Ch 4,5,6,7

Experience-Dependent Growth

-Brain functions that depend on particular, variable experiences and therefore may or may not develop in a particular infant. -Might happen; because of them, one brain differs from another. -Different languages, cultures, emotions, parenting styles, sleeping styles, etc.

Attachment

"an affectional tie" that an infant form with a caregiver—a tie that binds them together in space and endures over time. • Attachment is lifelong. • Attachment is mutual. • Attachment is also universal, part of the inborn social nature of the human species, with specific manifestations dependent on the culture and age.

Erikson Theory: Autonomy vs shame and doubt

(18 months to 3 years old) • Self-awareness emerges • Toddlers either succeed or fail in gaining a sense of self-rule (autonomy) over their actions and their bodies - without it they feel (ashamed and doubtful)

Erikson Theory: Trust vs Mistrust

(Birth to 12 months) • Infants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where their basic needs (for food, comfort, attention, and so on) are met. • Babies feel secure when food and comfort are provided with "consistency, continuity, and sameness of experience" (Erikson, 1993a, p. 247). • If social interaction inspires trust, the child (later the adult) confidently explores the social world.

Necessary Stimulations

-Babies need stimulation—sights and sounds, emotional expression, and social interaction that encourages movement (arm waving, then crawling, grabbing, and walking). -Too much of the wrong stimulations stresses the brain and derails neural connections.

266 days or 38 weeks

__________ after conception, the fetal brain signals the release of the hormone oxytocin, which prepares the fetus for delivery and starts labor

Mucus removed, baby eats, cut umbilical cord, baby is weighed, measured, and examined

What happens in the newborn's first minutes

women use less medication and are less likely to have extensive medical intervention. According to most studies, women who choose a midwife rather than a physician also have better birth outcomes

What happens when a doula is part of the medical team?

Anoxia

a lack of oxygen that, if prolonged, can cause brain damage of death

Postpartum Depression

a new mother's feelings of inadequacy and sadness in the days and weeks after giving birth "baby's blues" successful breast-feeding mitigates maternal depression may not even be evident initially may not come from hormones alone

Separation Anxiety

an infant's distressed reaction to the departure of the familiar caregiver; most obvious between 9 and 14 months if remains intense after age 3, it is considered an emotional disorder.

proximodistal

center-out

Embryo period (3rd - 8th week)

days 14-56 of prenatal development after conception, characterized by the development of the human organism, in which the mass of the cells takes shape - not yet recognizably human

a cephalocaudal

dead down

Insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment

infant's anxiety and uncertainty are evident, as when the infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver and both resists and seeks contact on reunion.

Habituation

the process of becoming accustomed to an object or event through repeated exposure to it, and thus becoming less interested in it

Teratology

the scientific study of birth abnormalities, especially on causes of biological disabilities and impairments

Placenta

the shell

Parent-infant bond

the strong, loving connection that forms as parents hold, examine, and feed their newborn

-synchrony -attachment -social referencing

three kinds of social interactions

Babinski reflex

when a newborn's feet are stroked, the toes fan upward

Threshold effect

when a teratogen is relatively harmless in small doses but becomes harmful once exposure reaches a certain level

Memory

• A certain amount of both experience and brain maturation are required to process and recall what happens (Bauer et al., 2010). • Essentially, children of all ages remember what they need to remember. • One important insight regarding infant amnesia begins with the distinction between implicit and explicit memory • The mind might not remember until the age of three, but the body never forgets.

Percentile

Growth is often expressed in a ________, indicating how one person compares to another -point on a ranking scale of 0 to 100. The 50th percentile is the midpoint; half the people in the population being studied rank higher and half rank lower

Proximodistal development

Growth or development that occurs from the center or core in an outward direction

developed nation

In ________, women almost never die form complication of pregnancy, abortion, or birth - the rate is less than 1 in 10,000

Preterm

a birth that occurs two or more weeks before the full 38 weeks of the typical pregnancy

Extremely Low Birthweight (ELBW)

a body weight at birth of less than 1,000 grams (2 pounds, 3 ounces)

Very Low Birthweight (VLBW)

a body weight at birth of less than 1,500 grams (3 pounds, 5 ounces)

Prenatal Diagnosis: Early Recognition

Tests of blood, urine, fetal heart rate, and ultrasounds -false positives do exist

Small for gestational age (SGA)

a term for a baby whose birthweight is significantly lower than expected, given the time since conception

Birthing center

________ births have a lower rate of newborn and maternal death, in part because high-risk births are not allowed

Neonatal

________ mortality is rare: less than 1 newborn in 250 dies, most of whom were born far too soon

Birthweight

_________ increases 2xs by 4 months and 3xs by 1 year most 24 month old weigh about 28 pounds height increases rapidly about 3 in by 1 year

Mucus

__________ in the baby's throat is removed, especially if the first breaths seem shallow or strained

Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale NBAS

a test that is often administered to newborns which measures responsiveness and records 46 behaviors, including 20 reflexes

Apgar scale

quick assessment of a newborn's health, from 0 to 10. The five vital signs-color, heart rate, cry, muscle tone, and breathing.

Nucleus

Which becomes the embryo

head-sparing

If teething or a stuffed-up nose temporarily slows eating, body weight is affected before brain weight, a phenomenon called _________

Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

A cluster of birth defects, including abnormal facial characteristics, slow physical growth, and reduced intellectual ability, that may occur in the fetus of a woman who drinks alcohol while pregnant.

Protein-calorie malnutrition

A condition in which a person does not consume sufficient food of any kind. This deprivation can result in several illnesses, severe weight loss, and even death.

Teratogen

an agent or condition, that can impair prenatal development and result in birth defects or even death

Still-face technique

an experimental practice in which an adult keeps his or her face unmoving and expressionless in face-to-face interaction with an infant

300,000

Almost ________ women die in pregnancy or birth In the porrest nations, the rates may be higher (failure to record, maternal deaths, illegal abortions)

Experience-Expectant Growth

-Brain functions that require certain basic common experiences (which an infant can be expected to have) in order to develop normally. -Development suffers without ( love, smiles, human interactions, objects, things to see/touch/manipulate) -Must happen for normal brain maturation to occur, and they almost always do

Breast feeding- mom

-Easier bonding with baby • Reduced risk of breast cancer and osteoporosis • Natural contraception (with exclusive breastfeeding, for several months) • Pleasure of breast stimulation • Satisfaction of meeting infant's basic need • No formula to prepare; no sterilization • Easier travel with the baby • For the Family

Tasting

-Families pass on cultural taste preferences despite immigration or changing historical circumstances. -Sense of smell spurs development of taste. -While babies do have taste buds at birth, they are strengthened by their ability to distinguish different scents. -Prefer sweet tastes over sour or bitter tastes

Cultural Variations

-Generally African American babies are ahead of Hispanic American babies when it comes to walking. -In turn, Hispanic American babies are ahead of those of European descent. -Internationally, the earliest walkers are in sub-Saharan Africa, where many well-nourished and healthy babies walk at 10 months. -The latest walkers may be in rural China (15 months), where infants are bundled up against the cold . -he other reason some cultures discourage walking is that some places are rife with danger (poisonous snakes, open fires), so toddlers are safer if they cannot wander.

Immunization Research

-Immunization protects not only from temporary sickness but also from complications, including deafness, blindness, sterility, and meningitis. -Sometimes such damage from illness is not apparent until decades later. -Immunization also protects those who cannot be safely vaccinated, such as infants under 3 months and people with impaired immune systems (HIV-positive, aged, or undergoing chemotherapy). -Fortunately, each vaccinated child stops transmission of the disease, a phenomenon called herd immunity. -If 90 percent of the people in a community (a herd) are immunized, no one dies of that disease.

Seeing

-Newborns are legally blind; they focus only on things between 4 and 30 inches (10 and 75 centimeters) away. -Movement captures attention. -By 6 weeks when babies can see a person, they focus on the eyes. -By 2 months, infants not only stare at faces but also, with perception and cognition, smile. -Between 2-4 months, both eyes can focus on a single thing (Binocular Vision) -By age 1 infants interpret emotions, follow gaze, and use their own eyes to communicate.

Fine motor skills

-Physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as drawing and picking up a coin. -Fine here means "small." -Fine motor skills are built from the gross motor skills. -More precise and coordinate.

Smelling

-Sense of smell is one of the strongest as it develop before they're even born-- will continue to get stronger for the first 8 years of their life. -Sense of smell is closely tied to memory as they recognize people, places, and things by their scent. -Nostrils form in the first trimester, and scent receptors form by the second trimester. In the womb, baby breathes in their mother's amniotic fluid, which helps them to become familiar with scent—specifically, their mother's scent.

Motor skills

-The learned abilities to move some part of the body, in actions ranging from a large leap to a flicker of the eyelid. -"Any movement ability" or "Movement of muscles" -The most dramatic motor skill is walking independently. -Motor skills begin with reflexes. Reflexes become skills if they are practiced and encouraged.

Hearing

-The sense of hearing develops during the last trimester of pregnancy. -At birth, certain sounds trigger reflexes, even without conscious perception. -Familiar, rhythmic sounds such as a heartbeat are soothing. -If they have cochlear implants early in life, their ability to understand and produce language is not delayed—unlike for those whose deafness is remedied after age 2 (Tobey et al., 2013).

Touch and Pain

-The sense of touch is acute in infants. -Wrapping, rubbing, massaging, and cradling are soothing to many new babies. -80% of a baby's communication is expressed through touch. -In the first year of life, infants' heart rates slow and they relax when stroked gently and rhythmically on the arm (Fairhurst et al., 2014). Note: Pain/temperature are not among the traditional five senses, but more often connected to touch. -Physiological measures, including hormones, heartbeat, and rapid brain waves, are studied to assess infant pain, but the conclusions are mixed.

Immunization

-a process which primes the body's immune system causing production of antibodies to defend against attack resist a particular disease. - Often called "vaccination" is said to have had "a greater impact on human mortality reduction and population growth than any other public health intervention besides clean water" (Baker, 2000, p. 199). -Vaccination against smallpox is no longer needed (1980). -Polio has significantly reduced but still fluctuates in some countries. -Measles (rubeola, not rubella) is disappearing, thanks to a vaccine developed in 1963.

Gross motor skills

-physical abilities involving large body movements, such as walking and jumping -Infants first control their heads, lifting them up to look around. Then they control their upper bodies, their arms, and finally their legs and feet.

REMEMBER

1. Difference is not deficit. However, slow development relative to local norms may indicate a problem that needs attention. 2. Dynamic systems of senses and motor skills-- If one sense or motor skill is impaired, other parts are affected as well. Fine motor skills are aided by the ability to sit à language development depends on hearing à reading depends on vision. So... • Careful monitoring of basic sensory and motor skills in infancy is part of good infant care.

Malnutrition Sufferings

1. Learning suffers. If malnutrition continues long enough to affect height, it also affects the brain. If hunger reduces energy and curiosity, learning suffers. 2. Diseases are more serious. About half of all childhood deaths occur because malnutrition makes a childhood disease lethal, especially the leading causes of childhood deaths—diarrhea and pneumonia—but also milder diseases such as measles (Walker et al., 2013; Roberts, 2017). 3. Some diseases result directly from malnutrition—including both marasmus during the first year, when body tissues waste away, and kwashiorkor after age 1, when growth slows down, hair becomes thin, skin becomes splotchy, and the face, legs, and abdomen swell with fluid (edema).

Head-sparing

A biological mechanism that protects the brain when malnutrition disrupts body growth. The brain is the last part of the body to be damaged by malnutrition.

Self-Awareness

: A person's realization that he or she is a distinct individual whose body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people. • Between 15 and 24 months, babies become self-aware

synchrony

A coordinated, rapid, and smooth exchange of responses between a caregiver and an infant. • Synchrony is evident worldwide. Everywhere, babies watch their parents carefully, hoping for exactly what these two parents—each from quite different cultures— express, and responding with such delight that adults relish these moments. • Synchrony is evident not only in facial expressions and noises but also in body positions. • Exaggerated tone and expression

Strange Situation

A laboratory procedure for measuring attachment by evoking infants' reactions to the stress of various adults' comings and goings in an unfamiliar playroom.

Shaken Baby Syndrome

A life-threatening injury that occurs when an infant is forcefully shaken back and forth, a motion that ruptures blood vessels in the brain and breaks neural connections.

Reminder session

A perceptual experience that helps a person recollect an idea, a thing, or an experience. • Repeated reminders are more powerful than single reminders and that context is crucial. • Especially for infants younger than 9 months.

Social Smile

A smile evoked by a human face, normally first evident in infants about 6 weeks after birth.

Naming explosion

A sudden increase in an infant's vocabulary, especially in the number of nouns, that begins at about 18 months of age. BC many early words are nouns

Visual Cliff

An experimental apparatus that gives the illusion of a sudden drop-off between one horizontal surface and another.

stranger wariness

An infant's expression of concern—a quiet stare while clinging to a familiar person, or a look of fear—when a stranger appears.

Babbling

An infant's repetition of certain syllables, such as ba-ba-ba, that begins when babies are between 6 and 9 months. • Babbling is experience-expectant; all babies babble, even deaf ones. Babbling should be encouraged: Caregivers need to respond to those early sounds. Research finds that babbling is a crucial predictor of later vocabulary, even more than the other major influence—education of the mother (McGillion et al., 2017). • Infants notice the relationship between mouth movements and sound. • Toward the end of the first year, babbling begins to imitate the accent, cadence, consonants, and so on of whatever language caregivers utter • gestures become a powerful means of communication

Affordance

An opportunity for perception and interaction that is offered by a person, place, or object in the environment. • The environment (people, places, and objects) affords, or offers, many opportunities to interact with whatever is perceived. • Which particular affordance is perceived depends on four factors: (1) the senses, (2) motivation, (3) maturation, and (4) experience. • motivation and experience are pivotal in affordances.

Freud Psychoanalytic Theory: anal stage

Anal Stage (18 to 36 months) -> Pleasure focuses on the bowel and bladder elimination. Sensual satisfaction of bowel movements and, eventually, the psychological pleasure of coping and controlling the demand of them.

Understanding speech

Babies indicate that they detect a difference between the two stimuli with: • a longer or more focused gaze • a faster or slower heart rate • more or less muscle tension around the lips; • a change in the rate, rhythm, or pressure of suction on a nipple; • brain activation as reflected by the fMRI or DTI. • Newborns—even if born before full term—can discriminate one syllable from another, evident by a burst of neuronal activity in their frontal lobes (Mahmoudzadeh et al., 2013).

Proximal Parenting

Caregiving practices that involve being physically close to the baby, with frequent holding and touching.

Distal parenting

Caregiving practices that involve remaining distant from the baby, providing toys, food, and face-to-face communication with minimal holding and touching. • Variations in proximal and distal parenting lead to variations in toddler behavior. • Many other places, how much adults value individual rather than collective action is related to how much distal or proximal child-care they experienced.

Cultural Differences

Differences are readily apparent in which sounds capture attention. Infants favor the words, accents, and linguistic patterns of their home language.

epidural

Doctors us an ________, an injection in the spine that numbs the lower half of the body while keeping the mother awake

Insecure attachment and the social setting

False -> Secure Attachment predicts all the outcomes of well-functioning personality. False -> Insecure attachment always leads to later problems. True -> Securely attached infants are more likely to become secure toddlers, socially competent preschoolers, high-achieving schoolchildren, and capable parents. True & False -> Responsive early parenting buffers stress and encourages exploration. Main Point: Attachment behaviors in the Strange Situation provide only one measurement of the quality of the parent-child relationships.

Working mode

In cognitive theory, a set of assumptions that the individual uses to organize perceptions and experiences.

Temperament

Inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation. It is measured by the person's typical responses to the environment. • EASY - SLOW TO WARM UP - DIFFICULT • Assumed to be an early detector for personality ... doesn't change much with age either. • Temperament is not the same as personality, although temperamental inclinations may lead to personality differences. • Personality traits (e.g., honesty and humility) are learned, whereas temperamental traits (e.g., shyness and aggression) are genetic.

Alloparents

Literally, "other parents"; people who provide care for children but who are not the child's parents. • In the twenty-first century, not only neighbors and relatives ( neighbors, relatives, grandparents, siblings) and professionals (pediatricians, teachers, day-care aides, and nurses) can be alloparents.

Allocare

Literally, "other-care"; the care of children by people other than the biological parents. • Allocare is essential for Homo sapiens' survival.

Freud Psychoanalytic Theory: oral stage

Oral Stage (0 to 18months) -> Pleasures center around the mouth (Sucking, biting, chewing etc. ) The mouth is the young infant's primary source of gratification.

Sensorimotor intelligence

Piaget's term for the way infants think by using their senses and motor skills during the first period of cognitive development

Ideally...

Prenatal nutrition -> then breast-feeding -> and then supplemental iron and vitamin A stop malnutrition before it starts. Once malnutrition is apparent, highly nutritious formula (usually fortified peanut butter) often restores weight—but not always.

Temperament Today

Research over time has found: • Unexpected gender differences • Differences between brain and behavior • Learning (specifically cognitive control) was evident • Continuity and change • Infants with difficult temperaments are at risk for later emotional problems • Temperament is enduring overtime, concluding that traces of childhood temperament endure, blossoming into adult personality, • Nature + Nurture = Temperament

Measuring Attachment

Researchers are trained to distinguish types A, B, C, and D. They focus on the following: 1. Exploration of the toys: A secure toddler plays happily. 2. Reaction to the caregiver's departure: A secure toddler notices when the caregiver leaves and shows some sign of missing him or her. 3. Reaction to the caregiver's return: A secure toddler welcomes the caregiver's reappearance, usually seeking contact, and then plays again.

Social Referencing

Seeking information about how to react to an unfamiliar or ambiguous object or event by observing someone else's expressions and reactions. • Essentially, that other person becomes a social reference. • They start learning the meanings of different emotive expressions, the words and sounds that follow, and how they associate with things. • Synchrony, attachment, and social referencing are sometimes more apparent with fathers than with mothers. Why?? • Note: it is a stereotype that African American, Latin American, and Asian American fathers are less nurturing and stricter than other men (Parke, 2013). • Contemporary fathers in all ethnic groups are, typically, more involved with their children than their own fathers were.

Cognitive Theory

Stages 1 -> Sensorimotor -> Birth to age 2 Learns through senses, body, and actions. Stage 2 -> Preoperational -> Age 2 to 6 Learns by expressing and exploring using symbols (words, pictures, toys, etc.) as language begins to develop.

Dated Temperament

The Choleric - The Natural Leader. Determined, energetic, goal-oriented. • The Melancholic - The Perfectionist. Sensitive, thoughtful, quiet. • The Phlegmatic - The Peacemaker. Easy-going, calm, chill. • The Sanguine - The Life of the Party. Enthusiastic, fun-loving, outgoing.

Self-righting

The inborn drive to remedy a developmental deficit; literally, to return to sitting or standing upright after being tipped over. People of all ages have self-righting impulses, for emotional as well as physical imbalance.

14, 7

The average baby is born after __________ hours of active labor for the first births and __________ hours for subsequent births

Mean length of utterance (MLU)

The average length of children's spoken statements (measured in phonemes).

Stunting

The failure of children to grow to a normal height for their age due to severe and chronic malnutrition.

Primary circular reactions

The first two stages involve the infant's responses to its own body. Stage 1 (birth to 1 month) • Reflexes, sucking, grasping, staring, listening • Example: sucking anything that touches cheek or lip Stage 2 (1 to 4 months) • The first acquired adaptations: accommodations and coordination of reflexes • Example: sucking a pacifier differently than a nipple; attempting to hold a bottle to suck it

Temperament

The following three dimensions of temperament are apparent: 1. Effortful control (able to regulate attention and emotion, to self-soothe) 2. Negative mood (fearful, angry, unhappy) 3. Exuberant (active, social, not shy)

Child Directed Speech

The high-pitched, simplified, and repetitive way adults speak to infants and children. (Also called baby talk or motherese.) • No matter what term is used, child-directed speech fosters learning, and babies communicate as best they can. • Infants like alliteration, rhymes, repetition, melody, rhythm, and varied pitch. • Early listening abilities and preferences are the result of brain function.

Tertiary Circular Reactions

The last two stages are the most creative with exploration and experimentation, first with action and then with thinking. - learning about the world. Stage Five (12-18 months) • New means through active experimentation: experimentation and creativity in the actions of the "little scientist." • Example: putting a teddy bear in the toilet and flushing it Stage Six (18-24 months) • New means through mental combinations: thinking before doing, new ways of achieving a goal without resorting to trial and error. • Example: before flushing the teddy bear again, hesitating because of the memory of the toilet overflowing and mother's anger

Secondary Circular Reactions

The next two stages involve the infant's responses to , people, toys, or any other objects that they can touch or move. Stage Three (4-8 months) • Making interesting sights last: responding to people and objects • Example: clapping hands when mother says "patty-cake" Stage Four (8-12 months) • New adaptation and anticipation: becoming more deliberate and purposeful in responding to people and objects • Example: putting mother's hands together in order to make her start playing patty-cake

Sensation

The response of a sensory system (eyes, ears, skin, tongue, nose) when it detects a stimulus.

Wasting

The tendency for children to be severely underweight for their age as a result of malnutrition.

germinal period, embryonic period, fetal period

Three main periods of prenatal development

Information Processing

Two specific aspects of infant cognition that illustrate the information-processing approach 1. Affordances concern perception or, by analogy, input. 2. Memory concerns brain organization and output—that is, storage and retrieval.

Holophrase

a single word that is used to express a complete, meaningful thought

Insecure-avoidant attachment

avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver's presence, departure, or return

Sociocultural Theory

focuses on how adults and peers influence individual learning, along with how cultural beliefs and attitudes affect how learning takes place.

Grammar

includes all of the methods that languages use to communicate meaning. Word order, prefixes, suffixes, intonation, verb forms, pronouns and negations, prepositions and articles—all of these are aspects of grammar. • Children's proficiency in grammar correlates with sentence length.

Disorganized attachment

marked by an infant's inconsistent reactions to the caregiver's departure and return

Secure Attachment

obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver

synchrony-active partnership

• Adults rarely smile at young infants until the infants smile at them, several weeks after birth. That tentative baby smile is like a switch that turns on the adult, who usually grins broadly and talks animatedly (Lavelli & Fogel, 2005). • In every interaction, infants read others' emotions and develop social skills, such as taking turns and watching expressions. • Synchrony usually begins with adults imitating infants (not vice versa) in tone and rhythm. • Responsiveness to the individual, not simply to the impaired human, leads to a strong, mutual love between parents and child (Solomon, 2012). • This relationship is crucial when the infant is at medical risk.

Developmentalist Three conclusions

• Attachment to someone is beneficial. • Frequent changes and instability are problematic.. By age 3, children with unstable care histories are likely to be more aggressive than those with stable care (Pilarz & Hill, 2014). • Babies benefit from a strong relationship with their parents. Accordingly, most nations provide some paid leave for mothers, lasting from a few days to 15 months.

Breast feeding-baby

• Balance of nutrition (fat, protein, etc.) adjusts to age of baby • Breast milk has more microbiome micronutrients • Less infant illness, including allergies, ear infections, stomach upsets • Less childhood asthma • Better childhood vision • Less adult illness, including diabetes, cancer, heart disease • Protection against many childhood diseases, since breast milk contains antibodies from the mother • Stronger jaws, fewer cavities, advanced breathing reflexes (less SIDS) • Higher IQ, less likely to drop out of school, more likely to attend college • Later puberty, fewer teenage pregnancies • Less likely to become obese or hypertensive by age 12

Cognitive theory

• Cognitive theory holds that thoughts determine a person's perspective. Early experiences are important because beliefs, perceptions, and memories make them so. • Children may misinterpret their experiences, or parents may offer inaccurate explanations, and these form ideas that affect later thinking and behavior. • Ultimately, cognitive theory proposes people can rethink and reorganize their thoughts, developing new models.

Sociocultural Theory etc.

• Cultural variations are vast in every aspect of infant care; thus, cognitive development varies also • Parents, caregivers, peers, and the culture at large were responsible for developing higher-order functions. • According to Lev Vygotsky, children are born with basic biological constraints on their minds. • By observing others and their cultural aspects, children can progressively extend this zone of proximal development.

Romania

• Dictator Nicolae Ceausesçu forbade birth control and abortions (1980s). • Illegal abortions became the leading cause of death for Romanian women aged 15 to 45 (Verona, 2003), • 170,00 children were severely deprived of social contact • Nicolae Ceausesçu ousted and killed (1989) and thousands were adopted. • Adoption before 6 and 18 months fared well. • Romania no longer permits international adoption, but some infants are still institutionalized. • Romanian infants develop best in their own families, second best in foster families, and worst in institutions (Nelson et al., 2014) • Many nations now restrict international adoption • United States was 6,441 in 2014, down from 22,884 in 2004. • Those statistics are influenced more by international politics than by infant needs. Some infants in every nation are deprived of healthy interaction. • Ideally, no infant is "institutionalized", but if that ideal is not reached, institutions need to change so that psychological health is as important as physical health (McCall, 2013)

Moral of the Story

• Each infant needs personal responsiveness. Someone should serve as a partner in the synchrony duet, a base for secure attachment, and a social reference who encourages exploration. Then, infant emotions and experiences—cries and laughter, fears and joys—will ensure that development goes well.

Cultural Variations

• Each theory just described can be used to justify or criticize certain variations. • A study of children in three nations found that the Japanese were highest in shame, the Koreans highest in guilt, and the U.S. children highest in pride.

Toddlers' emotions

• Emotions take on new strength, as both memory and mobility advance. • Anger and fear become less frequent but more focused, targeted toward infuriating or terrifying experiences. • Laughing and crying are louder and more discriminating. • Logic is beyond them and tantrum increases

Evolutionary Theory

• Evolutionary theory stresses two needs: (1) Survival (2) Reproduction • A child must be nourished, protected, and taught much longer than offspring of any other species. • Children turn busy adults into devoted caregivers and dependent infants into emotional magnets, is ruled by basic survival needs of the species. • Adaptation is evident • Emotions are our genetic legacy; we would die without them. • If mothers were the exclusive caregivers of each child until children were adults, a given woman could rear only one or two offspring—not enough for the species to survive.

Explicit Memory

• Explicit memory takes longer to emerge, as it depends on language. • It uses language-- facts, ideas and thoughts that require step-by-step instruction • Forms around the age of three.

the power of early sign language

• For deaf babies, sign language is crucial in the first year. • It not only predicts later ability to communicate with signs, it also advances crucial cognitive development (Hall et al., 2017). • Some caregivers, teach "baby signs/gestures" to their 6- to 12-month-olds, who communicate with hand signs months before they move their tongues, lips, and jaws to make words.

International Variations

• For ideological as well as economic reasons, center-based infant care is common in France, Israel, China, Chile, Norway, and Sweden, where it is heavily subsidized by the governments. • Many families in those nations believe that subsidized infant care is a public right. • By contrast, center care is scarce in South Asia, Africa, and Latin America, where many parents believe it is harmful. • Germany recently began offering paid infant care as a successful strategy to increase the birth rate.

Behaviorism Theory

• From the perspective of behaviorism, emotions and personality are molded as parents reinforce or punish a child. • Suggests that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and external stimuli in the environment. • Learning theories focus on how we respond to events or stimuli rather than emphasizing internal factors that motivate our actions.

implicit memory

• Habit Memory" : knowing how to do something without consciously recalling the steps. • Implicit memory is not verbal; it is memory for movement or thoughts that are not put into words. • Encompasses memories of emotion, body sensation, behavior (doing), and perception (sight, sound, touch). • Implicit memory begins by 3 months, is stable by 9 months, continues to improve for the first two years, and varies from one infant to another

Smiling and laughing

• Happiness is expressed by the social smile. • Curiosity is evident: Infants respond to new objects and experiences • Laughter builds as curiosity does.

Emotional Development

• In their first two years, infants progress from reactive pain and pleasure to complex patterns of social awareness . • Transition from basic instinctual emotions to learned emotions and then to thoughtful ones.

Breast feeding-Family

• Increased survival of other children (because of spacing of births) • Increased family income (because formula and medical care are expensive) • Less stress on father, especially at night.

Theories of language learning-sociocultural theory

• Infants communicate because humans are social beings, dependent on one another for survival and joy. • All human infants seek to master words and grammar in order to join the social world (Tomasello & Herrmann, 2010). • It is the emotional messages of speech, not the words, that propel communication.

Theories of language learning- Evolutionary theory

• Infants teach themselves. • Language learning is genetically programmed to begin at a certain age. • Arises from the genetic impulse to imitate. That impulse has been characteristic of the human species for 100,000 years. • We imitate for survival, and until a few millennia ago, humans had no need to learn languages other than their own. • Language is too complex to be mastered merely through step-by-step conditioning. • Noam Chomsky (1968, 1980) a universal grammar as evidence that humans are born with a mental structure that prepares them to seek some elements of human language • Language acquisition device (LAD)Chomsky's term for a hypothesized mental structure that enables humans to learn language, including the basic aspects of grammar, vocabulary, and intonation. • language is experience-expectant the various languages of the world are all logical, coherent, and systematic. Then some experience-dependent learning occurs as each brain adjusts to a particular language.

B.F Skinner- Theories of language learning behavioural

• Most parents are excellent instructors, responding to their infants' gestures and sounds, thus reinforcing speech. • In every culture, infants learn language faster if parents speak to them often. The core ideas of Skinner's theory are the following: 1. Parents are expert teachers. 2. Repetition strengthens associations, especially when linked to daily life. 3. Well-taught infants become articulate, highly verbal children.

Object Permanence

• Object Permanence is the understanding that an object still exist when they cannot be observed (seen, touched, smelled, or sensed in any way. • Less < 8 months likely lacks object permanence. • Greater > 8 months, will remove the cloth immediately after an object is covered but not if they have to wait for a few seconds. • At 18 months, they search after a wait but not if they have seen the object hidden in one place and then moved to another. They search in the first place, not the second, a mistake called A-not-B. They look where they remember seeing it (A), not where they saw it moved (to B).

Anger and Sadness

• Reactive crying and the positive emotions of joy and contentment are soon joined by negative emotions. • Anger is notable at 6 months, usually triggered by frustration. • Sadness indicates withdrawal and is accompanied by a greater increase in the body's production of cortisol. • Since sadness produces physiological stress (measured by cortisol levels), sorrow negatively impacts the infant. • All social emotions, particularly sadness anger, and fear affect the brain.

Neglected Synchrony

• Responsiveness aids psychosocial and biological development, evident in heart rate, weight gain, and brain maturation. • Babies become less able to respond to social cues. A lack of synchrony is a troubling sign.

Theories of language learning- hybrid theory

• Some aspects of language learning are best explained by one theory at one age and other aspects by another theory at another age. • A master linguist explains that "the human mind is a hybrid system," perhaps using different parts of the brain for each kind of learning (Pinker, 1999, p. 279). • Many parts of the infant brain, including both hemispheres and the prefrontal cortex, some acting hierarchically and some in parallel, are involved in language learning. Research, however, leans more towards evolutionary perspective suggesting: different elements of the language apparatus may have evolved in different ways," which has been ongoing for thousands of years.

Social Awareness

• Temper can be seen as an expression of selfhood: pride, shame, jealousy, embarrassment, disgust, and guilt. • Such awareness typically emerges from family interactions. • Culture is crucial here, with independence valued in some families but not in others. • Negative and positive emotions are strongly influenced by other people as well as by maturation.

The Universal Sequence

• The sequence of language development is the same • Some children learn several languages, some only one; some learn rapidly, others slowly. • But, all follow the same path.

Breast feeding benefits

• Worldwide research confirmed that colostrum saves infant lives, especially if the infant is preterm (Moles et al., 2015; Andreas et al., 2015). • Compared with formula using cow's milk, human milk is sterile, more digestible, and rich in nutrients (Wambach & Riordan, 2014). • Allergies and asthma are less common in children who were breast-fed, and in adulthood, their obesity, diabetes, and heart disease rates are lower. • Doctors worldwide recommend breast-feeding with no other foods—not even juice—for the first months of life while others suggest adding foods (rice cereal and bananas) at 4 months; others want mothers to wait until 6 months (Fewtrell et al., 2011)

Cerebral Palsy

-A disorder that results from damage to the brain's motor centers. People with cerebral palsy have difficulty with muscle control, so their speech and/or body movements are impaired. -begins with genetic sensitivity, teratogens, and maternal infection, which may worsen by insufficient oxygen

induced labor

-Drug-based intervention is ________, in which labor is started, speeded up, or strengthened with Pitocin, which is artificial oxytocin. "Artificially Induced" -increases the need for an epidural -> which increases the likelihood of a cesarean -> which reduces the likelihood of breast-feeding

The third trimester

-Each day of the final 3 months improves the odds not only of survival but also of healthy life and normal cognition. -The critical difference between life and death—or between a fragile, preterm newborn and a robust full-term one—is maturation of the neurological, respiratory, and cardiovascular systems. -The lungs expand and contract, and breathing muscles strengthen as the fetus swallows and spits out amniotic fluid. -The valves of the heart go through a final maturation, as do the arteries and veins throughout the body; the testicles of the male fetus descend; brain pathways form. -The average baby weight is 7½ lbs.

The first trimester (end of third month)

-If the 23rd pair of chromosomes are XY, the SRY gene of the Y triggers the development of male sex organs. Otherwise, female organs develops -The male fetus experiences a rush of the hormone testosterone, affecting many structures and connections in the brain -By the end of the third month, the sex organs may be visible

The second trimester

-Large whole-body movements—flexion, extension, stretching, squirming, and leg kicks. "14-16 weeks gestation" -The heartbeat becomes stronger and speeds up when the fetus is awake and moving. -Digestion and elimination develop. -Fingernails, toenails, buds for teeth form, and hair grows (including eyelashes). -The entire CNS becomes active, regulating heart rate, breathing, and sucking. -Brain advances allow the fetus to reach the age of viability-- the age (about 22 wks) at which a fetus might survive outside the mother's uterus if specialized medical care is available.

Genes influence the effect of teratogens

-One twin may be more severely affected than the other because of different alleles for the enzyme that metabolizes alcohol. -The Y chromosome may be critical: Male fetuses are more likely to be spontaneously aborted, stillborn, or harmed by teratogens than are female fetuses. However, the male-female hazard rate differs from one teratogen to another (Lewis & Kestler, 2012). -One maternal allele results in low levels of folic acid in a woman's bloodstream and hence in the embryo that can produce neural-tube defects.

Responses to Bed-sharing

-Parents can quickly respond to a hungry or frightened baby. "Responsive Attachment" -2x the risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS), when a baby dies unexpectedly while asleep. Experts suggests: -If parents have been drinking, do not co-sleep with babies. -Never use a soft comforter, pillow, or mattress near a sleeping infant. -Child accustomed to co-sleeping, may rely on co-sleeping long past infancy. -Sleeping alone may encourage independence—a trait appreciated in some cultures, abhorred in others.

Brain development

-The brain grows more rapidly than any other organ, from about 25 percent of adult weight at birth to 75 percent at age 2. -Prenatal and postnatal brain growth (measured by head circumference) affects later cognition (Gilles & Nelson, 2012).

Sleep pattern

-Throughout childhood, regular and ample sleep correlates with normal brain maturation, learning, emotional regulation, academic success, and psychological adjustment (Maski & Kothare, 2013). -Newborns sleep about 15 to 17 hours/day. Hours of sleep decrease rapidly with maturity

Primitive streak

-a thin line, ________, appears down the middle of the inner mass of cells -it will become the neural tube 20 to 27 days after conception and develop into the central nervous system (the brain and spinal column)

Behavioral teratogens

-agents and conditions that can harm the prenatal brain, impairing the future child's intellectual and emotional functioning -can be subtle, yet their effects last a lifetime

Couvade

-symptoms of pregnancy and birth experienced by fathers -fathers may experience preg and birth biologically not just psychologically -weight, indigestion, pain during labor, depression Emotion stress increase -> Expectations of strength, supportive, feelings of no right to complain

Fetus

-the name for a developing human organism from the start of the 9th week to birth -encompasses dramatic change, from a tiny, apparently sexless creature smaller than the final joint of your thumb -Discover (Boy or Girl) that's about 20 in long

Co-sleeping

A custom in which parents and their children (usually infants) sleep together in the same room.

Kangaroo care

A form of newborn care in which mothers (and sometimes fathers) rest their babies on their naked chests, like kangaroo mothers that carry their immature newborns in a pouch on their abdomen.

William Greenough

A scientist named _________ identified two experience-related aspects of brain development (Greenough et al., 1987). Adults who understand them avoid the difference-equals-deficit error explained in Chapter 1, while still providing the experiences every baby needs.

Reflex

An unlearned, involuntary action or movement in response to a stimulus. A reflex occurs without conscious thought.

-Weakens contractions -Adds more than 2+ hours to the birthing time -Other Phycological side effects (headaches, dizziness fever, back pains, nauseous, soreness, infections) -May increase perineal tear -Difficulty urinating due to numbness

Cons to using an epidural

-Developmental Milestones are delayed -Cognitive difficulties -Visual and hearing impairments -High-risk newborns become children who cry more, pay attention less, disobey, and experience language delays. -Neurological problems (smaller brain volume, lower IQ, and behavioral issues). -Adults more likely to develop diabetes and heart disease and experience psychological problems depression and bipolar disorder (Lyall et al., 2016).

Consequences of Low Birth Rates

Parental alliance

Cooperation between a mother and a father based on their mutual commitment to their children. In a parental alliance, the parents support each other in their shared parental roles. Communication/support/honesty/affection

-Hyperactivity -Autism -Learning disabilities -Developmental retardation -Cleft -Teeth/Bone damage

Examples of Behavioral teratogens

-Pollutants -Malnutrition -Lead/Mercury -Stress

Examples of Teratogen

-Paternal genes matter too -Intentions and income affect the mother's diet, drug use, prenatal care etc. -Low SES correlates with low birthweight. -Fathers are less likely to be involved if conflictual relationship with the mother. -Salient social norms may reduce fatherly roles and expectations.

Father's Role in Prenatal Development

Miracle babies

Increase in "________" due to high-tech medical support, microsurgery, and weeks in the hospital before they go home

REM (rapid eye movement sleep

Newborns dream a lot: About half of their sleep is ________ : a stage of sleep characterized by flickering eyes behind closed lids, dreaming, and rapid brain waves.

cesarean section (C-section)

One-third of US births occur via ________, whereby the fetus is surgically removed through incisions in the mother's abdomen, rather than the vagina

-Malnutrition -Smoking cigarettes -Genes -Underweight, underaged, undereating mothers -Pollution -Pregnancy in rural areas (distance from prenatal care, unwanted pregnancies, and pesticides)

Potential Low Birth Rates factors

Parents' health

Problems can begin before conception if the sperm, the ovum, or the uterus are affected by the parents' health

-Reduced pain -Allows rest for lengthy labor hours -Alertness/Active role in birthing -May help reduce Postpartum Depression

Pros to using an epidural

Medical Checkups

Provides the first clue as to whether an infant is progressing as expected-or not

cold -> cry, shiver, tuck their legs hot -> push away

Reflexes that maintain constant body temp

breathing, hiccups, sneezing

Reflexes that maintain oxygen supply

sucking, rooting, swallowing, crying, spitting up

Reflexes that manage feeding

Transient Exuberance

The great but temporary increase in the number of dendrites that develop in an infant's brain during the first two years of life.

implantation

The placenta MUST reach the ________ stage

Oxygen, nutrients, removes

The placenta is an organ that develops in your uterus during pregnancy, that provides ________ and ________ to your growing baby and ________ waste products from your baby's blood

Implantation

The process, beginning about 10 days after conception, in which the developing organism burrows into the uterus, where it can be nourished and protected as it continues to develop

False positive

The result of a laboratory test that reports something as true when in fact it is not true.

critical period

Timing is crucial. Some teratogens cause damage only during a ________

Life requires risks

We routinely decide which chances to take and how to minimize harm

Pro: easier to schedule, quicker, safer, and bring more income to hospitals and doctors Cons: require surgeons, anesthesiologists, and several hospital days, more medical complications after birth and less breast-feeding of the newborn, (uterine rupture) so many doctors insist "once a cesarean, always a cesarean"

What are Pros and Cons to C-section

duplicates -> divides -> multiplies -> differentiation

What does the one-celled zygote do?

the fingers and toes separate

What happens day 52/54

head, eyes, ears, nose, and mouth, digestive system start to form, and a minuscule blood vessel that will become the heart begins to pulsate

What happens during week 4?

-upper arms then forearms, palms, fingers, legs, knees, feet, and toes appear. -Each with a distinct cluster of differentiated cells that begin to form the skeleton

What happens during week 5?

Germinal period

What period is the first 14 days of prenatal development after conception, characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation

Placenta and Nucleus

What two distinct parts does the blastocyst create

Pruning

When applied to brain development, the process by which unused connections in the brain atrophy and die. -w/o the dendrites of children with fragile X are too dense and long, making thinking difficult -Brains mature, the process of extending and eliminating dendrites is exquisitely attuned to experience, as the appropriate links in the brain are established, protected, and strengthened (Gao et al., 2016).

a right to make a medically informed decision about delivery

Women have "________" and that home births are sometimes acceptable. (BUT) a skilled midwife or doctor be present, the woman must be low-risk (no csection, not carrying twins, not a first birth after age of 35) and that speedy transportation to a hospital be ready

2 million (1 in 70)

Worldwide, about ________ newborns die each year, with the first hours after birth the most critical

Midwives

________ are as skilled at delivering babies as physicians, but in most nations only medial doctors can perform surgery

Low Birthweight (LBW)

body weight at birth of less than 2,500 grams (5.5 pounds)

Differentiation

crucial as the cells takes on distinct characteristics

Cephalocaudal development

growth and development that occurs from the head down

Sensitive Period

is a time when a particular development is most likely but doesn't have to occur at that time

Critical Period

is a time when something must occur to ensure normal development

blastocyst

mass of about 100 cells, ________ , forms two distinct parts

Doula

one who is trained and dedicated to helping mothers in the entire birth process. A doula provides massage, encouragement, information, and reassurance—all of which relieve stress.

Oxytocin

strengthens the mother's urge to nurture her baby

colostrum

the baby is given to the mother to preserve its body heat and to breast-feed a first meal of __________, a thick substance that helps the newborn's digestive and immune stystems

Spina bifida

the tail of the spine is not enclosed properly

Stepping reflex

when newborns are held upright, feet touching a flat surface, they move their legs as if to walk

Anencephaly

when part of the brain is missing

Moro reflex

when someone bangs on the table they are lying on, newborns fling their arms outward and then bring them together on their chests, crying with wide-open eyes

Palmar grasping response

when something touches newborns' palms, they grip it tightly

Bed-sharing

when two or more people sleep in the same bed