BIO REVIEW
Goitre
A goitre is a swelling of the neck or larynx resulting from enlargement of the thyroid gland (thyromegaly), associated with a thyroid gland that is not functioning properly. Worldwide, over 90.54% cases of goitre are caused by iodine deficiency.
Peaks
All carbonyl compounds absorb strongly around 1700-1750 cm^{-1} due to the stretching vibration of the C=O bond. Most carbonyl compounds (saturated esters, aldehydes, and ketones and unsaturated esters) absorb above 1700 cm^{-1} −1 , so diethylamine would not have a sharp peak at 1731 cm^{-1} −1 A very broad stretch ranging from 3500-2500 cm^{-1} −1 is usually indicative of a carboxylic acid group. The hydrogen bonding of the hydroxyl groups to each other lowers and broadens the stretching frequencies of the participating O-H bonds, and for carboxylic acids, there is dimerization. Each molecule may be H-bonded to a varying extent, and each will absorb at a slightly different frequency, which is what makes the peak broad. The N-H stretches of amines are above 3000 cm^{-1} −1 , and the peaks are weaker and sharper than that of the O-H stretches. Two medium peaks would be indicative of a primary amine. Secondary amines would only have one medium stretch from 3500 to 3300 cm^{-1} −1 , so that stretch would identify the sample as diethylamine.
Where is HCG produced?
By the trophoblast (placenta) beginning about 8 days after fertilization. HCG rescues the Corpus Luteum from regression, and with LH-like action, stimulates corpus luteal production of progesterone and estrogen.
Virus
Hackers of microbio -Very small -Virus is about 100x larger than a bacterium, and a euk cell is about 1000x larger than a bacteria -You can differentiate viruses because they come in different sizes and shapes -All viruses have a CAPSID, which is a unique protein coat -The capsid forms a icosehedral shame (3D hexagon structure) -Envelope (Sometimes) covers the capsid -NOT all viruses have an envelope -The envelope gives the virus an advantage -The genetic information, nucleic acids, vary btw viruses. This can help you distinguish them. -Viruses can be SS DNA or SS RNA viruses, but CANNOT be both. -The genetic information is stored inside the protein coat, capsid. -Viruses are ROBOT HACKERS = Obligate intracellular parasate -Viruses do not have organelles, therefore they cannot make ATP or Energy for themselves, and cannot replicate because they do not have organelles. This is a problem. They therefore sneak into larger cells that do have organelles. -Another type of way to recognize the cell is to see what type of host -Bacteriophage: Viruses that infect bacteria -Viruses enter the cell via tricking the cell receptors and contributing in endocytosis. This is called Receptor Mediated Endocytosis -The cells that have the envelope directly fuse with the membrane, called: Direct Fusion
LIGHT AND RADIATION
LIGHT AND RADIATION
LH
Ovulation is initiated by LH Just prior to ovulation, the concentration of LH in blood rises sharply and induces rupture of the dominant follicle, releasing the oocyte. LH also stimulates formation of the Corpus Luteum, a process called luteinization, and maintains steroid hormone production by the Corpus Luteum during the Luteal phase of the menstrual cycle.
Pregnancy Test
Production of HCG increases dramatically during the first weeks of pregnancy. The pregnancy test is based on the excretion of large amounts of HCG in urine, which are measurable. HCG is detectable in maternal urine 9 days after ovulation, even before the next expected menses.
If temperature rose during a rxn, is delta H positive or negative
Release of temperature means the rxn is exothermic, meaning delta H is less than O
HCG
Secretion of HCG and the "rescue" of the Corpus Luteum. The trophoblast, which will become the placenta begins secreting HCG approximately 8 days after ovulation. HCG, which has biologic activity similar to LH, is critical because it "informs" the corpus luteum that fertilization has occurred. The Corupus Luteum, now under the direction of HCG, continues to synthesize progesterone and estrogen, which maintain the endometrium for implantation. In other words, HCG from the trophoblast (placenta) "rescues" the corpus luteum from regression. Without fertilization and the stimulation by HCG, the corpus luteum regresses 12 days after ovulation, at which point it stops producing steroid hormones, and menses occurs. The high levels of estrogen and progesterone also suppress the development of the next cohort of ovarian follicles
Stretching Vibrations Bending Vibrations
Stretching vibrations occur at higher frequencies than bending vibrations. Generally, bonds more easily bend than stretch or compress. Bond order and the types of atoms joined by the bond are the two most important factors in determining where a chemical bond will absorb. The higher the bond order, the higher the frequency needed to stretch. Triple bonds have higher stretching frequencies than corresponding double bonds, especially bonds to hydrogen have higher stretching frequencies than those to heavier atoms. Therefore, the correct answer is that bonds to hydrogen have higher stretching frequencies than those to heavier atoms.
Corpus Luteum
The corpus Luteum is composed primarily of Granulosa cells but also theca cells, capillaries, and fibroblasts. The Corpus Luteum synthesizes and secretes steroid hormones, which are necessary for implantation and maintenance of the zygote should fertilization occur. If Fertilization DOES occur, the Corpus Luteum will secrete steroid hormones until the placenta assumes this role, later in pregnancy. If Fertilization DOES NOT occur, the Corpus Luteum regresses during the next 14 days (the second half of the menstrual cycle) and is replaced by a scar called the corpus albicans.
First 14 Days
The first 14 days of the menstrual cycle involve follicular development called: Follicular Phase
Microfilaments
They are composed of a protein called Actin. The actin polymers will twist around each other to form an actin filament. Microfilaments are mainly involved in the gross movement of the cell and are DYNAMIC. Therefore, they can lengthen and shorten very frequently. They become longer in a process called actin polymerization, and they will become shorter in a process called actin depolirization. It is the depolirization and polymerization that helps movement the cell During cell division, the microfilaments will help in cell division (the microfilaments help to make the pinched shape and move on to make two cells)
Phase Diagram
Where are the solid, liquid, gas. When you forget, think about the pressure and temperature and where each will fall accordingly.
UREASE
ASE means that the enzyme degrades the root word, in this case, Urea.
ANP
Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), is a powerful vasodilator, and a protein (polypeptide) hormone secreted by heart muscle cells. It is involved in the homeostatic control of body water, sodium, potassium and fat (adipose tissue). It is released by muscle cells in the upper chambers (atria) of the heart (atrial myocytes) in response to high blood volume. ANP has opposite effects of Aldosterone.
What is the formula for CO?
CO = HR x SV
CYTOSKELETON
CYTOSKELETON
Grave's Disease
An example of Hyperthyroidism. TSH levels decrease
Aerophylic
Depending on free oxygen or air. For example, Helicobacter pylori is a Gram negative, "microaerophilic" bacterium characterized by its ability to survive in highly acidic conditions.
Second and Third Trimester
During the second and third trimesters, progesterone is produced by the placenta as follows: Cholesterol enters the placenta from the maternal circulation. In the placenta, cholesterol is converted to pregnenolone, which is converted to Progesterone. Estriol, the major form of estrogen during pregnancy is produced through a coordinated interplay of the mother and the placenta, and, importantly, requres the fetus .
Menstrual Cycle
Every 28 days a sequence of follicular development, ovulation, and formation of degeneration of corpus luteum is repeated.
Ksp
Find the KSP for M(OH)2 when it has a molar solubility of S mol/L
PLEASE SIMPLIFY FRACTIONS BEFORE YOU TRY TO DIVIDE
PLEASE SIMPLIFY FRACTIONS BEFORE YOU TRY TO DIVIDE
PREGNANCY
PREGNANCY
VIRUSES
VIRUSES
PH vs. PoH
When finding PH and PoH, be careful For instance, the PH of 0.001M of NaOH is 3. BUT, the PoH, is 11, because it is a base.
Partial Pressure
With Partial Pressure, you are looking at the number of MOLES in the products, NOT molecular weight.
Last 14 Days
The last 14 days of the menstrual cycle are dominated by the corpus luteum and are called the Luteal Phase
Oocytes
The oocytes remain in a state of suspended prophase. The first meiotic division will not be completed until ovulation occurs many years later. The number of Oocytes keeps decreasing after birth. On the contrary, males continuously produce spermatogonia and spermatocytes. Females do not produce new oogonia and function from a declining pool of oocytes.
Ovarian Steroid Hormones
The ovarian steroid hormones, progesterone and 17B-estradiol are synthesized by the ovarian follicles through the combined functions of granulosa cells and theca cells. Note: Theca cells secrete progesterone, and in combination withe the granulosa cells, will make Estradiol.
Prions
Have no genetic material, no RNA or DNA. They are ONLY MADE OF PROTEINS. They are different from viruses because they have no genetic information.
Granulosa Cells
These cells are one of the three cells located in the ovaries. In combination with the progesterone secreted from the theca cells, they produce estradiol
In the rxn, if you go from a S --> ag, is S greater or less than O
Increase in Entropy means that S is greater than O
Retroviruses
-A special case that does not fit neatly into the lytic or lysogenic case. This special case is a retrovirus -Retrovirus is an enveloped single stranded RNA virus (SS RNA) -Inside of the envelop, it carries 3 special proteins. -Enveloped viruses can enter one of two ways: Receptor mediated endocytosis or through Fusion -As soon as the retrovirus goes inside of the host cell, it goes through uncoding, which is basically the purple capsid of the virus dissolves and all of the things inside of the coat is released. Part of the things that were once inside of the envelope is Reverse Transcriptase. -Reverse Transcriptase will hop on onto the RNA and reverse transcribes the RNA. It will read from the 5'-->3' end and will form complimentary DNA => You are going from RNA to DNA. This is called a complementary DNA strand (cDNA) -The Reverse transcriptase makes another cDNA. The two cDNA come together to make a DS DNA -Integrase, another component of the Retrovirse, will incorporate the HIV DNA into the Host DNA. Integrase helps the viral DNA integrate with the host, like its name (kind of like the Lysogenic Cycle). -Unlike the Lysogenic Cycle tho, it is not dormant or latent. Therefore, it is actively transcribed whenever the host DNA is transcribed. The cell cannot this RNA should not of happened. -Now these viral RNAs are present in the cytosol, it is just like any other RNA, and some of these will be translated into proteins. These viruses will bud off the cell, and they will form new envelop from the cell membrane. -Retroviruses are not just lysogenic or lytic, it actually has elements of both.
Intermediate Filaments
-Different form microtubles and microfilaments in that they are pretty much permanent. -Microtubules and Mirofilaments are DYNAMIC, meaning they constantly change depending on the needs of the cell. -Once they are made by the cell they stay put. -They provide structural support for the cell, or they resist mechanical stress. -Can be compared to the springs inside of a mattress.
Microtubules
-Microtubules are dynamic, and and can thus change very quickly. It is important for the microtubule to become longer and/or shorter in order to follow through with its functions There are different types of Microtuble organizing centers 1)Centrosome 2)Basal Body Centrosome: -Composed of rod like structures called centrioles. -The purpose of the centrioles is that they end up on either side of the cell, and specifically in metaphase, the mitotic spindle holds on the chromosomes. The centrome is in the center of the chromosome. During Anaphase, the microtubles become shorter and pull the chromosomes apart. Basal Bodies are the microtuble organizing centers in either Celia or Flagella. The only human cell that has a flagella is the sperm cell. Sperm cells move with the help of their flagella. (Note: the Flagella found in PROK cells have a different structure than the Flagella found in EUK cells). Nuerons: Microtubles also play an important roles the internal transport in nuerons. The microtubles help info get from Soma of the nueron to the synaptic terminal. The microtuble acts like a railrode track and different substances are moved along. They do this with the help of two proteins: Kinesin and Dynein. They help shuttle things from the soma to the axon and down to the synaptic terminal. Some substances that can be transported down the axon are: synaptic vesicles (contain NT), different proteins that the cell needs, different lipids that might be necessary, or even organelles such as mitochondira. Kinesin and Dynein are able to transport these materials in both directions, from the soma to the synaptic terminal and from the synaptic terminal to the soma. This process is called Axinal Transport. Therefore, Microtubules help transport nerve signals all the way to the synaptic terminal where the NT they contain are released into the synapse.
Cytoskeleton
-Skeleton of the cell FUNCTIONS: 1)Provides Structural support 2)Helps with movement 3)Helps with transport of substances within the cell STRUCTURE: 1)Microtubules: a)They are involved in the mitotic spindle b)make up cilia (hair like projections outside of the cell) c)Flagella (tail like structure of the cell that help move it) d)transport of substances within the cell. 2)Intermediate Filaments: a)The purpose of the intermediate filaments is to provide structural support to the cell. We can say that the intermediate filaments replicate Springs in a bed mattress. Therefore, they help resist mechanical stress. 3)Microfilaments: a)Movement of the cell b)Help movement of the entire of the cell, within (i.e. during cell division) c)They are composed of a protein called Actin. Note: All 3 of these structures are made out of PROTEINS.
Virus Replication: Lytic vs. Lysogenic Lytic: Attacks the host cell and lyses it Lysogenetic: Patient and incorperates viral genome
-Viruses are made of proteins and only one type of nucleic acid so they therefore have no organelles to make copy of themselves with. -They therefore have to get inside the cell -Bacteriophages literally inject their genetic material inside of the cell -If the viruses are non-enveloped, they trick the cell receptors into letting them in. -If the viruses are enveloped, they can use the receptor trick of directly fuse with the membrane. -Once the genetic material is inside the cell its hacked in. The distinction between lysogenic and lytic cycles is that the spread of the viral DNA occurs through the usual prokaryotic reproduction, while the lytic phage is spread through the production of thousands of individual phages capable of surviving and infecting other cells. The key difference between the lytic cycle and the lysogenic cycle is that the lysogenic cycle does not lyse the host cell. Phages that replicate only via the lytic cycle are known as virulent phages while phages that replicate using both lytic and lysogenic cycles are known as temperate phages. In the lysogenic cycle, the phage DNA first integrates into the bacterial chromosome to produce the prophage. When the bacterium reproduces, the prophage is also copied and is present in each of the daughter cells. The daughter cells can continue to replicate with the prophage present or the prophage can exit the bacterial chromosome to initiate the lytic cycle. Lytic: Attacks the host cell and lyses it Lysogenetic: Patient and incorperates viral genome