absolutism in Europe. L'état, c'est moi ("I am the state")

Christine de Pisan (c.1363-c.1434)

The City of Ladies; The Book of Three Virtues Chronicled accomplishments of great women of history.

Betty Friedan

The Feminine Mystique (1963) -- American. Criticized norms where women were expected to conform to false, infantile pattern of femininity and live for husbands and children. Founded National Organization for Women (NOW); inspired European groups

Honoré de Balzac (1799-1850)

The Human Comedy -- depicts urban society as a struggle, amoral and brutal, characterized by a Darwinian struggle for wealth and power

Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527)

The Prince (1513), Emphasized practical politics: "the end justifies the means"; "it is better to be feared than

The "Age of Rousseau"

The Republic, 1792-1799, Nat'l Convention: 1792-1795, Creation of the Republic, Execution of Louis XVI, Committee of Public Safety, Reign of Terror, Thermidorian Reaction. The Directory: 1795-99, Ruling bourgeoisie vs. aristocracy and sans-culottes, Coup d'etat Brumaire

Olympe de Gouges

The Rights of Woman, 1791: demanded equal rights and economic and educational opportunities

Simone de Beauvoir

The Second Sex (1949) -- existentialist ideas. Argued women were in essence free but had almost always been trapped by particularly inflexible and limiting conditions.

Andreas Vesalius (1514-64)

The Structure of the Human Body (1543): renewed and modernized study of anatomy

Heisenberg's principle

The dynamics of an experiment alters the state of the subject.

Émile Zola (1840-1902)

The giant of realist literature. Portrayed gritty, animalistic view of working-class life

Violent revolution

The increasing gap between proletariat and bourgeoisie will be so great that the working classes will rise up in revolution and overthrow the elite bourgeoisie.

War communism

The socialization (nationalization) of all means of production & central planning of the economy

Results of the Reformation

The unity of Western Christianity was shattered: Northern Europe (Scandinavia, England, much of Germany, parts of France, Switzerland, Scotland) adopted Protestantism. Germany remained fragmented; unification stunted until the late 19th century. Religious enthusiasm was rekindled - similar enthusiasm not seen since far back into the Middle Ages. Abuses remedied in the Catholic Church: simony, pluralism, immoral or badly educated clergy. Religious wars broke out in Europe for well over a century.

War of Spanish Succession

The will of Charles II (Spanish Habsburg king) gave all Spanish territories to grandson of Louis XIV; other countries feared France would dominate. Grand Alliance sought to preserve the balance of power

Karl Marx

Theory of dialectical materialism. The economic interpretation of history: all human history has been determined by economic factors (mainly who controls the means of production and distribution). The class struggle: Since the beginning of time there has been a class struggle between the rich and the poor or the exploiters and the exploited.

Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

Theory of relativity (1905) of time and space challenged 2 traditional ideas of Newtonian physics (E=MC )

Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

Theory of relativity in time and space challenge the traditional ideas of Newtonian physics.

Popular Front

Threat of fascism prompted coalition of republicans, socialists, communists

Ems Dispatch

To provoke war, Bismarck boasted a French diplomat had been kicked out of Germany after requesting William I not interfere with the succession to the Spanish throne

Viscount Charles

Townsend experimented with turnips when rotating crops

Diet of Worms (1521)

Tribunal of the Holy Roman Empire with power to outlaw and sentence execution through stake-burning

France took control of

Tunisia, Algeria, French West Africa (including Morocco, Sahara, Sudan, Congo basin)

John Locke

Two Treatises on Civil Government: justified supremacy of England's Parliament; natural rights. Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690): tabula rasa ("blank slate")

U-2 incident

U.S. spy plane shot down over USSR, thus deteriorating U.S-USSR relations

U2 incident

U.S. spy plane shot down over USSR, thus deteriorating U.S-USSR relations

Geneva Summit, 1955

US, USSR, Britain, & France began discussions on European security

Second French Republic Constitution

Unicameral legislature (National Assembly); strong executive power; popularly-elected president of the Republic

Isabella I

Unified Spain along with her husband Ferdinand.

Michael Servetus (1511-1553)

Unitarian beliefs; burned at stake

Dutch Revolt

United Provinces of the Netherlands formed in 1581 (Dutch Republic). William of Orange I led 17 provinces against the Spanish Inquisition; Philip sought to crush the rise of Calvinism in the Netherlands

Targets of the Great European Witch Hunt

Unmarried women, midwives,

The Catholic Church

Used witch hunts to gain control over village life in rural areas.

Thomas More (1478-1536)

Utopia, Created an ideal society on an island; but to achieve harmony and order people had to sacrifice individual rights. Saw accumulation of property as a root cause for society's ills: gap between rich & poor

Mary Wollstonecraft

Vindication of the Rights of Woman, 1792: supported Gouges

Anabaptists (founded in 1525)

Voluntary association of believers with no connection to any state ("left wing of the Protestant Reformation"), Rejected child baptism, Believed the end of the world was near, Rejected the Trinity, Led by John of Leyden

Bauhaus movement

Walter Gropius (1883-1969) broke sharply with the past in his design of the Fagus shoe factory at Alfeld, Germany.

Mensheviks (the "minority")

Wanted to await the evolution of capitalism and the proletariat; sought a more democratic party with mass membership.

Adam Smith (1727-1790)

Wealth of Nations (1776): The "Bible" of capitalism; laissez faire. Believed the economy is governed by the natural laws of supply and demand

Welfare State

Western European countries sought to provide universal services to all their people

Abbé Sieyès

What is the Third Estate? Answer: everything!

War of the League of Augsburg (1688-97)

William of Orange (now king of England) brought England in against France.

February Revolution

Working class and liberals unhappy with King Louis Philippe, especially his minister Francois Guizot (who opposed electoral reform); King forced to abdicate

Confessions of Augsburg, 1530

Written by Luther's friend Philip Melanchthon. Attempted compromise statement of religious faith to unite Lutheran and Catholic princes of the HRE; rejected by Catholic princes

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)

Wrote in Thus Spake Zarathustra that "God is Dead": Claimed Christianity embodied a "slave morality," which glorified weakness, envy, and mediocrity. Believed only creativity of a few supermen (übermenschen) could reorder the world.

Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980)

Wrote that humans simply exist

Colloquy of Marburg (1529)

Zwingli splits with Luther over issue of Eucharist

Politique

a monarch who favor practical solutions (rather than ideological)

Bullionism

a nation's policy of accumulating as much precious metal (gold and silver) as possible while preventing its outward flow to other countries.

Law of Maximum

a planned economy to respond to food shortages and other economic problems; foreshadowed socialism

The Commonwealth (1649-1653)

a republic - abolished the monarchy and House of Lords

Tsar ruled by decree

absolute power

Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations (1776)

advocated economic individualism

Continental System

aimed to isolate Britain and promote Napoleon's mastery over Europe. Ended up as a major failure: failed to hurt Britain; European countries grew tired of it

Glasnost

aimed to open Soviet society by introducing free speech and some political liberty, while ending party censorship; more successful than perestroika

Navigation Laws

aimed to reduce Dutch trade in the Atlantic (1st in 1651 under Cromwell)

D-Day

aka Operation Overlord, June 6, 1944: invasion of Normandy (northern French coast). Western front established; spelled end of Nazi domination of Europe. Hitler now fighting on three fronts: Russia, France and Italy

Reform Act of 1884

aka Representation of the People Act of 1884, Granted suffrage to adult males in the counties on the same basis as in the boroughs

Marxism

aka Scientific Socialism; developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels

Test Act of 1673

all officeholders must take communion in Anglican Church

Cosimo de' Medici (1389-1464)

allied with other powerful families of Florence and became the unofficial ruler of the republic, Most powerful of the Medici rulers

The Communist Manifesto (1830)

also Das Kapital (1861): Intended to replace utopian hopes and dreams with a brutal, militant blueprint for socialist working class success.

The People's Charter

also demanded secret balloting, no property qualifications for members of Parliament, salaries for member of Parliament, equal electoral districts (end to "rotten boroughs"), annual elections for Parliament.

Fabian Society (1883)

among the most significant: advanced a form of revisionist Marxism. Sought political democracy and economic socialism

Rome-Berlin Axis

an alliance between fascist Italy and Germany

Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446)

architect of cathedrals (Il Duomo in Florence)

Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472)

architect of cathedrals.

Disraeli

argued for aggressive foreign policy, expansion of British Empire, and reluctantly supported democratic reforms.

German pietism

argued need for spiritual conversion and religious experience

Conservatism

arose in reaction to liberalism and became a popular alternative for those frightened by the violence, terror and social disorder of the French Revolution.

Zemstvos

assemblies that administered local areas - Significant step towards popular participation

Claudio Monteverdi (1547-1643)

baroque; developed the opera and the modern orchestra J. S. Bach (1685-1750) greatest of the baroque composers, Often wrote dense and polyphonic structures (in contrast to the later balance and restraint of the Classical Period—Mozart & Haydn). Wrote in a variety of genres, both choral and instrumental, for a variety of instruments

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens

became constitutional blueprint for France

Robert Walpole (1721-1742)

became first prime minister

Alexander Kerensky

became leader of the Russian Provisional Gov't

Serfdom

beginning in 16th century and continuing into 18th century, mass of peasants became serfs

James I (r. 1603-1625)

belief in "divine right of kings". claimed "no bishop, no king" to Puritan demand to end bishop control.

nihilism

belief in nothing but science and that the social order should be completely wiped out and built up from scratch.

Predestination

belief that God is all-knowing and therefore has already chosen who has been saved and who has not; "good works" was not sufficient for salvation

Realism

belief that literature and art should depict life as it really was. Largely a reaction to the failed Revolutions of 1848-49 and subsequent loss of idealism

Thomas Malthus

believed human population would eat itself out of existence.

Joseph Stalin

believed in "Socialism in one Country": first, Russia had to be strong Establishment of a Socialist economy without the aid of the West

Quakers

believed in "inner light"; rejected church authority; pacifists; women allowed to minister

Leon Trotsky

believed in "permanent revolution": continuing a world revolution

Third Balkan War

between Austria and Serbia became World War I. Immediate causes of World War I

Parlement of Paris

blocked tax increases

sfumato

blurring or softening sharp lines in painting; developed by Leonardo

Ghiberti (1378-1455)

bronze doors for Florentine baptistery ("Gates of Paradise")

COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION

brought about age of discovery and exploration - chartered companies, joint stock companies, stock markets, putting-out industry

The Crystal Palace

built in 1851, symbolized Britain's economic/industrial might

Berlin Wall

built in 1961 because 2 million East Germans escaped to West Berlin between 1949-1961; Soviets frustrated

Berlin Wall

built in 1961, 2 million East Germans escaped to West Berlin between 1949-1961; Soviets frustrated

New type of party

cadre of educated professional revolutionaries to serve development of political class consciousness & guidance of the "Dictatorship of Proletariat"

Carlsbad Diet (1819)

called by Metternich; issued the Carlsbad Decrees that cracked down

The English Civil War

cavaliers vs roundheads

Michelangelo (1475-1564)

ceiling of the Sistine Chapel

German Imperialism

certain Pacific islands

New Physics

challenged long-held ideas and led to uncertainty

Mestizos

children of mixed white and Indian descent o Creoles: American-born Spaniards

Putting-out system

city manufacturers took advantage of cheaper labor in the countryside

War of the Three Henrys (1584-98)

civil wars between Valois, Guise, and Huguenot

First Estate

clergy, Gallican Church (less than 1% of population)

Wars of Louis XIV

coalition of countries kept France from dominating Europe

Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907)

codified rules of chemistry in the periodic law and the periodic table in 1869.

Gustave Courbet (1819-1877)

coined the term "realism"

o Franco-Prussian war and capture of Napoleon III resulted in

collapse of the 2nd Empire

Coup in Moscow, 1991

communist hard-liners, frustrated by loss of Soviet power and prestige, attempted to overthrow Gorbachev. Coup failed when the Soviet military refused to crush popular resistance.

Cubism

concentrated on a complex geometry of zigzagging lines and sharply angled, overlapping planes.

Deductive method

conclusion is reached by logic

Giotto (1266-1336)

considered the first Renaissance artist; use of chiaroscuro

Grand Empire

consisted of an enlarged France and satellite kingdoms

Spiritual Exercises

contained ideas used to train Jesuits

Italian Risorgimento

continued Mazzini's dream

Cardinal Jules Mazarin (1602-1661)

controlled France while Louis XIV was a child

Naples, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies

controlled by Spain after 1435

Rome, the Papal States

controlled by the "Renaissance popes"

Fall of Ottoman Empire

could not maintain possessions in eastern Europe and the Balkans

Bill of Rights (1689)

created a constitutional monarchy

Georges Clemenceau

created a french dictatorship during WWI

Guillotine

created as an instrument of mercy.

Comintern (Third Communists International)

created in 1919, goal to serve as the preliminary step towards the world wide victory of Communism.

Comintern (Third Communists International)

created in 1919. Was to serve as the preliminary step towards the world wide victory of Communism o Ruthless oppression: secret police (Cheka) liquidated about 250,000 opponents

Council of Europe

created in 1948. European federalists hoped Council would quickly evolve into a true European parliament with sovereign rights, but this did not happen.

Weimar Constitution

created in August 1919: bicameral legislature; president served 7-year term

The Civil Constitution of the Clergy

created national church with 83 bishops and diocese; biggest blunder of the National Assembly

National workshops

created to provide work for the unemployed

National Assembly (1871-75)

created with Adolphe Thiers as chief executive

John Maynard Keynes

criticized Versailles Treaty declaring its punishment of Germany would damage the European economy.

Easter Rebellion (1916)

crushed by British troops

2nd Treaty of Paris

dealt more harshly w/ France; large indemnity, some minor territories

John Eck (1486-1543)

debated Luther at Leipzig in 1520

Victor Emmanuel

declared King of Italy in February 1861 (Rome and Venice still independent)

Organic Statute of 1832

declared Poland to be an integral part of the Russian empire.

Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

deductive, "I think, therefore I am", cartesian dualism, Developed analytical geometry

Thirty-Nine Articles

defined creed of Anglican Church under Elizabeth I

Cult of the Supreme Being

deistic naturalist religion; Catholics now opposed to the revolution,Notre Dame Cathedral was turned into the Temple of Reason

Unitarianism

denied deity of Christ but believed in Christian principles.

Joseph Lister

developed "antiseptic principle" in performing surgeries.

Trench warfare

developed after Battle of the Marne; lasted four bloody years

Max Planck

developed basis for quantum physics in 1900

Duke of Bridgewater

developed canal system (with use of steam power)

Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)

developed germ theory of disease, pasteurization

Prague Conference

developed notion of Austroslavism, constitution and autonomy within Habsburg empire.

Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)

developed powerful microscopes. First to see and write about bacteria, yeast plants, living organisms in a drop of water and the circulation of blood corpuscles in capillaries.

taille

direct head tax on all land and property

Marie Curie (1867-1934)

discovered the first radioactive element in 1910 (radium)

Renè de Maupeou

dissolved Parlement of Paris

Cartesian dualism

divided all existence into the spiritual and material. The spiritual can only be examined through deductive reasoning (logic),The material is subject to the experimental method

Michelangelo

dome atop St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican

Klemens Von Metternich (1773-1859)

dominant figure at the Congress of Vienna; conservative

OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries)

dramatically increased oil prices in Europe and U.S. in retaliation for their support of Israel in the Yom Kippur War against Egypt and Syria.

Young Ireland movement (1848)

echoed nationalistic movements on the Continent

Jean Monnet

economic pragmatism and architect of European unity.

Civic Humanism

education should prepare leaders who would be active in civic affairs. Often, more secular and lay dominated

Table of Ranks

educational training for new civil service (mostly of nobles)

Carlsbad Decrees of 1819

effectively restricted freedom throughout Germany.

Rococo style

elegance, pleasantness, frivolity; contrasts emotional grandeur of Baroque

Sovereignty

embodied in the person of the ruler

David Hume (1711-76)

emphasized limitations of human reasoning; human mind is nothing but a bundle of impressions; later became dogmatic skeptic that undermined Enlightenment

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

empiricism and inductive

The Ambassadors (1533)

encompasses some of the major themes of the era: exploration, religious discord, preoccupation with death (the skull in the foreground) and the rising tide of international relations in an age of expansion

Revolutions of 1989

end to communist control of eastern Europe

Revolutions of 1989

end to communist control of eastern Europe. Costs of maintaining satellite countries for USSR both politically and economically were too

Thermidorian Reaction (1794)

ended "Reign of Terror". Robespierre executed, July 1794. Economic controls lifted: ended influence of sans-culottes

Treaty of Westphalia (1648)

ended Catholic Reformation in Germany. Renewal of Peace of Augsburg (but added Calvinism as accepted faith in Germany). Dissolution of Holy Roman Empire confirmed - Dutch and Swiss independence

Battle of Borodino (1812)

ended in draw but Napoleon overextended himself

Treaty of Nanking

ended the First Opium War (1839-1841), Forced China to cede Hong Kong to Britain forever, pay large indemnity and open up 4 large cities to foreign trade with low tariffs.

Treaty of Paris (1763)

ended the Seven Years War (1756-1763). Britain gained all French territory in North America, Britain controlled more of northeastern India (Bengal), France got back islands in West Indies and some territories in India

Treaty of Utrecht (1713)

ended the War of Spanish Succession (1701-1713). Britain received asiento (slave trade) from Spain. Britain allowed to send one ship of merchandise annually into Panama.

Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559)

ended the habsburg-valois wars

Baruch Spinoza (1632-77)

equated God and nature; impersonal mechanical universe; denied free will

Council of Trent (3 sessions 1545-1563)

established Catholic dogma four next four centuries

Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)

established a theocracy in Zurich, Switzerland. Disagreed with Luther over the Eucharist (Communion); saw it as only symbolic while Luther believed the spirit of Christ existed in the Eucharist--consubstantiation; Catholics believed in transubstantiation—that the wine and bread consumed during Communion turned into the actual body and blood of Christ in the believer.

Third French Republic

established in 1875. Chamber of Deputies had most power (elected by universal suffrage; president was weak).

Jules Ferry

established tax-supported secular compulsory public education and reform

Sans-culottes

extremely influential, working-class, extremely radical

The Fronde

failed revolution by nobility directed against Mazarin; inspired Louis later to suppress the nobility

Florence Nightingale

famous for superb nursing (more men died of disease than combat)

Missionary work

far more successful in Africa than in Asia and Islamic world.

Auguste Comte (1798-1857)

father of "sociology"

Nepotism

favoring family members e.g. Medicis

George Sand (1804-76)

female writer: Themes of romantic love of nature and moral idealism

Pasteurization

fermentation caused by growth of living organisms and the activity of these organisms could be suppressed by heating the beverage.

Jacques Necker

finance minister who tried to raise taxes; privileged classes refused

King Louis XVI (1774-1792)

financial mismanagement; 1/2 of budget went to pay interest

Cottage Industry

first and foremost a family enterprise (also called the "putting-out" system, Occurred during and as a response to the Agricultural Revolution

Arkwright

first to use steam engine to power looms; factory production of textiles

Robert Fulton

first useful steamship; went up the Hudson River (U.S.)

Dr. David Livingston

first white man to do humanitarian and religious work in south and central Africa

Empiricism

first-hand study of scientific subjects

Habsburg-Valois Wars

five wars between 1521 and 1555 (Francis I vs. Charles V) France tried to keep Germany divided (although ironically, France was Catholic)

Factory Act of 1831

forbade child labor under age of nine

Corvée

forced labor several days per year for nobles

League of Schmalkalden, 1531

formed by newly Protestant (Lutheran) princes to defend themselves against emperors drive to re-Catholicize Germany.

Grand Alliance

formed in 1942: Britain, Soviet Union and U.S. and 2 dozen other countries

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

formed in 1949; Collective security organization consisting of democracies in Europe, U.S. & Canada to prevent against Soviet expansion in Europe.

Committee of Public Safety

formed in Summer 1793 as emergency gov't. Led by Maximilien Robespierre; also Louis Saint-Just

Warsaw Pact

formed in response to NATO; Included Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Rumania, Bulgaria.

Politburo

formed to organize the october revolution: included Lenin, Trotsky, Stalin

Angela Merici (1474-1540)

founded Ursuline Order of Nuns during the Catholic Reformation

Utilitarianism

founded by Jeremy Bentham. Utility of any proposed law or institution based on "the greatest happiness of the greatest

Mennonites

founded by Menno Simons later became descendants of Anabaptists

Royal Society

founded in England (1662) to promote scientific research; other academies founded in Europe

Social Democratic Workers' party

founded in Minsk with Lenin as leader; Lenin exiled Lenin became the heir to Marx in socialist thought

John Wesley (1703-91)

founder of Methodism in England

Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556)

founder; organized the Jesuits in military fashion

Samuel de Champlain

french; founded modern-day Canada in 1608

Plombiérès (1859)

gained promise from Napoleon III that France would support a Sardinian-Piedmont war with Austria for the creation of a northern Italian kingdom Sardinia gained Lombardy, though France backed away from Plombiérès agreement

Jean Bodin (1530-96)

gave theoretical basis for absolutist states; wrote during Fr. civil wars

Plebiscite

general referendum overwhelmingly voted for Napoleon

Lettre de cachet

gov't could imprison anyone without trial or jury

Versailles Palace

grandest and most impressive palace in Europe. In effect, became a pleasure prison for the French nobility, over which Louis gained control. Repressed Jansenism (a kind of Calvinism within Catholic Church)

Act of Toleration (1689)

granted religious freedom (except to Catholics, Jews, and Unitarians)

Edict of Nantes

granted religious toleration to Huguenots

Leo Tolstoy

greatest Russian realist. War and Peace: story of Russian society during the Napoleonic wars

Joseph II (r. 1765-1790)

greatest of Enlightened despots ("greatest good for greatest number"). Abolished serfdom in 1781, Freedom of press, Freedom of religion & civic rights to Protestants and Jews, More equitable justice system, Made German the official language (to assimilate minorities), Increased control over Catholic education, expanded state schools, left the empire in economic and political turmoil

Titian (c. 1485-1576)

greatest painter of the Venetian school

Maximilian I (r. 1493-1519)

habsburg; gained much territory in eastern France with his marriage to Mary of Burgundy, sparking a fierce dynastic struggle between the Valois in France and the Habsburgs that would last until 1559 (Habsburg-Valois Wars).

Kaiser Wilhelm I (r. 1871-1888)

had ultimate power over germany

Corn Law of 1815

halted importation of cheaper foreign grains; higher prices hurt ordinary people

John McAdam (1756-1836)

hard-surfaced roads in England

Danish Phase

height of Catholic forces during the war

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

heliocentric view (refutes the Medieval geocentric view): earth revolves around the sun By the early 16th century, the Catholic Church viewed Copernicus' theory as heretical

Star Chamber

henry vii tried nobles without a jury and were often tortured Nobles not allowed to have own private armies

Stagflation

hit in the mid 1970s: increased prices and increased unemployment

Battle of Verdun/the Somme

horrific casualties; neither side could break through

Intelligentsia

hostile group of intellectuals who believed they should eventually take over society

Declaration of Independence

huge impact of Locke and the Enlightenment (e.g. natural rights)

Baron Paul d'Holbach (1723-1789)

humans were machines governed by outside forces. Freewill, God, and immortality of soul were foolish myths; severe blow to unity of the Enlightenment

Axial rudder (side rudder)

improved ability of ships to change direction Gunpowder and cannons: provided protection from hostile ships and enabled

Robert Owen (1771-1858)

in 1834, founded Grand National Consolidated Trades Union. Movement failed; after 1851 unions were moving toward craft unions

The Peninsular War (1808-1814

in Spain: first great revolt against Napoleon's power o Guerrilla war against France aided by Britain and led by Duke of Wellington

Carnot Lazare

in charge of universal military conscription (levee en masse)

League of Augsburg (formed in 1686 to counter France's growing power)

included the HRE, Spain, Sweden, Bavaria, Saxony, Dutch Republic

Agricultural Revolution

increased crop and animal yields fed more people,growing crops on reclaimed wastelands and uncultivated common lands, livestock raising linked to crop growing; increasing yields in each area.

Mercantilism

increased role of state in the economy Reduced royal debt, reformed tax collection

John Stuart Mill, On Liberty (1859)

influential work on necessity to increase democracy

Wars of Louis XIV

initially successful but eventually ruinous to France. France created a massive modern army with the potential to dominate Europe

James Watt (1736-1819)

invented and patented the first efficient steam engine.

Edmund Cartwright (1753-1823)

invents loom powered by horses, water, or steam.

Joint-stock companies

investors pooled resources for common purpose (forerunner of modern corporation)

Total war

involved mass civilian populations in the war effort

Pragmatic Sanction (1713)

issued by Charles VI: Europe's major powers agreed that Habsburg territories were indivisible; all Habsburg lands would transfer to future Habsburg rulers (e.g. Maria Teresa)

Rerum Novarum

issued by Pope Leo XIII, Condemned socialism, While he found fault with capitalism regarding poverty, insecurity, and degradation of the laboring classes, he stated that capitalism could work if industrialists looked after the welfare of their workers

Decembrists

junior military officers, upper-class opponents of the autocratic Russian system

Concordat of Bologna (1516)

king now appointed bishops to the Gallican Church - Major reason why Reformation did not take hold in France

Tories

king's supporters, nobles

Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642)

laid foundation for absolutism in France (politique like Henry IV) during the reign of louis XIII. Increased mercantilism and taxation to fund the military

Ptolemy's Geography, 1475

largely improved navigation

Pugachev Rebellion (1773)

largest peasant uprising in Russian history;

Friedrich Engels (1820-1895)

lashed out at middle-class abuse of wage-earners o Luddites: attacked factories, broke machinery; believed factories taking their jobs

Siege of Vienna (1683)

last attempt by Turks to take Central Europe

Second Industrial Revolution

last half 19th century; steel production, oil, chemicals

Nicholas II (1868-1918)

last of the Romanov dynasty; Russia in a perpetual state of crisis

Queen Anne (1702-1714)

last of the Stuart monarchs

Thomas Malthus (1766-1834)

late 18th century economist who believed food supply could not keep up with population growth (pop. growth exponential; food production increased geometrically)

Leon Trotsky

leader of the Petrograd Soviet (and the Red Army), led Soviet overthrow and

Condottieri

leaders of private armies hired by cities for military purposes

Jacques Lefevre d'Etables (1454-1536)

leading French humanist; produced 5 versions of the Psalms that challenged a single authoritative Bible.

Charles VIII (r. 1483-1498)

led French invasions of Italy that made it a battleground for international ambitions between France and Spain and effectively ended the sovereignty of most Italian city-states

French Fourth Republic

led by Charles de Gaulle. Result: social reform and political transformation created foundations for a great European renaissance

Free French

led by General Charles De Gaulle, who fled to Britain

September Massacres

led by Paris Commune, aristocratic and clerical conspiracy with foreign invaders led to massacre of over 1,000 priests, bourgeoisie, and aristocrats

Anti-Corn Law League

led by Richard Cobden and John Bright who argued for lower

Second French Republic

led by liberal Alphonse Lamartine (allied w/ bourgeoisie)

Emmeline Pankhurst

led militant suffragettes. Her organization, the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU), destroyed railroad stations, works of art, store windows; chained themselves to gates in front of Parliament

Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658)

led the "New Model Army"

Ho Chi Minh

led the independence movement in the north of vietnam

Count Cavour (1810-1861)

led the struggle for Italian unification via realpolitik. Prime minister who built Sardinia-Piedmont into a liberal and economically sound state

Napoleonic Codes

legal unity provided first clear and complete codification of French law: code of civil procedure, criminal procedure, commercial code, and penal code.

Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle (1748)

legitimized Frederick's conquest.

Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882)

liberated southern Italy and Sicily. Exemplified the Romantic nationalism of earlier leaders such as Mazzini. 1860, Garibaldi and his thousand

Fall of Poland

liberum veto leads to weak gov't

Portuguese caravel

lighter, faster ships; could sail into the wind

Factory Act of 1833

limited hours per day; prohibited children under age 9

Weaknesses of British democracy

limited suffrage, unfair representation ("rotten boroughs"), open voting, religious-property requirements for office, hereditary House of Lords United, Government dominated by Calvinist bourgeoisie (burghers)

Teresa de Avila (1515-1582)

major Spanish leader of the reform movement for convents and monasteries

Caterina Sforza (1463-1509)

major art patron (e.g. Leonardo da Vinci), Major enemy of Florence throughout much of the Renaissance

Scientific Revolution

major cause of the new world view in the 16th and 17th centuries

Lorenzo "the Magnificent" de' Medici (1449-1492)

major patron of the arts

Lateen sail and rope riggings

maneuverable sails took advantage of wind power from

Countryside Hierarchy

manorial lords, peasants, landless workers

Heavy industry

manufacture of machinery and materials used in production

clerical ignorance

many priests were illiterate

Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659)

marked end of Spain as a Great Power.

City Hierarchy

merchants (bourgeoisie), artisans, laborers

Congress of Vienna (1814-15)

met to end the Napoleonic wars and to keep France in check.

Whigs

middle-class and merchants; also high aristocracy

Joseph Goebbels

minister of propaganda effectively glorified Hitler and the Nazi state

Causes of the Great European Witch Hunt

misogyny, religious wars,

factory work

more discipline required; increased loss of personal freedom

Girondins

more moderate faction; represented countryside

Louis Blanc (1811-1882)

more practical approach than other early French socialists.

Isabella d'Este (1474-1539)

most famous Renaissance female ruler (ruled Mantua)

Madame de Pompadour

most famous of Louis XV's mistress of the 18th c. as she charmed the king and gained decision-making power

Francis Xavier (1506-1552)

most important Catholic missionary in the East Indies

Pablo Picasso (1881-1973)

most important artist of the 20th century. Developed cubism along with Georges Braque

Edwin Chadwick

most important reformer of living conditions in cities.

Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)

most important war of the 17th century

Reign of Terror (1793-94)

most notorious event of French Revolution

Defeat in 30 Years' War

most politically and economically disastrous of Louis XIV's wars:

Charles V (r. 1519-1556)

most powerful ruler in Europe (1st Holy Roman Emperor), sacked Rome in 1527. Sought to prevent spread of Protestant Reformation in Germany

Calvinism

most significant of the new Protestant sects, predestination, Calvin established a theocracy in Geneva

Parliament Act of 1911

most significant political reform during Liberal party rule. Eliminated powers of House of Lords; House of Commons now center of national power. Life-span of Parliament was reduced from 7 to 5 years.

Suleiman the Magnificent (d. 1566)

nearly conquered Austria in 1529, captured Belgrade (Serbia), nearly 1/2 of Eastern Europe including all Balkan territories, most of Hungary, and part of southern Russia

Blitzkrieg ("lightning war")

new form of warfare used by Germany to quickly defeat an enemy

Revolutionary Calendar

new non-Christian calendar instituted

Assignats

new paper currency; former church lands guaranteed value of currency

Proletariat

new wage-earning class of factory workers

Robe nobles

new; purchased their titles from the monarchy and became high officials in the government and remained loyal to the king.

Habeas Corpus Act (1679)

no arbitrary arrest and speedy trial

Second Estate

nobility (2-4% of population)

Robot

non-serf peasants owed lord 3 to 4 days a week of forced labor

Pluralism

official holding more than one office

Absenteeism

official not participating in benefices

Sword nobles

older, hereditary nobles; not allowed to influence the royal council

United Nations created two states

one Arab (Palestine) and one Jewish (Israel).

Berthe Morisot (1841-1895)

one of few females in 19th c. that had the opportunity to be a first-rate artist

Battle of Britain

one of most critical battles of the war. Hitler sought to soften Britain up for an invasion. Luftwaffe (led by Herman Goring) sent to destroy Royal Air Force (RAF). RAF recovered and ultimately defeated Luftwaffe: Hitler forced to call off invasion of Britain. Significance: Hitler had to guard against a future two-front war; D-Day launched from Britain

Act of Settlement (1701)

only Anglican could succeed to the throne

Ulster (Protestant counties in northern Ireland)

opposed Irish Home Rule as they started to enjoy remarkable economic growth from the mid-1890s.

laissez-faire

opposed gov't intervention in social and economic affairs, even if the need for action seemed great to social critics and reformers

Valois Dynasty

oversaw France's recovery after the 100 Years' War

February Revolution

overthrew the Czar and instituted the Provisional Government. started by women rioting for bread in Petrograd; workers and soldiers joined in

Albrecht von Wallenstein (1583-1634)

paid by emperor to fight for HRE

Masaccio (1401-1428)

painted real, nude human figures

Sandro Botticelli (1444-1510)

painter: Birth of Venus, La Primavera

Enabling Act (March 1933)

passed by Reichstag. Gave Hitler absolute dictatorial power for four years; only Nazi party was legal.

sale of indulgences

paying a fee to the Church so that a person (or his loved ones) could escape purgatory and go to heaven

Twelve Articles,1525

peasants demanded an end to feudalism, Inspired by Luther's writings. Luther was a conservative in that he believed people should obey their secular rulers.

Voltaire (1694-1778)

perhaps most influential of all Enlightenment philosophes. Advocated religious toleration and blasted the Church's oppression - "Crush the infamous thing" (meaning religious intolerance). Advocated "enlightened despotism" (his ideas were somewhat similar to Thomas Hobbes) o Candide (1759): satire on the evils of society

Alexander II (1855-1881)

perhaps most liberal ruler in Russian history prior to 20th century, abolished serfdom, est. zemstvos, judiciary improved, censorship relaxed (but not removed), education liberalized. Increasingly became more liberal. assassinated in 1881 by anarchists who bombed his carriage in St. Petersburg

Article 231

placed sole blame for war on Germany; Germany would be severely punished

Wilson's 14 Points (Jan. 1918)

plan to end the war along liberal, democratic lines. Abolish secret treaties, freedom of the seas, free trade; Reduction of armament burdens; Promise of independence ("self-determination") to oppressed minority groups (e.g. Poles, Czechs), millions of which lived in Germany and Austria-Hungary.

Madame de Geoffrin

played major role patronizing Diderot's Encyclopedia

Jacobins

political club that dominated Legislative Assembly

Nuclear family

poor people tended to be unable to support extended families

Causes of the commercial revolution

population growth, price revolution, rise of capitalism

Alfonso d'Albuquerque (1453-1515)

portuguese; Laid foundation for Portuguese imperialism in the 16th and 17th century. Established empire in Indonesia after 1510

Francis Xavier

portuguese; led Jesuit missionaries to Asia where by 1550 thousands of natives had been converted to Christianity in India, Indonesia, and Japan

Vasco Da Gama

portuguese; set up posts in India

Gamal Abdel Nasser

pres of egypt, nationalized the Suez canal in 1956

Boris Yeltsin's

pres of russia, gov't failed to significantly improve the Russian economy

William Tyndale

produced the first English version of the Bible (highly illegal!); executed

Mines Act of 1842

prohibited all children under age 10 from working underground

Russian-German Reinsurance Treaty of 1887

promised neutrality if other was attacked

Holy Alliance

proposed by Alexander I in 1815: proposed for all monarchs to sign a statement agreeing to uphold Christian principles of charity and peace; plan was impractical and few took it seriously

The Bank of England (1694)

provided an important source of capital for economic development

Australian Ballot Act (1872)

provided for the secret ballot (earlier Chartist demand)

King Gustavus Adolphus (1594-1632)

pushed back Catholic forces to Bohemia

El Greco (1541-1614)

quintessential mannerist who spent most of his creative life in Spain. Burial of Count Orgaz (1586) is among his most famous works

White Man's Burden

racist patronizing that preached that the "superior" Westerners had an obligation to bring their culture to "uncivilized" peoples in other parts of the world.

Girondins

radical Jacobins who were advanced party of the revolution and brought the country to war

Diggers

radical group (foreshadowed anarchy in 19th century)

The Mountain

radical republicans; urban class (Danton, Robespierre, Marat)

Paris Commune (1870-71)

radical; gained much power and lay siege to Paris. Fought a bloody struggle with the troops of the National Assembly; thousands died and 20,000 were subsequently executed

Madame de Stael

ran a salon and wrote books deploring subordination of women

Counter-Culture

rebellion against parents, authority figures and status quo

Treaty of Adrianople (1829)

recognized Greek independence. 3 out of 5 members of Concert of Europe supported nationalism signaling a shift from united conservatism to nationalistic self-interest.

Baron von Haussmann

redeveloped Paris: wide boulevards (partially to prevent barricades), better middle-class housing on outskirts, demolition of slums, creation of parks and open spaces.

Dètente

reducing of US SU tension

Baroque Art

reflected the ideas of the Catholic Reformation; goal to teach in a concrete and emotional way and demonstrate the glory and power of the Catholic Church

Francesco Ximenes de Cisneros (1436-1517)

reformed Spanish clergy and church, Grand Inquisitor of the Spanish Inquisition

Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803)

regarded as father of modern nationalism. Believed every people is unique and possesses a distinct national character—Volksgeist— which has evolved over many centuries.

Louis XIII (1610-43)

regency plagued by corruption & mismanagement (mom ruled until he was of age)

Vendèe

region in western France that opposed revolution saw thousands executed o Danton and followers executed in 1794

Fall of HRE

religious divisions and war in 16th and 17th century

Failure of Peace of Augsburg

religious tension in the Holy Roman Empire continued

Reconquista

removed last of Moors, Expulsion of Jews

Gustavus Adolphus

reorganized the swedish government

The Commonwealth (1649-1653)

republic - abolished the monarchy and House of Lords

Old Believers (The Raskolniki)

resisted westernization, severely persecuted.

Third Estate

rest of population (paid both tithes to church and taille to gov't)

Constitution of 1795

restored some order but the new gov't was very ineffective

Peace of Lodi (1454)

resulted in a balance of power and peace between Milan, Florence, and Naples that lasted until the French invasions of the 1490s

October Revolution

resulted in a communist dictatorship

Sino-Japanese War

revealed China's helplessness, triggered a rush for foreign concessions and protectorates in china.

Edict of Fontainebleau (1685)

revoked the Edict of Nantes, thus ending religious toleration for Huguenots

Dr. Sun Yat-sen

revolutionary, sought to overthrow the Manchu dynasty and establish a republic; sparked the beginning of a Chinese nationalist movement

Benito Mussolini (1883-1945)

rises to power ("Il Duce") o Organized the Fascist party. Combination of socialism and nationalism: territorial expansion, benefits for workers, and land reform for peasants.

Boyars

russian nobles

Simony

sale of church offices

Gargantua and Pantagruel

satirized French society, emphasized education, attacked clerical education and monastic orders

Inductive method

scientific conclusion is reached after much observation

Caused the end of witch hunts

scientific revolution, advances in medicine, reformation because it emphasized God as the only spiritual force in the universe

Donatello (1386-1466)

sculptor: David

The Carbonari

secret nationalist societies advocated force to achieve national unification.

Guiseppe Mazzini (1805-72)

secret revolutionary society—Young Italy.

Jethro Tull

seed drill (more efficient than scattering seeds by hand)

President Louis Napoleon

seen by voters as a symbol of stability and greatness. Dedicated to law and order, opposed to socialism and radicalism, and favored the conservative classes—the Church, army, property-owners, and business.

Bank of France

served interests of the state and financial oligarchy

Algeciras Conference

settled First Moroccan Crisis

INF Treaty

signed by Gorbachev and Reagan in Dec. 1987. All intermediate-range nuclear missiles in Europe were banned.

Petit bourgeoisie

small industrialists, merchants and professionals who demanded security and stability from the government.

From Europe to the New World

smallpox, measles, bubonic plague, influenza, typhus, wheat, sugar, rice coffee, horses, cows, pigs, sheep, goats, chickens

Louis Blanc

socialist thinker emerged as a leader among the working classes.

ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM

some monarchs adopted certain Enlightenment ideas including toleration of religious minorities, simplified legal codes, and promotion of practical education. Yet, Absolutists more vigorously sought reforms to strengthen the state and allow them to compete militarily with their neighbors.

Chartists

sought political democracy for all men

Winter Palace

sought to emulate Versailles

Marquis de Beccaria (1738-94)

sought to humanize the criminal law based on Enlightenment concepts of reason and equality before the law; criticized torture. Influenced the "Enlightened despots": Frederick the Great, Catherine the Great, Joseph II

James II (1685-1688)

sought to re-Catholicize England; Parliament forced him to abdicate

Charles I (1625-1649)

sought to rule without Parliament and to control the Anglican Church. Dissolved parliament in 1629

Nationalism

sought to turn cultural unity into self-government

Intendant System

sought to weaken nobility, Replaced local officials w/ civil servants who reported directly to the king; largely filled by middle-class. continued to increase the power of the king at the expense of the old nobles.

Chartists

sought universal suffrage

Asiento

spanish slave trade

Hernando Cortès (1485-1547)

spanish; conquered Aztecs in Mesoamerica

Francisco Pizarro (1478-1541)

spanish; conquered Incas in South America

Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521)

spanish; his ship was the first to circumnavigate the globe

Social Democrats

split into two factions - mensheviks vs bolsheviks

Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937)

split the atom in 1919

Open Door Policy

sponsored by the U.S. in 1899, sought to open commerce to imperial latecomers like itself, urged the Europeans to allow free trade within China while respecting its territorial integrity.

Gulags

stalin's forced labor camps

Chartered companies

state provided monopolies in certain regions (BEIC, DEIC)

State-regulated monopolies

stifled economic growth

Tenebrism

stressed broad areas of light and shadow rather than on linear arrangements of the High Renaissance.

Max Planck (1858-1947)

studied sub-atomic energy which shook the foundations of the Newtonian view of the universe

Vladimir Putin

succeeded Yeltsin in 2000 and began to centralize power

Leopold I (1658-1705)

successfully repelled Turks

General Strike

support of miners who feared a dramatic drop in their low wages swept the country; the gov't outlawed such labor actions in 1927

Gladstone

supported Irish Home Rule, fiscal policy, free trade, and extension of democratic principles while opposing imperialism

Cavaliers

supported the king

Armies of Charles V, sack of Rome in 1527

symbolized end of Renaissance in Italy

Treaty of Tilsit (1807)

symbolized height of Napoleon's success

Defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588)

symbolized the rise of England as a world power and the limits of Spanish dominance

From the New World to Europe

syphilis, potatoes, corn, tomatoes, pineapple, tobacco, beans, vanilla, chocolate, turkeys, gold, and silver

Methodism

taught need for spiritual regeneration and a moral life that would demonstrate the reality of the conversion

Wealthier people (and some landowning peasants)

tended to have extended families based mostly on economic considerations; not love

Martin Behaim

terrestrial globe, 1492

Irish Republican Army (IRA)

terrorized English cities demanding that Northern Ireland be

Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603)

the "Virgin Queen", Held strong Protestant beliefs; Catholics saw her as "illegitimate". Effectively oversaw the development of Protestantism in England. a practical politician who carefully navigated a middle ground between Anglicanism and Protestantism

Rousseau's Social Contract

the "general will" should prevail (3rd Estate)

IMPERIALISM

the control of one people by another (can be political, economic or cultural)

Classical liberalism

the political and economic outgrowth of the Enlightenment. Belief in liberty of the individual and equality before the law (but NOT democracy), "Natural rights" philosophy played a profound role in the American and French Revolutions

virtú

the quality of being a great man in whatever noble pursuit

Theory of Surplus Value

the true value of a product was labor and, since the worker received a small portion of his just labor price, the difference was surplus value, "stolen" from him by the capitalist.

William of Orange

thwarted Louis' expansionism, later, King William III of England

Whig Party

transformed into Liberal Party under Gladstone

Tory Party

transformed into the Conservative Party under Disraeli

Mary Tudor ("Bloody Mary") (r. 1553-1558)

tried to reimpose Catholicism. Protestants fled England fearing persecution. Executed many

Henry VII (1485-1509)

tudor; Reduced the power of the nobility. English Parliament still had influence over taxation and government policy

The Act of Union (1707)

unified England and Scotland; the Scots sought the benefits of trade within the English empire.

Bourgeoisie

upper middle class; well-to-do but resented 1st and 2nd Estates had all the power and privilege

Sturm und Drang

used by German romantics in 1770s and 80s conveying emotional intensity.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

used the telescope to prove Copernicus's heliocentric theory. Forced by the Roman Inquisition to retract his support of the Copernican theory. Also developed laws of motion

Francis I (1515-1547)

valois; concordat of bologna, taille, Large royal army

Louis XI "Spider King" (1461-83)

valois; large royal army, ruthlessly suppressed nobles, taxes, power over clergy, actively encouraged economic growth

German reoccupation of Rhineland

violated Versailles Treaty and Locarno Pact

Liberum veto

voting in Polish parliament had to be unanimous

Pope Pius IX's Syllabus of Errors

warned Catholics against liberalism, rationalism, socialism, separation of church and state, and religious liberty.

Great Fear of 1789

wave of violence and hysteria in countryside against propertied class

Kulaks

wealthiest russian peasants, Stalin ordered party workers to "liquidate them as a class."

Gentry

wealthy landowners who dominated politics in the House of Commons

League of Nations

without (US & USSR) didn't have will nor support to maintain peace.

Representation of the Peoples Act (1928)

women over age 21 gained the right to vote.

Leonardo Bruni (1370-1444)

wrote history of Florence; division of historical periods; narrative form; civic humanist; first to use the term "humanism"

Theodor Herzl

zionism -- advocated a Jewish homeland in the Holy Land