Ch 11

Pluralism

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Printing Press

Enabled information to be spread to the public via pamphlets and bible.

Sacramentarian Controversy

The Sacramentarian Controversy was the first doctrinal dispute between Protestants, dividing the Zwinglians from the Lutherans.

Nepotism

favoritism shown to relatives: favoritism shown by somebody in power to relatives and friends, especially in appointing them to good positions. The appointment of relatives of high-ranking clergymen to positions in the Church.

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http://video.midwayisd.org/videos/The%20Protestant%20Reformation%201517-1565/901_TG.pdf the protestant reformation

Sir Thomas More

known to Roman Catholics as Saint Thomas More since 1935,[1][2] was an English lawyer, social philosopher, author, statesman, and noted Renaissance humanist. He was an important councillor to Henry VIII of England and Lord Chancellor from October 1529 to 16 May 1532.[3] More opposed the Protestant Reformation, in particular the theology of Martin Luther and William Tyndale, whose books he burned and followers he persecuted. More also wrote Utopia, published in 1516, about the political system of an ideal and imaginary island nation. More later opposed the King's separation from the Roman Catholic Church and refused to accept him as Supreme Head of the Church of England, because such disparaged Papal Authority and Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon. Tried for treason, More was convicted on perjured testimony and beheaded.

Usury

lending at exorbitant interest: the lending of money at an exorbitant rate of interest exorbitant interest: an exorbitant rate of interest

Indulgences

ndulgence, a distinctive feature of the penitential system of both the Western medieval and the Roman Catholic church that granted full or partial remission of the punishment of sin. The granting of indulgences was predicated on two beliefs. First, in the sacrament of penance it did not suffice to have the guilt (culpa) of sin forgiven through absolution alone; one also needed to undergo temporal punishment (poena, from p[o]enitentia, "penance") because one had offended Almighty God. Second, indulgences rested on belief in purgatory, a place in the next life where one could continue to cancel the accumulated debt of one's sins, another Western medieval conception not shared by the Eastern Greek church.

Predestination

predestination, in Christianity, the doctrine that God has eternally chosen those whom he intends to save. In modern usage, predestination is distinct from both determinism and fatalism and is subject to the free decision of the human moral will; but the doctrine also teaches that salvation is due entirely to the eternal decree of God. In its fundamentals, the problem of predestination is as universal as religion itself, but the emphasis of the New Testament on the divine plan of salvation has made the issue especially prominent in Christian theology. Predestination has been especially associated with John Calvin and the Reformed tradition.

Act of Supremacy

(1534) English act of Parliament that recognized Henry VIII as the "Supreme Head of the Church of England." The act also required an oath of loyalty from English subjects that recognized his marriage to Anne Boleyn. It was repealed in 1555 under Mary I, but in 1559 Parliament adopted a new Act of Supremacy during the reign of Elizabeth I.

Catholic Reformation

(Christianity / Roman Catholic Church) the reform movement of the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th and early 17th centuries considered as a reaction to the Protestant Reformation. in the history of Christianity, the Roman Catholic efforts directed in the 16th and early 17th centuries both against the Protestant Reformation and toward internal renewal; the Counter-Reformation took place during roughly the same period as the Protestant Reformation, actually (according to some sources) beginning shortly before Martin Luther's act of nailing the Ninety-Five Theses to the church door (1517).

Index

Strictly, this was called the "Index Librorum Prohibitorum". It was a list of forbidden books published by Pope Paul IV in 1559. It was enforced by the Inquisition and anybody caught with a forbidden book would suffer the consequences. The Index "was an important agent of the Counter-Reformation" (EN Williams). It was basically a censorship on writing and it was believed that the Index would act as an effective agent against heresy. As early as 1543, Caraffa., as Inquisitor-General of the Roman Inquisition, had insisted that no book should be published without approval of the Holy Office. He also wanted the Inquisition to hunt out and destroy already published books. Caraffa became Pope Paul IV.

German Peasants' Revolt

When the peasants of Europe began to read the scriptures for themselves during the Reformation, their ideas of justice started to change. Increasing resentment against the heavy exaction of the feudal system, crop failure in Stühlingen, Germany, the writings of Luther and new Bible-derived notions of the equality of man precipitated the tragic Peasant's Revolt of 1524-1525. On this day, August 24 1524, a leader named Hans Müller gathered a few Stühlingen peasants around him. Calling themselves the "Evangelical Brotherhood," these men swore to emancipate the peasants of Germany. Their twelve-point platform anticipated the liberties which would actually be achieved throughout Christendom after many more years of struggle. It was based on Zwingli's teachings. Among its demands were the right for local congregations to choose and dismiss their pastors. Tithes should be collected justly and used for the modest support of pastors, the rest given to alleviate the poor. Serfdom must end; what right did men have to hold other members of the Body of Christ in thrall and work them like animals? The oppressive rents charged the peasants must be eased. Death taxes must be eliminated, for they robbed widows and orphans. The peasants agreed to be corrected by scripture if any of their demands should be shown to be in error. Luther at first took a middle ground between the nobility and peasants, acknowledging that many of their demands were just. However, little was done to remedy the peasants' complaints. The violence which followed might have been avoided if the masters had been willing to redress the serfs' grievances in good faith. Led by men such as Thomas Muntzer, who wanted to "destroy the godless," the peasants revolted. Luther became frightened by the spreading rebellion and urged in violent terms that the revolt be put down. The war-skilled rulers crushed the revolt everywhere with great cruelty. Over 100,000 peasants died and the misery of those who remained worsened. The victors destroyed their farming implements and homes and increased their tax burdens.

Simony

The selling of church offices.

Baroque

Baroque period, era in the history of the Western arts roughly coinciding with the 17th century. Its earliest manifestations, which occurred in Italy, date from the latter decades of the 16th century, while in some regions, notably Germany and colonial South America, certain of its culminating achievements did not occur until the 18th century. The work that distinguishes the Baroque period is stylistically complex, even contradictory. In general, however, the desire to evoke emotional states by appealing to the senses, often in dramatic ways, underlies its manifestations. Some of the qualities most frequently associated with the Baroque are grandeur, sensuous richness, drama, vitality, movement, tension, emotional exuberance, and a tendency to blur distinctions between the various arts.

Charles V

Charles V, (1500—1558), Holy Roman emperor (1519-56), king of Spain (as Charles I, 1516-56), and archduke of Austria (as Charles I, 1519-21), who inherited a Spanish and Habsburg empire extending across Europe from Spain and the Netherlands to Austria and the Kingdom of Naples and reaching overseas to Spanish America. He struggled to hold his empire together against the growing forces of Protestantism, increasing Turkish and French pressure, and even hostility from the Pope. At last he yielded, abdicating his claims to the Netherlands and Spain in favour of his son Philip II and the title of emperor to his brother Ferdinand I and retiring to a monastery.

Christian Humanism

Christian humanism emphasizes the humanity of Jesus, his social teachings and his propensity to synthesize human spirituality and materialism. It regards humanist principles like universal human dignity and individual freedom and the primacy of human happiness as essential and principal components of, or at least compatible with, the teachings of Jesus. Christian humanism can be perceived as a philosophical union of Judeo-Christian ethics and humanist principles.

Council of Trent

Council of Trent, 19th ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic church (1545-63), highly important for its sweeping decrees on self-reform and for its dogmatic definitions that clarified virtually every doctrine contested by the Protestants. Despite internal strife, external dangers, and two lengthy interruptions, the council played a vital role in revitalizing the Roman Catholic church in many parts of Europe. Though Germany demanded a general council following the excommunication of the German Reformation leader Martin Luther, Pope Clement VII held back for fear of renewed attacks on his supremacy. France, too, preferred inaction, afraid of increasing German power. Clement's successor, Paul III, however, was convinced that Christian unity and effective church reform could come only through a council. After his first attempts were frustrated, he convoked a council at Trent (northern Italy), which opened on Dec. 13, 1545.

Desiderius Erasmus

Desiderius Erasmus's greatest contribution to the Reformation was undoubtedly the publication of his Greek-Latin New Testament in 1516. The New Testament casted a new light on the the perception of religion. It allowed others to see the church for what it was and what needed to so desperately be fixed. Erasmus's New Testament was primarily used by Martin Luther in 1522 to translate the content from its original Latin form to the native language German for the first time. It was also used by William Tyndale in 1526 who translated the work into English. The spread of the content within the New Testament eventually led to the popularity of the Reformation. Erasmus also laid the foundation for the Reformation not just by the writing of the New Testament, but with the spread of his own beliefs. Led by Erasmus, the humanists condemned the corruption within the church. Erasmus believed that true religion depended upon inward devotion rather than outward displays of ceremony and ritual. By favoring the moral reform of the church and de-emphasizing the practice of didactic ritual, Erasmus ultimately laid the groundwork for Martin Luther, who eventually sparked the beginning of the reformation.

Albrecht Durer

Durer's famous self-portrait is just one example of how the Northern Renaissance was inextricably tied to the Protestant Reformation. It is not always clear which influenced the other. The humanistic ideals of the Northern Renaissance clearly had a profound impact on the Protestant Reformation, yet at the same time, the iconoclasm and individualism of the Protestant Reformation had a huge impact on the art of the Northern Renaissance. He is "Jesus" in the picture and yet the fact remains that the human being depicted was none other than Durer himself. That rings of something more personal. From a Protestant perspective, Durer's painting takes on a deeper meaning. It suggests that one's relationship with Jesus is an intensely personal affair. It says 'I don't need any Church to commune with Christ. Christ is in me.'

Bernini

Gian Lorenzo Bernini, (born Dec. 7, 1598, Naples, Kingdom of Naples [Italy]—died Nov. 28, 1680, Rome, Papal States), Italian artist who was perhaps the greatest sculptor of the 17th century and an outstanding architect as well. Bernini created the Baroque style of sculpture and developed it to such an extent that other artists are of only minor importance in a discussion of that style. Bernini's "Ecstasy of St. Theresa" is a crucial monument in Counter Reformation art, a bold celebration of the legitimacy of religious imagery. Everything about this work from its subject matter to the theatricality of its presentation reflects the Counter Reformation's drive to populate churches with imagery that would inspire the faithful. Much of seventeenth-century religious art was made in the shadow of the debate over images and both the patron of this work, Cardinal Federico Cornaro, and the artist who made it, Gianlorenzo Bernini, were firmly committed to defending them.

Theocracy

Government by god: government by a god or by priests community governed by god: a community governed by a god or priests.

Hanseatic League

Hanseatic League, also called Hansa, German Hanse, organization founded by north German towns and German merchant communities abroad to protect their mutual trading interests. The league dominated commercial activity in northern Europe from the 13th to the 15th century. (Hanse was a medieval German word for "guild," or "association," derived from a Gothic word for "troop," or "company.")

Huldrych Zwingli

Huldrych Zwingli, Huldrych also spelled Ulrich (born Jan. 1, 1484, Wildhaus in the Toggenburg, Sankt Gallen, Switz.—died Oct. 11, 1531, near Kappel), the most important reformer in the Swiss Protestant Reformation and the only major reformer of the 16th century whose movement did not evolve into a church. Like Martin Luther, he accepted the supreme authority of the Scriptures, but he applied it more rigorously and comprehensively to all doctrines and practices.

Ignatius Loyola

Ignatius of Loyola (Basque: Ignazio Loiolakoa, Spanish: Ignacio de Loyola) (ca. October 27, 1491[1] - July 31, 1556) was a Spanish knight from a local Basque noble family, hermit, priest since 1537, and theologian, who founded the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) and, on 19 April 1541, became its first Superior General.[2] Ignatius emerged as a religious leader during the Counter-Reformation. Loyola's devotion to the Catholic Church was characterized by absolute obedience to the Pope. In 1539 created society of Jesus.

Jean Calvin

John Calvin, French Jean Calvin, or Cauvin (born July 10, 1509, Noyon, Picardy, France—died May 27, 1564, Geneva, Switzerland), theologian and ecclesiastical statesman. He was the leading French Protestant Reformer and the most important figure in the second generation of the Protestant Reformation. His interpretation of Christianity, advanced above all in his Institutio Christianae religionis (1536 but elaborated in later editions; Institutes of the Christian Religion), and the institutional and social patterns he worked out for Geneva deeply influenced Protestantism elsewhere in Europe and in North America. The Calvinist form of Protestantism is widely thought to have had a major impact on the formation of the modern world.

John Wycliffe

John Wycliffe lived almost 200 years before the Reformation, but his beliefs and teachings closely match those of Luther, Calvin and other reformers. As a man ahead of his time, historians have called Wycliffe the "Morning star of the Reformation." Born in the 1300s, Wycliffe criticized abuses and false teachings in the Church. In 1382 he translated an English Bible—the first complete European translation done in nearly 1,000 years. The Lollards, itinerant preachers he sent throughout England, inspired a spiritual revolution. But the Lollardy movement was short-lived. The Church expelled Wycliffe from his teaching position at Oxford, and 44 years after he died, the Pope ordered his bones exhumed and burned. Intense persecution stamped out his followers and teachings. It would be hundreds of years before men like Martin Luther resurrected the reforms of which Wycliffe dreamed.

Henry VIII

King Henry VIII was a vital, energetic man. His amorous exploits were not limited to his Spanish queen, Catherine of Aragon. He was known to have a number of mistresses, the exact number is unknown. He rationalized this behavior by pointing out that Catherine, in many years of marriage, had been unable to bear him a son, and he had a powerful desire for his line to continue. After carrying on an affair with Mary Boleyn, in 1525, Henry became enamored of her sister, Anne. Henry, by this time was absolutely obsessed with having sex with Anne. So in 1532 he married her, was duly excommunicated by Rome, and in 1534 he established the Church of England with himself as its head. In an instant, England became a Protestant country, and with Henry VIII as its leader, there was no way that the English Reformation could be overturned.

Martin Luther

Martin Luther, (born Nov. 10, 1483, Eisleben, Saxony [Germany]—died Feb. 18, 1546, Eisleben), German theologian and religious reformer who was the catalyst of the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. Through his words and actions, Luther precipitated a movement that reformulated certain basic tenets of Christian belief and resulted in the division of Western Christendom between Roman Catholicism and the new Protestant traditions, mainly Lutheranism, Calvinism, the Anglican Communion, the Anabaptists, and the Antitrinitarians. His translation of the Bible into the vernacular (instead of Latin) made it more accessible, which had a tremendous impact on the church and on German culture. 95 theses.

Peace of Augsburg

Peace of Augsburg, first permanent legal basis for the existence of Lutheranism as well as Catholicism in Germany, promulgated on September 25, 1555, by the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire assembled earlier that year at Augsburg. The emperor Charles V's provisional ruling on the religious question, the Augsburg Interim of 1548, had been overthrown in 1552 by the revolt of the Protestant elector Maurice of Saxony and his allies. In the ensuing negotiations at Passau (summer 1552), even the Catholic princes had called for a lasting peace, for fear that otherwise the religious controversy would never be settled. The emperor, however, was unwilling to recognize the religious division in Western Christendom as permanent and granted a peace only until the next imperial Diet.

Protestants

Protestantism is one of the major divisions within Christianity. It has been defined as "any of several church denominations denying the universal authority of the Pope and affirming the Reformation principles of justification by faith alone, the priesthood of all believers, and the primacy of the Bible as the only source of revealed truth" and, more broadly, to mean Christianity outside "of an Orthodox or Catholic church". In the 16th century, the followers of Martin Luther established the evangelical (Lutheran) churches of Germany and Scandinavia. Reformed churches in Hungary, Scotland, Switzerland and France were established by other reformers such as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and John Knox. The Church of England declared independence from papal authority in 1534, and was influenced by some Reformation principles, notably during the English Civil War. There were also reformation movements throughout continental Europe known as the Radical Reformation which gave rise to the Anabaptist, Moravian, and other pietistic movements.

Schmalkaldic League

Schmalkaldic League, German Schmalkaldischer Bund, during the Reformation, a defensive alliance formed by Protestant territories of the Holy Roman Empire to defend themselves collectively against any attempt to enforce the recess of the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, which gave the Protestant territories a deadline by which to return to Catholic practices. Established in February 1531 at Schmalkalden, Germany, the league was led by Landgrave Philip the Magnanimous of Hesse and John Frederick I of Saxony. Among its other original members were Brunswick, Anhalt, and the cities of Mansfeld, Magdeburg, Bremen, Strassburg, and Ulm. The league had a timeline of six years but was regularly extended. Fearing that the league would ally itself with his enemy, Francis I of France, the emperor Charles V was forced to grant it de facto recognition until 1544, when he made peace with Francis. He then began military operations against the league in 1546—the War of Schmalkald—and effectively defeated it in 1547.

Edict of Worms

The Edict of Worms was a decree issued by The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V banning the writings of Martin Luther and labeling him a heretic and enemy of the state (see The 95 Theses of Martin Luther). The Edict, issued on May 25, 1521, in the city of Worms in southwest Germany, was the culmination of an ongoing struggle between Martin Luther and the Roman Catholic Church over reform, especially in the sale of indulgences. However, there were other deeper issues that revolved around both political and theological concerns. On a political level, Luther had challenged the absolute authority of the pope over the Church by maintaining that the sale of indulgences, authorized and promoted by the pope, was wrong. On a theological level, Luther maintained that salvation was by faith alone (sola fide) not through the legal mechanisms of the church or by what people did to earn it. He had also challenged the authority of the Church by maintaining that all doctrines and dogmas of the church should be accountable to the teachings of Scripture (sola scriptura). To protect the authority of the pope and the Church, as well as to maintain the profitable sale of indulgences, church officials convinced Charles V that Luther was a threat and persuaded him to authorize his condemnation by the Empire. Luther escaped arrest and remained in seclusion at Wartburg castle for several years where he continued to write and translate the Bible into German.

95 Theses

The Ninety-Five Theses on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences (Latin: Disputatio pro declaratione virtutis indulgentiarum), commonly known as The Ninety-Five Theses, was written by Martin Luther in 1517 and is widely regarded as the initial catalyst for the Protestant Reformation. The disputation protests against clerical abuses, especially the sale of indulgences. The background to Luther's Ninety-Five Theses centers on practices within the Catholic Church regarding baptism and absolution. Significantly, the Theses rejected the validity of indulgences (remissions of temporal punishment due for sins which have already been forgiven). They also view with great cynicism the practice of indulgences being sold, and thus the penance for sin representing a financial transaction rather than genuine contrition. Luther's Theses argued that the sale of indulgences was a gross violation of the original intention of confession and penance, and that Christians were being falsely told that they could find absolution through the purchase of indulgences.

Great Schism

The Protestant Reformation was the schism within Western Christianity initiated by John Wycliffe, Jan Hus, Martin Luther, John Calvin, and other early Protestants. It was sparked by the 1517 posting of Luther's Ninety-Five Theses. The efforts of the self-described "reformers", who objected to ("protested") the doctrines, rituals, leadership, and ecclesiastical structure of the Roman Catholic Church, led to the creation of new national Protestant churches. The Reformation was precipitated by earlier events within Europe, such as the Black Death and the Western Schism, which eroded people's faith in the Catholic Church and the Papacy that governed it. This, as well as many other factors, such as spread of Renaissance ideas, the spread of the printing press, and the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire, contributed to the creation of Protestantism. The Great Schism occurred in 1378 when pope Urban VI announced that he planned to reform the college of cardinals. A group of cardinals gathered and elected another pope, Clement VII, who returned to Avignon, France. Over the next thirty-nine years, two popes (and sometimes three!) would reign at the same time. This undercut the authority of the pope in the eyes of clergy and lay persons alike.

Inquisition

This was a feared organisation within the Catholic world. It existed in Spain and Italy. Its success in Spain led to Paul III reviving it in 1542. Six Inquisitor-Generals were appointed (all cardinals) who had power over all clergy and the laity. Anybody accused by the Inquisition was guilty until they could prove their innocence. The accused were allowed to be tortured - as were witnesses. If you were found guilty, your punishments ranged from execution to the confiscation of your property. The Inquisition's task was to hunt out heretics. However, many Catholic rulers did not allow it into their territory because it represented a threat to them. Its work was essentially limited to Spain and Italy where few Protestants were found anyway. In Spain its main purpose was to keep track of those who represented a threat to Philip II; therefore, the Inquisition in Spain was used not so much to remove heresy - there was little need for this - but to hunt out those who might represent a threat to the king - be it financial or political (though the two were both married together). It was the Inquisition in Spain that was sent to the ports to oversee that the merchants there paid their fair share of tax - a task they frequently failed to do. The Spanish Inquisition was also sent to the Spanish Netherlands and to the New World.

Conciliarism

in the Roman Catholic church, a theory that a general council of the church has greater authority than the pope and may, if necessary, depose him. Conciliarism had its roots in discussions of 12th- and 13th-century canonists who were attempting to set juridical limitations on the power of the papacy. The most radical forms of the conciliar theory in the Middle Ages were found in the 14th-century writings of Marsilius of Padua, an Italian political philosopher who rejected the divine origin of the papacy, and William of Ockham, an English philosopher who taught that only the church as a whole—not an individual pope or even a council—is preserved from error in faith. The 15th century saw serious attempts to put the conciliar theories into practice. The Council of Constance (1414-18) invoked the doctrine to depose three claimants to the papal throne; it then elected Pope Martin V as sole legitimate successor to St. Peter, thereby effectively healing the Western (Great) Schism (1378-1417). Though this council is recognized by Rome as the 16th ecumenical council, neither was it convened by a legitimate pope nor were its declarations ever formally approved in their totality; the council's condemnation of John Wycliffe and Jan Hus (pre-Reformation reformers) was approved, but not the decree Sacrosancta espousing conciliarism. The faction-ridden Council of Basel, which opened in 1431, reaffirmed Sacrosancta. The theory has continued to live on, and its theses have influenced such doctrines as Gallicanism, a French position that advocated restriction of papal power.

Brethren of the Common Life

religious community established in the late 14th century by Geert Groote at Deventer, in the Netherlands. Groote formed the brethren from among his friends and disciples, including Florentius Radewyns, at whose house they lived. After Groote's death, Radewyns and several others became Augustinian Canons and established the Congregation of Windesheim. These two communities became the principal exponents of devotio moderna, a school and trend of spirituality stressing meditation and the inner life and criticizing the highly speculative spirituality of the 13th and 14th centuries. The brethren spread throughout the Netherlands, Germany, and Switzerland. They were self-supporting and lived a simple Christian life in common, with an absence of ritual. Among their chief aims were the education of a Christian elite and the promotion of the reading of devout literature. They produced finely written manuscripts and, later, printed books. They kept large schools in which the scholarship (but not the Humanistic spirit) of the Italian Renaissance was found. As a boy Erasmus was deeply influenced by them. The entire devotio moderna movement was seriously affected by the religious upheaval during the Protestant Reformation, and the brethren ceased to exist early in the 17th century.

Anabaptists

secretarians who formed communities of believers in Switzerland and Southern Germany, sought isolation from struggles of sinful world, would not participate in political life and didn't believe in having ties with temporal government rejecting secular agreements, refused to take civil oaths, pay taxes, hold public office or serve in army.