Behavioral Neuroscience - Final Exam
100 billion
# of neurons that the human nervous system contains
Acetylcholine
(ACh) made from acetate and choline by the enzyme *choline acetyltransferase* (ChAT) -In the synaptic cleft, ACh is broken down into choline and acetate and used by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) -Choline and acetate are transported back into the axon terminal and used to make more ACh
cholinergic system
(acetylcholine) basal forebrain = nucleus basalis and medial septal nucleus and nucleus of diagonal band -involved in memory, attention, Alzheimer's disease -if system is healthy, working, and on, we pay more attention!
Diencephalon
(in forebrain) includes thalamus and hypothalamus
Pons
(in hindbrain - bulge near the top of the brainstem) - cerebellum attaches -cochlear nucleus - receive input from cochlea (inner ear) - pathway takes sound to cortex from here -vestibular nucleus - helps us keep balance -raphe nucleus - neurons here - axons release serotonin for the whole brain locus coeruleus - neurons that use norepinephrine are located here - like an off switch for the brain - NE made in cell body, transported and released in terminals far away from the cell body, other parts of the brain
Cerebellum
(in hindbrain) - mini computer - has tons of neurons -motor coordination -sensorimotor coordination -learning - classical conditioning -use purkinje cells!!! -takes feedback from sensory systems, make adjustments (if you bump into a table, your ___________ helps you recover and adjust your movements)
Medulla
(in hindbrain) vital functions, ex: origin of phrenic nerve, which goes to diaphram, is a part of breathing -area postrema - emedic center - throwing up -reticular formation - lightswitch - turned off when we sleep
substantia nigra
(in midbrain) -motor function, helps facilitate series of movements - decodes sequences of movement -provides dopamine for other circuitry to work well
inferior colliculi
(in midbrain) ______________ ____________ - auditory pathway and reflexes (hill)
periaqueductal gray
(in midbrain) pain suppression - send axons down spinal cord to first layer of cells that receives pain input - descending pathway that can suppress pain -stress can raise pain threshold - to have some control over this - opiate receptors! morphine etc. activate this area
superior colliculi
(in midbrain) visual - orienting reflexes - subconscious visual processing, allows for blind sight if there's damage to the visual cortex
hypofrontality hypothesis
(schizophrenia - check book) poor performance on neuropsychological tests sensitive to prefrontal damage -much lower level of activity in prefrontal cortex
major neurotransmitter systems
-*acetylcholine, dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin* -send projections to widespread regions of the brain and spinal cord -modulatory in nature -are the target of many psychoactive drugs -ascending activating systems -*modulation: glutamate/GABA transmit the info, these NTs decide how focused you are on it, how much you remember it, etc.*
ventromedial prefrontal cortex
-Iowa gambling task -given deck A and B, turn them over, win or lose money -deck A has both big winners and big losers -deck B has smaller winners, but smaller losers too -B you actually can make money on, but A you can't -people generally figure it out pretty quickly that A is bad (control group) -people with damage to _____________ ____________ ____________ (like PG? what is PG?) don't figure that out, stick with A, and keep losing money
engram
-Karl Lashley observed the effects of lesions on rats' maze learning -the larger the amount of cortex damaged, the more errors the rats made -Lashley believed the __________ was distributed across the cortex -problem: need smell - could maybe smell other rats' pathways, so if you knock out their sense of vision, they could use smell to get to the same place -or they could use a motor strategy - take a spatial mapping strategy - place cells - GPS in our brain that we have to use -so if you take out one strategy, the rat could use another strategy
Sensory Memory
-Large capacity -Lasts up to 1 to 2 seconds
Glutamate Hypothesis
-PCP produces symptoms similar to schizophrenia by blocking the NMDA receptor -therefore, schizophrenic symptoms may be related to the underactivity of glutamate
Bilateral Medial Temporal Lobectomy; anterograde amnesia; graded retrograde amnesia
-Patient H.M. -had surgery for intractable seizures -surgery was a ______________________________________ -surgery was effective in reducing seizures -can remember explicit memories acquired before the surgery - had difficulty forming NEW memories - profound ___________________ and a __________________ -personality and I.Q. were not affected -short-term memory left intact
Short-Term Memory
-Small capacity (5-9 items) -Lasts up to 15-18 seconds
frontal and temporal lobes
-TBI results in loss of complex cognitive functions, including reductions in mental speed, concentration, and overall cognitive efficiency -traumatic brain injuries that damage the _____________ also tend to significantly affect personality and social behavior -chronic effects of the injuries are often not accompanied by any obvious neurological signs or abnormalities in CT or MRI scans
Long-Term Memory
-Unlimited capacity -Lasts indefinitely
chronic stress
-_________________ can also interfere with memory, increase or decrease appetite, diminish sexual desire and performance, deplete energy, and cause mood disruptions -consequently, people experiencing chronic stress are more vulnerable to disease
cortical degeneration; entorhinal
-__________________ - anatomical correlate for Alzheimer's Disease -most affected areas are the limbic cortex, inferior temporal cortex, and posterior parietal cortex -the __________ cortex (link between the neocortex and hippocampus) shows clearest evidence for cell loss, which may explain why memory problem occur early in the disease
hemisphere lateralization
-__________________________ for emotion influences perception -why is the man whose smile is crooked to our left happier looking than the man whose smile is crooked to the right? because the left side of our vision goes to our right hemisphere, does more emotional processing, and focuses more on the smiling half -right hemisphere usually "reads" emotion -left half of face, controlled by right hemisphere, is more expressive!
long-term potentiation
-a long-term increase in the excitability of a neuron to a particular synaptic input caused by repeated high-frequency activity of that input -LTP leads to synapses that are more efficient -develops rapidly -is long-lasting -found where memory occurs in the brain -has properties of associativity and cooperativity
Alzheimer's Disease
-a neurocognitive condition associated with aging that results in dementia -approximately 65% of dementia cases
correlates of PTSD
-a smaller than normal hippocampus -reduced benzodiazepine activity -propanolol blocks glucocorticoids in the brain and may prevent PTSD if administered immediately following a traumatic experience -treatment consists of medication and/or cognitive behavioral treatment
mechanics of traumatic brain injury
-a variety of mechanical forces cause traumatic brain injuries as a result of a blow to the head -damage at the site of impact is called coup -pressure resulting from a coup produces a counter-coup on the opposite end or side of the brain -movement of the brain may shear nerve fibers, causing microscopic lesions, especially in the frontal and temporal lobes. Blood trapped in the skull (hematoma) and swelling (edema) can cause pressure on the brain.
prefrontal areas, amygdala
-affective disorders are associated with structural abnormalities in several brain areas -there are volume deficits in the __________________, especially in the orbitofrontal cortex, an area important for emotion regulation -the _____________ is increased in volume -these structural alterations are accompanied by changes in activity level
Nicotinic Acetylcholine receptor
-an ionotopic receptor found at the neuromuscular junction
amyloid plaques
-anatomical correlate for Alzheimer's Disease -located mostly in the cerebral cortex -also found in non-Alzheimer patients
neurofibrillary tangles
-anatomical correlate for Alzheimer's Disease -paired helical filaments found in the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus -also found in patients with Down syndrome, Parkinson's disease, and other types of dementia
acetylcholine
-anti-Alzheimer's drug inhibits enzyme that breaks down ________________________, but doesn't stop the progression of the disease
Type I Synapse
-asymmetric -excitatory -round vesicles -exclusively on dendrites
common symptoms of seizures
-aura, loss of consciousness, motor component
Multiple Sclerosis
-autoimmune disease - illness resulting from the immune system's loss of the ability to discriminate between foreign pathogens in the body and the body itself -immune system attacks oligodendrocytes -demyelination of axons -affects white matter in different locations creating discrete lesions -disease characterized by a loss of myelin in the motor and sensory neurons -relapses and remissions are common - can have long remissions, especially at first - may just go away for 10 years, then relapse
cell membrane
-barrier and gatekeeper -separates intracellular and extracellular fluid -double layer of phospho-lipid molecules -contains protein molecules, which act as: -receptors -channels/gates -transporters/pumps
spinal cord
-base of brain to tailbone, encased with backbone, made of vertebrae which protect ___________ from damage -separated by discs that allow for movement -openings for spinal nerves that come out of _____
anxiolytic drugs
-benzodiazepines -selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors -a number of brain structures are activated in anxiety, including the *amygdala* and *locus coeruleus* -both participate in more specific emotions, such as fear -drugs which decrease action in the locus coeruleus are ___________, drugs which increase its action increase anxiety (these are not used in treatment)
funneling of information to hippocampus
-bi-directional, feedback to cortex -frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, and cingulate cortices <-> perihinal and parahippocampal cortices <-> endorhinal cortex<-> hippocampus -looping between entorinal and hippocampus is where changes occur (possibly specifically long-term changes? check book) -return pathways are parallel pathways!!
autonomic nervous system
-biological correlate of emotion -fight or flight response - ___________________ produces different emotional states based on valence
Grand mal seizure
-characterized by a loss of consciousness and stereotyped motor activity -tonic stage - body stiffens and breathing stops -clonic stage - rhythmic shaking -postictal depression - post-seizure state of confusion
the cortex and emotion
-clinical observations of frontal lobe damage (ex: Phineas Gage) -frontal lobotomies -hemisphere lateralization for emotion -right hemisphere more involved in emotional processing (remember, prosody!) -left hemisphere damage results in depression -dichotic listening tasks (Dr. G didn't go over this!)
treatment of anxiety disorder
-cognitive behavioral therapy -therapeutic neurofeedback - alpha waves more relaxed than beta waves, so what can we do to keep those alpha waves going -put someone in fMRI, show them how active their amygdala - show them pictures of things, relaxing or not relaxing stimuli, try to regulate the response to an emotional stimulus -the person can decide to calm themselves down in any way they want -relaxation therapy for GAD
dopaminergic system
-connection from substantia nigra to basal ganglia -Substantia nigra: Motor system; Parkinson's Disease -Ventral tegmental area: reward system; schizophrenia, drug abuse if overactive
calcium
-cortisol increases the amount of ____________ entering cells -extra ____________ entering the cell increases the amount of neurotransmitter released -too much _______________ can be toxic to neurons -neurons in the hippocampus are particularly likely to die
sleep disturbances (in MDD)
-decrease in Stages 3 and 4 -increase in REM, especially early in the night -awakens frequently -selective waking during REM decreases depression -antidepressants tend to decrease REM
saltatory conduction
-depolarizing stimulus -> decremental conduction under myelin sheath -> action potential is regenerated at Nodes of Ranvier (probably because here more sodium channels open up?)
cingulate gyrus
-different emotions produce patterns of brain activation -feeling excluded from a game produced activity in the __________________, an area that responds to physical pain -recreating feelings of anger, happiness, sadness, and fear produced distinctions of brain activation, but single areas could participate in more than one emotion -exclusion: anterior cingulate lights up -video of face - qtip or syringe and needle about to touch face - anterior cingulate lights up more when it's the syringe - fear) fear - amygdala, disgust - insula -linear relationship between how integrated someone was and their happiness? or their exclusion level? idk w/e
possible hypotheses for habituation
-do sensory neurons become less responsive? -does the gill muscle lose its ability to contract? -do *changes occur at the synapses between the sensory and motor neurons*? (this is what is happening in the sea slug!)
cultural contributions to expression
-doctors learn to withhold expressions of disgust -cultures influence how expressive we are in group situations -American students are about as expressive alone as when a group of strangers, when Japanese students are more expressive alone than when in a group of strangers.
Dopamine Theory
-drugs that reduce dopamine reduce symptoms -drugs that increase dopamine produce symptoms even in people without the disorder -therefore, schizophrenia may be caused by excess dopamine -However, these effects only apply to positive symptoms -atypical antipsychotic drugs suggest other receptors and transmitter involved -25% of patients do not respond to dopamine agonists
universal; genetic
-emotions are __________ and __________ -major expressions are the same across many diverse cultures -separate child from mother, after 10 months or so, baby gets upset - separation anxiety - happens in every culture! -blind infants demonstrate major emotional expressions (e.g. social smile) at the same time as sighted infants -hardwired emotional expression
GABA
-epilepsy treatment drugs tend to be _________ agonists
brain damage
-extreme stress can also lead to ________________ -hippocampal volume was reduced in Vietnam combat veterans suffering from PTSD and in victims of childhood abuse, and cortical tissue was reduced in torture victims -There is some evidence the damage is caused by cortisol
generalized anxiety disorder
-free-floating chronic (6 months) worry -physical symptoms (autonomic (parasympathetic) underarousal) - headaches, stomachaches, muscle tension, irritability
traumatic brain injury (TBI)
-head injuries are the most common form of brain damage in people younger than 40 -children and older adults most likely to suffer head injuries due to falls -males between 15 and 30 are most likely to suffer head injuries, especially from automobile and motorcycle accidents
external features of cerebral cortex
-hemispheres -gyri (hills) -sulci (valleys) -fissures -lobes - frontal, temporal, parietal, occipital
Intermediate-Term Memory
-hours to days - requires consolidation for this memory to really become long-term! (lots of memory things happen unconsciously!)
D2 Potency
-how well a drug binds to the D2 receptor
amygdala
-human damage to the __________ produced difficulty identifying fear and anger -contains many benzodiazepine receptors -stimulation of the __________ can produce fear and anxiety -imaging studies show more activity in the _____________ when viewing expressions of fear -near the hippocampus!
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal Theory
-increased growth hormone levels -increased thyroid hormone levels -increased ACTH and glucocorticoids in patients with depression and suicide victims -stress also increases cortisol
Associative learning
-involves a connection between two elements or events -classical and operant conditioning
Nonassociative learning
-involves change in the magnitude of response to environmental events -habituation and sensitization
glutamate receptors
-ionotropic -AMPA - used most often -NMDA - normally blocked by Mg2+ -transmitter- and voltage-gated -metabotropic
Learning and the cerebellum
-learning will occur when the parallel fibers and climbing fibers activate the purkinje cells at the same time -paired stimulation of the parallel and climbing fibers reduces EPSPs in the Purkinje cells, or long-term depression (LTD) -LTD results from a lower responsiveness to glutamate (fewer receptors) by the Purkinje cells -This reduces the inhibition of the LIP neurons leading to increased activation to the conditioned stimulus
neuropsychologists
-licensed doctoral level clinical psychologists who complete specialized training -often work in collaboration with neurologists -neuropsychological testing - ex: Stroop test, the one with the names of the colors written in different colors, measure timing
treatment for depression
-medications (SSRIs) - all stimulate neurogenesis -the role of exercise -cognitive behavioral therapy -medication plus psychotherapy - leads to most long-lasting improvements -Electroconvulsive therapy -apply a strong electric current through the brain -used in lots of suicidal patients - works fast
Muscarinic Acetylcholine receptor
-metabotropic receptor -amplification -produces slower, but more profound postsynaptic effect
blockade of LTP and memory by NMDA antagonist
-mini pump experiment - implant pellet under skin like an IV drip -this blocks NMDA receptors -have different concentrations -dose-dependent deficit in spatial memory -very high concentration - can't remember where the platform is at all -another experiment - with petri dish - ability to produce LTP -elevated response post high-frequency stimulation -same animals showing memory deficits showed ???????????????? LTP
gated channels
-most ion channels in the neuronal membrane are _______, meaning they actively open and close
multiple sclerosis
-nervous system disorder associated with loss of myelin, immune system attacks myelin protein found only in the central nervous system
treatment of schizophrenia
-no effective treatments prior to about 1950 -discovery of chloropromazine (Thorazine) - blocks dopamine receptor -neuroleptics
noradrenergic system
-norepinephrine is also used in the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system -locus coeruleus -arousal, stress, anxiety, mania
Long-Term changes in habituation and sensitization
-normal Aplysia showed 1300 axon terminals on sensory neurons -Aplysia experiencing sensitization had 2800 axon terminals - increased! -Aplysia experiencing habituation had 800 axon terminals - decreased!
enlarged ventricles
-occurs in schizophrenia, larger on average - volume is bigger -compare identical twins, the one with schizophrenia has larger -more CSF -the brain has shrunk away from the _______________ - they literally have less brain -we're not quite sure why it occurs
petit mal seizure
-of brief duration, characterized by loss of awareness with no motor activity except for blinking, turning the head, or rolling the eyes
adrenal gland
-on kidney - contains adrenocytes with ACTH receptors, which release cortisol -cells in medulla (adrenal medulla? ? ?) release adrenaline -axons from sympathetic go to medulla
brain trauma symptoms
-open head and closed head injury -trauma can disrupt the brain's blood supply, induce bleeding, cause swelling, expose brain tissue to infection, and scar brain tissue
ionotropic receptor
-opens an ion channel -electrical response - when NT binds
Reversible Lesions
-play tone - 10-20 trials -in some, blink should start happening ________________ of red nucleus - output nucleus -then had an animal get the conditioning -never saw a response because you're blocking the output -as soon as anesthetic in red nucleus wears off, suddenly fully conditioned again -conditioning happens somewhere else - LIP! RN is just the OUTPUT.
cognitive symptoms
-poor "executive functioning" -inability to sustain attention -problems with "working memory" -likely related to dopamine deficits
biochemistry of sensitization
-presynaptic facilitation! -serotonin (from facilitating interneuron) binds with receptor site on sensory neuron -this binding activates adenyl cyclase, which converts ATP to cAMP -cAMP activates PKA
LTP process
-presynaptic neuron fires, activates post-synaptic neuron -connection strengthens, and the two become linked -synapses????????? produce EPSPs - lots of neurons, lots of input -record a population EPSP or a population strike (????? read the book dude) - all neurons respond together! -instead of doing a single pulse, do 5 in a row! enough to send action potentials down the ???? -then, single pulse results in a bigger response! -this of synapse is lasting - 3 days even!
posttraumatic stress disorder
-recurrent dreams of trauma, flashbacks, hyperarousal and avoidance of stimuli associated with trauma characterize PTSD -3-4% experience PTSD -2/3 of patients are female -automobile accidents, combat, childhood abuse, and natural disasters are common traumas that result in PTSD
-effects of stroke
-release of massive amounts of glutamate; prolonged opening of sodium and calcium channels -increased sodium causes cells to absorb water and swell -inflammation activates microglia, causing them to become phagocytic (phagocytic = any cell, as a macrophage, that ingests and destroys foreign particles, bacteria, and cell debris.) -toxic levels of calcium produce direct toxicity and instigate various second messenger pathways -energy crisis ensues as mitochondria reduce their production of ATP
panic disorder
-repeated panic attacks along with worrying about attacks characterize __________________ -sudden onset of intense fear or terror -often times accompanied by agoraphobia -2-3% experience __________________, with more females than males having the disorder -about half have depression or another anxiety disorder
habituation mechanism
-repeated siphon touches reduce the entry of calcium into sensory neurons, which release less neurotransmitter -smaller EPSPs occur in interneurons and motor neurons -motor neurons produce weaker response, leading to less gill withdrawal
genetic similarity
-risk increases for schizophrenia with ________________ -many genes on many different chromosomes contribute to schizophrenia -if your parent has is (who you share about 50% of genes with), you have about a 10% chance of getting it -if both of your parents, or your identical twin has it (who you share 100% of your gene with), you have about a 50% chance of getting it -there's also environmental factors that may lead to schizophrenia
PKA
-role of _____ in sensitization: -increases release of neurotransmitter glutamate -decreases K+ current -signals movement of vesicles to release sites -opens more Ca2+ channels
studying learning with aplysia
-sea slug - the gill is used for breathing -feeds - takes fluids from siphon, extends its gill and does filter feeding somehow - to get a maximum flow, they have to extend the gill all the way from their body -gill can be covered with the mantle shelf -waste and seawater are released through the siphon
visual; fight or flight response
-see rattlesnake - goes through _________ pathways to amygdala which will trigger __________________
stress response
-sensory systems identify a stimulus - ex: see lion walk into a classroom -higher cognitive centers identify the stimulus as a stressor -sensory information also travels to the amygdala, which identifies danger -the amygdala notifies the hypothalamus of danger, activating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
sensitization in Aplysia
-shocking the tail stimulates *interneurons* that form *axoaxonic synapses with sensory neurons* serving the siphon -*sensory neurons release more neurotransmitter onto motor neurons*, and the gill retracts strongly
skin conductance response
-show normal subject pictures (barn) or emotional pictures (someone with gash in their face) -________________ - salts in micro-sweats allow you to pass currents between electrodes -if you have the response, sympathetic nervous systems signals or something -don't see this reaction in neutral stimuli + control group -when they lose (cards) both groups show this type of response -but as they learn, control subjects react just in anticipation of cards from A -other group doesn't show that anticipation p-reaction
intact abilities in amnestics
-skill learning - procedural memory -short-term memory -mirror tracing task - you must trace while looking at a mirror (check book?) -short-term memory - digit span task -primacy effect - remember the first few items b/c long term memory -recency effect - remember the last few items b/c short-term memory -don't do well with the ones in the middle -in amnestics, primacy effect is less and recency effect is about normal, according to the chart - middle ones also worse
epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol
-stress hormones released by the HPA axis -the hypothalamus activates the pituitary gland, which in turn releases hormones that stimulate the adrenal glands to release the stress hormones ___________, ___________________, and_________________
environmental factors for MDD
-stressors -short allele of serotonin transporter gene, interacts with life stressors
Type II Synapse
-symmetric -inhibitory -flat vesicles -exclusively on cell bodies
individual differences in emotion
-temperament differs at birth -very responsive babies may develop anxiety disorders later in life -low responders may develop antisocial behaviors later in life -pyschopaths are extremely non-responsive, possibly leading to a lack of empathy
gill-withdrawal reflex
-the ________________ occurs when touching the siphon produces a retraction of the gill -because of habituation, the more you touch the siphon, the less quick the _____________ is
HPA Axis (II)
-the anterior pituitary releases ACTH -in response to ACTH, the adrenal glands release cortisol -cortisol influences many neurons in the brain, increasing the release of several neurotransmitters -when the hippocampus senses cortisol, it acts to inhibit CRH release by the hypothalamus -with less CRH, less ACTH and cortisol will be released (negative feedback)
blood pressure
-the cardiovascular system is particularly vulnerable to stress -stress increases _______________, and prolonged high ________________ can damage the heart or lead to a stroke
sensitization
-the experience of one stimulus heightens the response to a subsequent stimulus -ex: yell "there's a mouse in the room!" and everyone suddenly becomes very alert -people are "jumpy" following natural disasters, like earthquakes
Hebb rule
-the hypothesis that the cellular basis of learning involves strengthening of a synapse that is repeatedly active when the postsynaptic neuron fires -neurons that fire together wire together
habituation
-the response to steady or repeated stimulus decreases over time -ex: loud fan turns on, but then you habituate to it (get used to it) and don't really hear it anymore
conduction of action potentials
-trigger - a graded potential above threshold reaches the trigger zone - Na+ channels open -each channel opens up as Na+ scatters and depolarizes along the membrane -like a wave that drives the action potential down the axon -refractory period prevents backward movement from the action potential -loss of K+ repolarizes the membrane
seizures and epilepsy
-uncontrolled electrical disturbances in brain correlated with changes in consciousness
limbic system
-underneath cortex - subcortical -cingulate cortex -we share this with other brained animals, it's really old -amygdala - emotions, especially fear and rage - damage leads to weird calmness that interferes with our ability to handle danger (Kluver-Bucy syndrome?) -hippocampus -memory storage, learning -hippocampus and amygdala in medial temporal lobe
PET Study for classical conditioning
-used to discover the neural basis of classical conditioning -scan before with tone, do conditioning trials, scan after and play tone again
Dexamethasone Suppression test
-uses synthetics cortisol - if there are high levels of cortisol, shuts off the HPA axis, except in MDD b/c feedback system doesn't work -sensory info about perceived threat -> amygdala -> hypothalamus: releases CRH -> anterior pituitary releases ACTM -> adrenal glands: release cortisol -> prepare body for fight or flight response -> hippocampus: has receptor sites for cortisol, acts to inhibit - feedback loop may not function in people with anxiety or mood disorders
lidocaine binding sites
-voltage-gated sodium channel have ______ _________ _____ -when lidocaine binds, it doesn't allow sodium to get through channels -no action potentials! thus, numbing effect
positive symptoms
-what's been added in schizophrenia -hallucinations -delusions (false beliefs, such as "I'm being pursued") -disorganized speech (e.g. world salad - nonsense thoughts, e.g. "the picture has a headache") -disorganized behavior
negative symptoms
-what's been taken away in schizophrenia -social and emotional withdrawal -absence of normal cognition or affect (e.g. flat affect - no emotional responses at all, poverty of speech)
neurocognitive disorders
-when a patient experiences a decline in functioning in one or more cognitive domains after a known challenge to the nervous system -attention, executive functioning (prefrontal), learning and memory, perception and movement, or social cognition - empathy, etc.
heart disease
-whether stress has a negative impact on health depends on a variety of factors, including social support, personality, and attitude -____________________ is correlated with high levels of hostility -attitudes about stress and a sense of control may influence health
Myelin
-white, fatty casing around axon -acts as an electical insulator -not present in all cells -increases the speed of action potentials -Nodes of Ranvier
purposes of emotion
1. arousal (what gets us out of bed in the morning) 2. approach or avoidance (approach - positive valence, avoidance - negative valence) 3. communication - body language, nonverbal communication
synaptic transmission
1. arrival of action potential at the terminal 2. voltage-gated Ca++ channels open and Ca++ enters cell 3. vesicles move to and dock on presynapic membrane 4. vesicles fuse with presynaptic membrane and release neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft (exocytosis) 5. neurotransmitter binds to receptors on postsynaptic membrane - bump into them by chance 6. neurotransmitter clears from the synaptic cleft
components of emotions
1. physical reaction (rapid heartbeat, hormones, etc.) 2. conscious experience or feeling - we're aware of this 3. valence - postive or negative, part of both conscious and physiological aspects of emotion
Fear conditioning in rats
1.'Rat is given mild electrical shock in combination with tone 2. If a light is presented alone later, rat will ignore it (uses assessment to determine it is not a threat) 3. Rat freezes in fear when tone is given alone 4. Conclusion: The rat has learned an association between the tone and the shock, which produces a fear response. Circuits that include the amygdala are involved in this learning process.
tri-synaptic pathway
3 synapses through hippocampus - LTP occurs, strength of synapses - combined information allows memory to be retrieved
Happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, surprise
6 basic/universal emotions according to categorical theories (Inside Out characters plus surprise)
pre-synaptic receptors
AKA autoreceptors - metabotropic receptors located on the presynaptic membrane. When stimulated by the neurotransmitter, *autoreceptors cause a decrease in the rate of synthesis or release of the neurotransmitter*. -Most investigators believe that autoreceptors are a part of a negative feedback regulatory system that controls the amount of neurotransmitter that is released. If too much is released, the autoreceptors that inhibit both the production and release of the neurotransmitter.
lateral fissure; medial temporal lobe
Anatomy of the Hippocampus -_______________ separates frontal lobe from temporal lobe -sensory info work their way down to the _______________
Delayed non-matching-to-sample task
Animal Model of Amnesia -monkeys with medial temporal lobe damage do poorly on DNMS task -Delayed non-matching-to-sample task a. sample: food found under an object, then variable delay (seconds to minutes) b. test: choose the object that is new (non-matching) c. food found under the non-matching object -take out hippocampus and other structures - monkeys don't remember what they saw -all perform the same at the beginning -working memory is intact in humans -increase delay - deficit gets bigger and bigger
cytoarchitectonic map
Brodmann map - found little differences in 52 different regions, some still used today
stressor, alarm, resistance, exhaustion
Hans Selye and the General Adaptation Syndrome ___________ -> ________________ - fight or flight response -> ___________ - continue coping -> _______________ reserves depleted
oculomotor, auditory, trigeminal
In eyeblink conditioning - nerves -we know the 1. ____________ nerve must be involved - must be some input from the 2. ____________ nerve - what else about the eye blink condition? -the air - must be sensory nerve -3. _____________ nerve (will possibly synapse directly to 1. - check book though)
NMDA glutamate receptor
LTP and the ____________________ 1. Activation of AMPA receptors causes depolarization of post-synaptic cell membrane 2. When depolarization reaches _____________________, Mg2+ is expelled from its channel, allowing Ca2+ to enter. Ca2+ activates protein kinases. 3. Protein kinases in turn may increase the sensitivity of and/or increase the number of AMPA receptors. They may also activate some type of retrograde messenger. 4. LTP occurs: both pre- and post-synaptic neurons are affected, and the synapse is strengthened. --> single pulse, more AMPA receptors, bigger response
brain damage, enlarged ventricles, hypofrontality
Negative symptoms - examples: mood disturbance, social withdrawal -possible causes: ____________ _____________, __________ _________, ____________ -responds to medications? better response to atypical than traditional neuroleptics
dopaminergic neurons
Parkinson's characterized by involuntary tremors, loss of strength, shuffling gait, and balance problems -caused by dopamine deficiency -loss of ___________________ in substantia nigra -treatment with L-dopa
hippocampal disarray, dopamine/glutamate disturbances
Positive symptoms - examples: hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech, disorganized behavior -possible causes: _________ _________, ________/_________ _____________ -responds to medications: yes
plateaus
Probable Alzheimer's disease is based on: -genetic testing or family history -clear evidence of learning and memory impairments -a steady, gradual loss of cognitive function without _____________
spatial summation
Simultaneous EPSPs and IPSPs add up and either cancel each other out or combine power for more effects! come from two different locations!
Morris water maze
Spatial memory testing - put rat into tub of water - they look for a way out - walls are so tall that they can't climb out - find hidden platform - they climb up and rest -experimenters remove them and start them again from a different location -over time they learn where the platform is -Probe trial - take platform away - they swim around that spot because they remember it's there - divide it into quadrants and calculate how much time did they spend in each quadrant -remove medial temporal lobe/hippocampus - they go back to first trial pattern
immune system
Stress, Immunity, and Health -brief stress increases activity in the ___________________, the cells and cell products that kill infected and malignant cells and protect the body against foreign substances, including bacteria and viruses -although brief stress enhances immune activity, prolonged stress compromises the _____________________
double dissociation
Structure A and B, Function Y and Z - A corresponds with Y, B corresponds with Z. Damage to A, lose function in Y but not Z. Damage to B, lose function in Z but not Y.
Cannon-Bard Theory
Theory of Emotion - autonomic arousal and identification occur simultaneously and independently -perceived stimulus leads to both: physical responses and subjective feelings
Schachter-Singer Theory
Theory of Emotion - physiological arousal contributes to emotion's intensity, while identity of emotion is based on cognitive appraisal -perceived stimulus -> general arousal -> assessment of surroundings -> subjective feeling
James-Lange Theory
Theory of Emotion - specific pattern of autonomic arousal leads to specific emotions -perceived stimulus -> specific physical response -> subjective feeling
classical conditioning
US - airpuff UR - eyeblink CS - tone CR - eyeblink US ---> UR CS --US--->UR CS ---> CR 1. headgear is arranged for eyeblink conditioning 2. puff of air to eye causes eye to blink 3. after pairing air puff with tone, tone alone comes to elicit a blink
I have no idea
What would happen if you limit the amount of K+ that could enter the ...? potassium would flow out - trying to balance out the charge as a result of the action potential -action potential would last longer, Ca++ channel would stay open longer, more calcium in terminal - more neurotransmitter release -PKA is what changes the flow of potassium (K+) - much more glutamate release
sodium lactate; locus coeruleus
______1________ can initiate an attack in a person with panic disorder, probably by stimulating the ______2_______ -antidepressants effective in panic disorder reduce activity in the _________2_________ -a failure of the prefrontal cortex to inhibit the amygdala and the fear system may mediate panic attacks
neuroleptics
____________ have greater effects on positive than negative symptoms; people with more negative symptoms are less responsive to these drugs -when you start taking these drugs chronically, you get motor side effects - tardive diskinesia - permanent ticks, biting and smacking of the lips - your basal ganglia is affected
delay cells
_____________ in delayed response tasks located in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex -monkey example - flash box in time 1, disappears in time 2, focal "x" point disappears at time three and monkey's eye flash to where the box was -monkey's _____________________ active during time 2 - keep firing until time 3- if this were to peter out, the monkey would forget where the box was
voltage-gated channels
_______________ Na+, K+, and Ca++ _________ are located along in the axonal membrane at the axon hillock, the axon, and in the axon terminals, and open in response to local voltage changes -"wings" open when inside of neuron has positive enough charge
transmitter-gated ion channels
_______________ are located in the post-synaptic membrane (dendrites, soma, axon hillock, and some on axon terminals)
environmental factors
_______________ that may lead to schizophrenia: -sress (such as living in a densely populated area - urban, lower income) -difficult labor and delivery, abnormal fetal development -maternal exposure to viruses during pregnancy -seasonality effect, geographical patterns -when people spend more time indoors, spreading their viruses, they increase the chance
Olds and Milner
________________ reported that rats would work for electrical self-stimulation of the brain (ESB)
epinephrine, norepinephrine
__________________ and _________________________ increase output from the heart and liberate glucose from the muscles for additional energy
surgical removal
__________________ of the abnormal tissue that is the focus of the seizures is sometimes performed in severe cases
abnormal dendritic spines
____________________ are associated with developmental disorders
tau protein
____________________ helps to keep mictotubules intact, when ___________s are gone, structure begins to collapse -> Alzheimer's
recovery from TBI
____________________ may continue to 2 to 3 years or longer - most recovery occurs in the first 6 to 9 months -recovery of memory functions appears to be slower than recovery of general intelligence -final level of memory performance is lower than for other cognitive functions
neuronal cell death
____________________________ occurs immediately after a stroke, but prompt medical attention can save the neurons and glia in the penumbra
potassium channel
a ___________ in a neuronal membrane opens briefly; K+ leaves the cell because of diffusion and electrostatic forces pushing it out (check???)
calcium channel
a ___________ in a neuronal membrane opens briefly; acts like sodium and rushes in because of diffusion and electrostatic forces would force them into cell (normally gets sucked out of intracellular fluid) (check????) i have no idea if this is right
chloride channel
a ___________ in a neuronal membrane opens briefly; chloride would go in more slowly than sodium; diffusion pushes chloride in, but against electrostatic pressure as Cl- is a negative ion and it would be entering an already negative place
sodium channel
a ____________ in a neuronal membrane opens briefly; diffusion and electrostatic force cause sodium ions to rush in; cell would pump them back out through sodium potassium pump, or they would scatter into the intracellular space
conditioned response (CR)
a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus
post-synaptic receptors
a receptor molecule in the post-synaptic membrane of a synapse that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter. When the neurotransmitter is bound to the receptor, it brings about an electrical or biochemical effect in the postsynaptic neuron.
release zone
a region of the interior of the presynaptic membrane of a synapse to which synaptic vesicles attach and release their neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft
learning
a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience
synaptic vesicle
a small, hollow, beadlike structure found in axon terminals; contains molecules of a neurotransmitter
gap junctions
a special junction between cells that permits direct communication by means of electrical coupling - these "electrical synapses" usually occur between dendrites -the membranes on both sides of a gap junction contain channels that permit ions to diffuse from one cell to another -thus, changes in the membrane potential of one neuron induce changes in the membrane of the other. They are bi-directional.
neuropsychology
a specialty field within clinical psychology that seeks to understand and treat patients with cognitive impairments, including aging, disease, and injury
gray matter
accelerated loss of ___________ - higher loss in adolescents with schizophrenia that with normal adolescents - brain withering away
Monoamines
acetylcholine, norepinephrine, serotonin
electroconvulsive shock therapy
amnesia in ___________________________________- both anterograde and retrograde for a period after and before therapy, respectively, then goes back to normal
synthesis of norepinephrine
an enzyme - DBH - converts dopamine to norepinephrine
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
an event that elicits a response without prior experience
conditioned stimulus (CS)
an initially neutral stimulus that acquires the ability to signal important biological events
stroke
an interruption of blood flow either from the blockage of a blood vessel (obstructive or ischemic) or from bleeding of a vessel (hemorrhagic) - mostly due to high blood pressure -blockage - hardening of arteries, makes them less pliable -or high cholesterol and buildup of plaque - no glucose or oxygen once it's blocked off -treatment for blockage - break the clot -asymmetry - sign of stroke - perhaps because glucose and oxygen can't get to certain motor parts of brain?
unconditioned response (UCR)
an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus
stress
an unpleasant and disruptive state resulting from the perception of danger or threat -uncomfortable on some level -is a condition in the environment that makes unusual demands on the organism, such as threat, failure, or bereavement -also an internal condition, your response to a stressful situation
acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
anti-Alzheimer's drugs make __________ less effective so that ACh stays around longer (the enzyme the breaks down ACh)
Interneurons
associate sensory and motor activity in the central nervous system
resting membrane potential
at rest, intracellular fluid is at -70 mV
schlerotic plaques
at scattered locations within the nervous system, a person's immune system attacks myelin sheaths, leaving behind hard patches of debris called ________________
presynaptic facilitation and inhibition
axoaxonic synapses do not contribute directly to neural integration. Instead, they alter the amount of NT released by the terminal buttons of the postsynaptic axon. Normally, a particular terminal releases a fixed amount of neurotransmitter each time an action potential arrives. However, the release of the neurotransmitter may be modulated by the activity of axoaxonic synapses. If the activity of the axoaxonic synapse decreases the release of the neurotransmitter, the effect is called presynaptic inhibition. If it increases the release, it is called presynaptic facilitation.
action potential - channels
axon hillock - rich in voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels - -60 mV threshold to initiate the ______________ 1. Sodium channels open, Na+ rushes in - big depolarization continues 2. Potassium channels open, K+ starts to leave cell - big depolarization continues 3. Sodium channels become inactive - polarization changes direction -repolarization due to K+ leaving inside of cell 4. Potassium channels close - Sodium channels gradually regain the ability to open again. Hyperpolarization - because too much K+ (?) leaves cell, it overshoots a little bit. -Na+ channels open and close quickly, K+ channels take their time
proposed causes of MS
bacterial or viral (Epstein-Barr) infection, pesticides
graded potentials
begin as inhibitory and excitatory post-synaptic potentials -vary in size, decrease over time
central sulcus
between frontal and parietal lobes
lateral fissure
between frontal and temporal lobes
longitudinal fissure
between right and left hemisphere
Urbek-Wyath disease
bilateral calcification of the amygdala - could identify all 6 emotions but fear and anger
central nervous system
brain and spinal cord make up the _______
blood flow
brain mapping (MDD) -increased _________ in the amygdala and right prefrontal cortex -decreased __________ in left prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex
sensory neurons
bring info to CNS
Christopher Reeves
broke his neck, became quadraplegic, illustrated importance of spinal cord for communicating with the rest of the body
nerve growth factor
can get released back to the axon terminal and say this connection is good! let's grow it!
motor, sensory, and association cortex
can organize the whole cortex into __________________
motor component
can vary from automatic movements such as hand-rubbing to chewing to convulsions
Soma
cell body of neuron - core region, contains the nucleus (round, centrally located structure, contains DNA) - integrates the information - provides metabolic and synthetic support - acts to "gate" information from dendrites to axon hillock
postsynaptic membrane
cell membrane opposite axon terminal in synapse - membrane of the cell that receives the message
disorganized cortical layers
cellular abnormalities - normally 6 layers of cortex, but people with schizophrenia have _____________ ______________ _______________ -neurons are facing different directions theory: failure during migration stage of development
electrostatic pressure
charged molecules are attracted to opposite charge and repelled to like charges
Neuromodulators
chemicals released by neurons that travel farther and are dispersed more widely than neurotransmitters - a naturally secreted substance that acts like a neurotransmitter except in that it is not restricted to the synaptic cleft but diffuses through the extracellular fluid -affect general behavioral states such as fearfulness, vigilance, and sensitivity to pain
genetics and MDD
concordance rate between identical twins in about 40%, 11% of fraternal twins -adoption studies support a role for genetics in depression -similar rates for twins reared apart -families with depressed members also have very high rates of anxiety disorders -genes include those for serotonin transporter and clock genes
basal ganglia
connects to motor system in cortex - motor memories, motor sequencing -caudate nucleus -putamen -globus pallidus Pathology: Parkinson's Disease, Tourette's Syndrome - uncontrolled vocal "stuff"
lateral interpositus nucleus
consistently activated after classical conditioning - in cerebellum
spontaneous neural control of facial expression
controlled out of basal ganglia -Parkinson's patient that has basal ganglia damage - do not show a lot of spontaneous expression, but when asked to smile they can
voluntary neural control of facial expression
controlled out of motor cortex - tumor damage to one side of motor cortex, ask him to smile, see lopsided smile. However, his spontaneous smile is normal.
hypomania
creative energy always there with no depression cycle
Phineas Gage
damage to ventromedial prefrontal cortex - lost ability to regulate emotions!
Post-synaptic density
dark spot on postsynaptic membrane - anchoring proteins
information flow in a neuron
dendrite - input zone cell body - integration zone axon - conducting zone terminal - output zone
excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP)
depolarization - membrane becomes less polarized!
Monoamine Theory
depression is associated with underactivity of monoaminergic systems -monoamines include: serotonin, norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine -antidepressant drugs all increase activity -increased levels of norepinephrine and serotonin receptors in depressed patients -upregulation -loss of serotonin may decrease neurogenesis
sodium ions
diffusion pushes _______ in; electrostatic pressure pushes ______ in
chloride ions
diffusion pushes ________ in; electrostatic pressure pushes ________ out
potassium ions
diffusion pushes ________ out; electrostatic pressure attracts _________ in
Salts
dissolve in h2o into ions - charged particles - potassium - K+; Chlorine = Cl-; sodium - Na+; Calcium - Ca++; Protein anions- A-
fate of the neurotransmitter
each type of neurotransmitter has its own particular fate - enzymatic deactivation - chew up the NT as it travels across the cleft; can also be taken up into glia (ex: glutamate); or can reuptake into presynaptic neuron via transporter
medial forebrain bundle; reward circuit
electrical self-stimulation of the brain (ESB) is very strong in the _____________________ -MFB makes connections between the *midbrain and the limbic system* -many neurons in this system use *dopamine* -this system may function as a ____________
sodium-potassium transporters
embedded in cell membrane -pumps three sodium (Na+) ions out for every 2 potassium (K+) ions it pumps in -outside has more of a positive charge, inside has more of a negative charge -energy-dependent - requires ATP
emotional contagion
emotions are contagious like yawns - see someone smiling, the muscles in your face start to contract
episodic vs. semantic memories
episodic - ex: that time I went to German Village with my mom semantic - ex: common knowledge - the capital of Canada, the color of a banana - we don't know where or when we learned it, we just know it
semantic
episodic memories may turn into ________________ memories over time -a model for how _____________ and episodic memories may be related: _____________ memories may be the cortical residue of many episodic memories -ex: My neighbor Joe likes BBQ, golf, and painting - one time, Joe is BBQing and he catches the grill on fire - another time, another neighbor talks about how much Joe BBQs - this becomes a part of Joe's personality to you - cortex starts to hang onto episodes -knowing ___________________ memories does not require active reconstruction of the original episode, it is assessed by a "feeling of knowledge"
remembering vs. knowing
episodic vs. semantic memory is like ____________ - remembering autobiographical episodes involves and active reconstruction of the original (conscious) episode
central pattern generators
even if you don't have communication with the brain, natural alternations of muscle contractions occur because spinal cord has the proper circuitry ex: chicken running around with its head cut off
cerebral cortex
evolutionarily new (neocortex) -highly convoluted, with sulci and gyri -folded in on itself - neurons on thin sheet on surface of cortex - most volume made up of axons - folding allows for big surface area -organized into layers and columns -organized into functional specializations -topographically organized -contralateral connections -asymmetry of higher functions -80% of brain in humans -most stuff happens in prefrontal cortex
retrieval of explicit memories
ex: memory of visiting German Villagewith my mom -mom's voice comes in through the auditory cortex -visual: German Village -taste: chocolate -all 3 come together in hippocampus - initial coding of memory -retrieval cue - see a picture of German Village - picture activates the bundle - reactivates -just seeing the picture makes me think of my mom and the taste of the chocolate - just from that cue! this is called pattern completion -during sleep - reactivation of those sequences -cortex connections start to strengthen! -eventually, they can exist without the hippocampus -can reactivate each other on their own
declarative long-term memory
explicit - are consciously aware of and can verbalize this type of long-term memory - includes semantic and episodic memory, which can both be autobiographical memories
pathways to lateral nucleus
four different ways to get to lateral nucleus of the amygdala (main input of fear conditioning) 1. sensory thalamus - immediate, without any details, as if you see a shadowy figure being thrown at you 2. if you can determine features from the environment, you can decide whether or not it's safe - unimodal association - objects 3. concepts - polymodal association 4. contexts - subiculum (and hippocampus and entorhinal cortex) (sense, objects, concepts, contexts)
Neuron
functional unit of the nervous system -specialized for the reception, conduction, and transmission of electrochemical signals
Dendrites
gather information from other neurons - receives input from other neurons - input zone - inputs may number in the thousands -mature neurons can grow new dendrites and spines
right prefrontal cortex
generally associated with negative emotions
left prefrontal cortex
generally associated with positive emotions
amino acid neurotransmitters
glutamate, GABA - single amino acid
stress management
good _____________________________ involves: -maintaining good health habits, including sleep, diet, and aerobic excercise -social networking -cognitive restructuring - reevaluating -pet therapy
Water
h2o - polar - has hydrogen bonds
Na+ equilibrium potential
happens when polarization of action potential changes direction - around +30 mV -K+ equilibrium potential is smaller - -80 mV or so
Brainstem
hindbrain and midbrain
Hypothalamus
homeostasis -body temp, motivates us to eat, drink, have sex, etc. -controls pituitary gland - which controls endocrine system -fight or flight response
cortisol
hormone that releases energy in the body -increases energy levels by converting proteins to glucose, increasing fat availability, and increasing metabolism -provides a more sustained release of energy than the sympathetic nervous system does, for coping with prolonged stress
inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP)
hyperpolarization - membrane becomes more polarized!
temporal summation
if EPSP and IPSP inputs occur one after the other, they're create a bigger effect - come from the same location
no hippocampus
if we had ____________________, we would not be able to learn anything new! no retrieval cue - no pictures of German village and remembering the time I went there with my mother, unless the memory was established well enough and it was established in the cortex!
nondeclarative long-term memory
implicit - long-term memories we are not consciously aware of - procedural memories, priming, and classical conditioning (we can ride a bike but we really can't explain how we do it)
contemporary theories of emotion
in ________________, all three - physical responses, assessment of surroundings, and subjective feelings - interact
bipolar disorder
in ________________, the individual alternates between periods of depression and mania -affects both men and women at about 2.6%, has an early onset, and complex heritability -concordance rates between identical twins may be as high as 70% -Omega-3 fatty acids may be protective - lots of fish-eating countries have lower rates
ventromedial prefrontal cortex
in decision-making - people with damage to their ___________________ can't really sort out what's valuable and what's not
Brainbow
individual cells can be visualized offering a way to describe where each neuron sends its processes and how it interconnects with other neurons -fluorescent (?) lights -clarity - using a light microscope, can label individual molecules - use a hydrogel mesh to hold cells in place, gets rid of fats, goes transparent!
Yerkes-Dodson Law
interaction between how well we perform a task and our level of arousal - interacts with the difficulty of arousal -low difficulty task - probably pretty stable performance at all levels of arousal -moderate difficulty task - optimum performance at moderate levels of arousal - too low and you won't do well, too high and you'll be too stressed/anxious to do well
panic attacks
involve intense fear and sympathetic arousal
metabotropic receptor
involves a G-protein - part of a receptor activates - biochemical response - G protein may activate an ion channel or do something else, such as gene transcription, cellular changes, or other cascades - those three are called 2nd messenger - can have amplified response - bigger effect for a single input
mania
involves excess energy and confidence that often leads to grandiose schemes. Mild mania can be goal-directed and creative -decreased need to sleep, increased sexual desire, and abuse of drugs are common
generalized seizures
involves most of the brain -tonic-clonic - grand mal -absence - petit mal
retrograde amnesia
is a loss of memory-access to events that occurred, or information that was learned, before an injury or the onset of a disease.
ischemia
lack of blood to the brain as a result of a stroke -sets off a cascade of cellular events that cause real damage to the initial site and surrounding areas
pyramidal cells
large cells in layer 3 and 5 of cortex (cortex in horizontal layers and vertical columns)- wide base, narrow point, very large function - output -edges/lines of line - each column of cells reacts to slightly different things
dopamine receptors
large diversity of metabotropic dopamine receptors (at least 6) -anti-psychotic drugs bind to the D2 receptor
cell layers in cortex
layers 1-3 - integrative functions 4 - input of sensory information 5-6 - output to other parts of brain
frontal lobe
lobe where the primary motor cortex is located (precentral gyrus)
anterograde amnesia
loss of the ability to create new memories after the event that caused the amnesia, leading to a partial or complete inability to recall the recent past, while long-term memories from before the event remain intact.
lateral nucleus of amygdala
main input nucleus of fear conditioning
central nucleus of amygdala
main output nucleus of fear conditioning - behavioral, autonomic, endocrine
S. Ramon y Cajal
major proponent of the Neuron Doctrine
Camillo Golgi
major proponent of the reticularist doctrine - thought neurons were one big web, while Cajal though they were individual cells
Golgi apparatus
makes mini-membranes for protein exports
multipolar neuron
many extensions - branches of dendrites and axon
sensory and motor homunculi
map of the body's representation in the cortex
axoplasmic transport
materials carried down axon from cell body to terminals - anterograde retrograde -would occur if the cell needed to know that there's a problem at the end of the terminal
Ipsilateral
means it stays on the same side of the brain - most connections in cortex are this
ventral tegmentum
medial forebrain bundle contains a primary set of axons that connects ___________________ to nucleus accumbus --> dopamine --> critically important for reward -ESB in the ________________ is associated with increased released of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens -these circuits may underlie natural reward and addictive behaviors -drugs, gambling, etc.
presynaptic membrane
membrane of axon terminal that lies adjacent to postsynaptic membrane and through which neurotransmitter is released
Diffusion
molecules will move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
motor cortex
more neurons than sensory cortex; different directions of messages being fired -layer 4 is smaller (more important for sensory cortex because that's where sensory information arrives), layer 5 is bigger and has more pyramidal cells
asymmetry of function
most asymmetric regions of the cerebral cortex are in association cortex where the higher cognitive functions are located
neurons and information processing
most behaviors are produced by groups of hundreds or thousands of neurons -neurons continuously change their shape -grow and shrink - neuroplasticity
anxiety
most common mental illness -affects 40 million adult Americans (18%) each year, up to 30% during their lifetimes -highly treatable -family and twin studies indicate that the _________ disorders are genetically influenced, which heritabilities ranging between .20 and .43, depending on the disorder -over 90% of people with ____________ disorders have a history of other psychiatric problems -overlap with depressive disorders is particularly strong -50-60% of patients with major depression also have a history of one or more anxiety disorders and panic disorder is found in 16% of bipolar patients
protein molecule
negatively charged _______________ in intracellular fluid is too large to pass through ion channel
diffusion of neuromodulators
neuromodulators bind with other cells' dendrites and do this so one neuron affects a whole group of neurons
axon terminal
neuron's output zone -some contain mitochondria
activation of receptor sites
neurotransmitter molecules diffuse into and throughout the synaptic cleft - bind to specific receptors in a lock and key fashion - causes this
inferior temporal gyrus
object recognition - neurons just for specific objects - in temporal lobe
obsessive-compulsive disorder
obsession - recurrent, unwished for, persistent thought or image compulsion - repetitive, ritualized stereotyped behavior that must be done to avoid disaster -repetitive, intrusive thoughts accompanied by ritualistic, repetitive behaviors -concordance rate of 68% -birth trauma, infection, and injury may also cause OCD -abnormal activity in the basal ganglia and orbitofrontal cortex -white matter abnormalities suggest a defect in connections of the cingulate gyrus with a circuit involving the basal ganglia, which apparently results in a loss of impulse control
contralateral connections
occur through corpus callosum, connecting the two hemispheres -in temporal lobe - axons go through anterior commissure
loss of consciousness
often followed by a period of amnesia that can include the seizure itself
Forebrain
on top of brainstem - contains diencephalon, basal ganglia, limbic system, cerebral cortex
GABA A receptors
one binding site on _______________ is for benzodiazepines -enhances function of ______ - makes it more inhibitory - calms everything down - anti-anxiety meds
monopolar neuron
one extension -
major depressive disorder
one of the most common mental disorders -as many as 12% of men and 21% of women may experience major depressive disorder during their lifetimes -7% at any given time -most patients with MDD are women -prior to adolescence, boys and girls are equally likely to experience depression (then things change because hormones) -in adults, about 2/3 of patients with depression are female -most patients experience 5-6 episodes during their lifetime
limbic lobe
one of two hidden lobes, contains cingulate cortex
insula (or insular cortex)
one of two hidden lobes, involved in gut feelings - open lateral fissure, it's hidden underneath
ligand-gated channels
open when they come into contact with specific chemicals
cingulate cortex
pain perception, both physical and social - orbitofrontal cortex (check book)
relays and modulation
pain suppression can occur because of these spinal cord functions -modulation - the exertion of a modifying or controlling influence on something
cerebellum and classical conditioning
parallel fibers activate the purkinje cells - check book for more detail
parahippoccampal cortex
places, location, context, environment
Synapse
point of contact between two neurons - axon-terminal meets post-synaptic membrane
saccades
possible genetic marker - a majority of patients and 45% of their relatives show abnormal intrusions of ____________ in smooth pursuit tasks -saccadic eye movements - we tend to move our eyes in segments rather than smoothly, but we can successfully move them smoothly if we have to
superior temporal gyrus
primary auditory cortex is on the ________
postcentral gyrus
primary somatosentory cortex - sense of touch (in frontal lobe?)
occipital lobe
primary visual cortex is in the back of the ______
Glutamate
principle excitatory transmitter in the CNS -taken up into glia -every neuron has some ___________ input
GABA
principle inhibitory transmitter in the CNS -works with glutamate -either focuses the information by narrowing down what neurons pass on information, or comes back, activates GABA neuron, inhibits its neighbor stimulate GABA -anti-seizure drugs
Mitochondria
produce ATP - energy used by the cell
action potential
properties: -initiated at axon hillock -threshold of excitation -all or none law- either it happens or it doesn't -refractory periods - can't fire again yet - absolute and relative -non-decremental - don't decrease like graded potentials -rate law - (frequency code) - rate carries some qualitative information!
rough endoplasmic reticulum
protein synthesis happens on ribosomes in the _____________; sometimes these proteins stay in the cell, sometimes are exported
dendritic spines
protrusion from a dendrite that greatly increases its surface area and is the usual point of contact with axons of other cells
Schizophrenia
puzzling, devastating condition with positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms -1% of the general population, 3 million Americans per year -equal split between genders, males have earlier onset -18-25 for most
serotoniergic system
raphe nuclei -sleep/wake cycles, depression and anxiety -modulatory/sets the mood = shifts how we interpret information
Kluver-Bucy syndrome
reduces fear - amygdala
categories of behaviors
reflexes, fixed action patterns (triggered by stimuli - instincts - ex: imprinting), learning
partial seizures
restricted to small part of brain -simple - remain conscious -complex - lose consciousness
perforated synapse
right before synaptogenesis - synapse divides in two. Happens with learning - making new connections!
anatomy of classical conditioning
see chart - conditioning occurs in the cerebellum because that's where the pathways meet - check book
Modal Model of Memories
see figure - Sensory Memory-->attention --> Short-Term Memory <-- retrieval - encoding and storage--> Long Term Memory - Consolidation
motor neurons
send signals from the brain and spinal cord to muscles
dorsal side
sensory information goes into the backside, or ______ _____, of spinal cord
SAM and HPA
sensory information reaches the amygdala -the amygdala sends information to the hypothalamus via the stria terminalis -the paraventricular hypothalamus releases CRH, which affects the anterior pituitary -HPA - slower -SAM faster (sympathetic adrenal-medullary system)
Thalamus
sensory relay - senses go through _________ on their way to the cortex (except olfaction) -cortical arousal
synthesis of serotonin
serotonin comes from tryptophan, an amino acid
purkinje cells
single plane, stackable cells, fans that integrate all the motor signals, makes motor stuff happen, use GABA as transmitter (alcohol - GABA agonist - affects ___________ _________, makes you wobbly)
cell body
soma -protein synthesis -transcription - synthesis of RNA from DNA (in neurons) -translation - synthesis of protein from RNA (occurs on ribosomes) -direct relationship between DNA sequence and amino acid sequence in proteins -mRNA - messenger RNA - leaves nucleus to ribosome
embolism
some kind of blockage in a stroke
neurotransmitter release
some of the calcium ions that enter the terminal bind with the clusters of protein molecules that joins the membrane of the synaptic vesicles with the presynaptic membrane -this event makes the segments of the clusters of protein molecules more apart, producing a fusion pore - a hole through both membranes that allows them to fuse together -process of fusion takes approx. 0.1 ms
stressors
sources of stress
synaptic cleft
space between presynaptic membrane and postsynaptic membrane -contains extracellular fluid, through which neurotransmitter diffuses -a meshwork of filaments crosses the synaptic cleft and keeps the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes in alignment
coup; countercoup
specific impairments may be the result of ____________ (site of impact) and __________ (opposite side) lesion -more generalized impairments may be due to widespread damage throughout the brain
perihinal cortex
specific information rather than context and environment
spinal cord functions
spinal reflex, central pattern generators, relays and modulation
Axon
starts at the ____ hillock, carries information to be passed on to other cells, end at the ____ terminal -only one leaves cell body, but it can branch to form _____ collaterals -conducts action potentials -________al transport - anterograde and retrograde (microtubules!)
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis)
stress also activates the _________________, a group of structures which help the body cope with stress
anion selective channel
strives for equilibrium between diffusional and electrical forces
emotions
subjective experiences that arise spontaneously and unconsciously in response to internal and external events - happens faster than we think (internal events = thoughts or memories)
Organelles
substructures that help cell survive
major depressive disorder symptoms
symptoms: -depressed mood most of the time -loss of pleasure in normally fun activities -sleep disturbances -eating disturbances -lack of energy or restlessness -difficulty concentrating -feelings of hopelessness, worthlessness -suicidal thoughts -one of the first two symptoms and 4 more symptoms for at least two weeks
Axosomatic
synapse is axon directly onto soma - faster - bigger effect b/c less space to lose the potential
Axoaxonic
synapse is axon to axon - right on axon hillock - inhibitory - "veto power" - adds a gap in communication
Axodendritic
synapse is axon to dendrite
topographic organization
systematic organization of motor hormunculus - adjacent muscle groups - correspond with adjacent neurons - in sensory and motor cortex
facial nerve
the _______________ controls the muscles involved with facial expression
Receptors
the effect of a neurotransmitter depends on the _______ that are present on the postsynaptic membrane
ion activity - neurons
the fluid within cells (intracellular fluid) and the fluid surrounding cells (extracellular fluid) contain different ions -the forces of diffusion and electrostatic pressure contributed by these ions gives rise to the membrane potential
binding sites
the location on a receptor protein to which a ligand binds -a molecule of the chemical fits into the binding site the way a key fits into a lock - the shape of the binding site and the shape of the molecule of the NT are complementary
contralateral
the lower face receives only ______________ input - easier to control lower face independently, easier to deceive using the lower half than the upper half of the face
reward
the positive effect of an object or condition --such as a drug, food, sexual contact, and warmth-- has on the user
Neurogenesis
the production of new neurons - takes place throughout the life and some behaviors depend on new neurons -most CNS neurons are with you for life and are never replaced
sympathetic, hypothalamus
the stress response includes activation of the _____________ branch of the autonomic nervous system, which is largely under control of the _________________ -the resulting increases in heart rate, blood flow, and respiration rate help the person deal with the stressful situation
bilateral
the upper face receives both ____________ input
anticonvulsant medications
these drugs inhibit the discharge of abnormal neurons by stabilizing the neuronal membrane, especially inhibitory neurons
recycling of vesicles
this occurs so membrane doesn't become gigantic - "kiss and run" process
hippocampal neurons
trauma - PTSD is set up, can modify the killing of the __________________, which can lead to flashbacks
serotonin reuptake inhibitor, behavioral treatment
treat OCD with a ___________ __________ _____________ or _____________ _______________ - both are effective
bipolar neuron
two extensions from cell body -
synthesis of dopamine
tyrosine is converted to l-dopa, which is converted to dopamine treatment for Parkinson's? add more l-dopa? but has long term side effects :(
phobias
unrealistic fears of specific situation, activity, or object
lithium
used to treat bipolar disorder - metal administered in the form of ________ carbonate - cheap, companies uninterested in coming up with other ways to treat bipolar disorder -it is most effective during the manic phases, but it also prevents further depressive episodes - compliance with taking these meds not very good, people avoid it -produces an antioxidant effect which reduces the oxidative stress and damage from free radicals, including damage to DNA leading to apoptosis
spinal reflex
ventral horn cells - an internal communication - ex: touch something painful, info travels down nerve, withdrawal occurs before brain even says ouch because of spinal cord
Retinopy
vision - adjacent part of retina/visual field correspond w/ adjacent parts of cortex (tonotopy - same things with tones)
aura
warning of impending seizure - a sensation (odor or noise) or a "feeling"
somatic marker hypothesis
we all start to generate physiological reactions in response to good/bad stimuli - make unconscious decisions b/c of physiological reactions -ex: turning left instead of right, b/c once going right ended badly for you
interoception
we feel internally an emotional reaction (insula) -particular activations lead to particular emotions, especially in the insula and amygdala -many other emotions aren't linked to a specific area -some of the same areas tend to get activated under various kinds of emotions
acetylcholine; brainstem
what would we try to trace in the brain if we were trying to track what is causing the eyeblink behavior? - ___________________-released from a terminal - motor neuron -where is the cell body? - ______________
Social Anxiety Disorder
when you show emotional faces, people with ____________ show a response even to neutral faces! -more bloodflow to amygdala (?) to a fearful face than a happy face
extinction
when you stop pairing the CS and US, you start to show less of a response -Pavlov described how conditioned responding would gradually decrease, or undergo ___________, when the conditioned stimulus was presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus
LT (what?) - Cerebellar Cortex (Purkinje cells) -> (inhibitory synapse) Lateral Interpositus nucleus
where does conditioning occur?
tone CS -> cochlear nucleus -> pontine nuclei -> Lateral Interpositus Nucleus -> Red nucleus -> oculomotor nucleus -> eyeblink UR & CR
where is the conditioned response pathway?
airpuff US -> trigeminal nucleus -> oculomotor nucleus -> eyeblink UR & CR
where is the unconditioned response pathway? airpuff/eyeblink example
Midbrain
where it gets narrow after the pons -has 4 bumps called colliculi (Latin or something for hills); periaqueductal gray, substantia nigra
