Ch7 Persuasion
Age on the affect of attitudes: Life cycle explanation vs. generational explanation:___ The evidence mostly supports the __ explanation. In surveys and resurveys of groups of younger and older people over several years, the attitudes of older people usually show__ change than do those of young people.
Age on the affect of attitudes: The life cycle explanation: Attitudes change (for example, become more conservative) as people grow older. The generational explanation: Attitudes do not change; older people largely hold onto the attitudes they adopted when they were young. Because these attitudes are different from those being adopted by young people today, a generation gap develops. (Figure 7 offers one example of a large generation gap.) The evidence mostly supports the generational explanation. In surveys and resurveys of groups of younger and older people over several years, the attitudes of older people usually show less change than do those of young people. As David Sears (1979, 1986) put it, researchers have "almost invariably found generational rather than life cycle effects." The teens and early twenties are important formative years (Koenig et al., 2008; Krosnick & Alwin, 1989). Attitudes are changeable then, and the attitudes formed tend to stabilize through middle adulthood.
Analytical people—those with a high need for cognition—enjoy thinking carefully and prefer __ routes (Cacioppo et al., 1996). People who like to conserve their mental resources—those with a low need for cognition—are quicker to respond to such __ cues as the communicator's attractiveness and the pleasantness of the surroundings.
Analytical people—those with a high need for cognition—enjoy thinking carefully and prefer central routes (Cacioppo et al., 1996). People who like to conserve their mental resources—those with a low need for cognition—are quicker to respond to such peripheral cues as the communicator's attractiveness and the pleasantness of the surroundings. See the card on Highly educated, interested, and uninterested audiences. Also see need for cognition.
Central and Peripheral route notes:
Central and Peripheral route notes: These two routes to persuasion—one explicit and reflective, the other more implicit and automatic—were a forerunner to today's "dual processing" models of the human mind. Central route processing often swiftly changes explicit attitudes. Peripheral route processing more slowly builds implicit attitudes through repeated associations between an attitude object and an emotion (Jones et al., 2009; Petty & Briñol, 2008; Walther et al., 2011). Petty and colleagues (1995, 2009) note that central route processing can lead to more enduring change than the peripheral route. When people are thinking carefully, they rely not only on the strength of persuasive appeals but on their own thoughts in response. It's not so much the arguments that are persuasive as the way they get people thinking. And when people think deeply rather than superficially, any changed attitude will more likely persist, resist attack, and influence behavior (Petty et al., 1995, 2009; Verplanken, 1991).
Comparing Media's persuasion: Studies comparing different media find that the more lifelike the medium, the __ persuasive its message. Thus, the order of persuasiveness seems to be: live (face-to-face), videotaped, audiotaped, and written. However, messages are best comprehended and recalled when __. Comprehension is one of the first steps in the persuasion process (recall Figure 2). So Shelly Chaiken and Alice Eagly (1976) reasoned that if a message is difficult to comprehend, persuasion should be greatest when the message is written, because readers will be able to work through the message at their own pace.
Comparing Media's persuasion: Studies comparing different media find that the more lifelike the medium, the more persuasive its message. Thus, the order of persuasiveness seems to be: live (face-to-face), videotaped, audiotaped, and written. However, messages are best comprehended and recalled when written. Comprehension is one of the first steps in the persuasion process (recall Figure 2). So Shelly Chaiken and Alice Eagly (1976) reasoned that if a message is difficult to comprehend, persuasion should be greatest when the message is written, because readers will be able to work through the message at their own pace.
Developing counter arguments: __ __ is exposing people to weak attacks upon their attitudes so that when stronger attacks come, they will have refutations available.
Developing counter arguments: Attitude inoculation is exposing people to weak attacks upon their attitudes so that when stronger attacks come, they will have refutations available. Like inoculations against disease, even weak arguments will prompt counterarguments, which are then available for a stronger attack. This implies, paradoxically, that one way to strengthen existing attitudes is to challenge them, although the challenge must not be so strong as to overwhelm them.
Different people travel different avenues to persuasion. For optimists, __ persuasion works best ("The new plan reduces tuition in exchange for part-time university service"). For pessimists, __ persuasion is more effective ("All students will have to work parttime for the university, lest they pay out-of-state tuition") (Geers et al., 2003).
Different people travel different avenues to persuasion. For optimists, positive persuasion works best ("The new plan reduces tuition in exchange for part-time university service"). For pessimists, negative persuasion is more effective ("All students will have to work parttime for the university, lest they pay out-of-state tuition") (Geers et al., 2003).
Elements of Persuasion, 4 factors: 1. Who says ? (The communicator) __ is Believability. A credible communicator is perceived as both expert and trustworthy. (ethos)
Elements of Persuasion, 4 factors: 1. Who says ? (The communicator) Credibility is Believability. A credible communicator is perceived as both expert and trustworthy. (ethos) Components: a. Speaking style. Another way to appear credible is to speak confidently and fluently. Whether pitching a business plan or giving advice, a charismatic, energetic, confident-seeming person who speaks fluently (without saying "you know" or "uh") is often more convincing (Moore & Swift, 2011; Pentland, 2010). b. Perceived expertise. One reason the "scientific consensus" about climate change fails to persuade is that people count as "expert" someone whose conclusions support their own preexisting values and views. c. Perceived trustworthiness. Online reviews of products are seen as more trustworthy if they are negative—at least for practical products such as cameras. Trustworthiness is also higher if the audience believes the communicator is not trying to persuade them. Researchers showed British adults fake newspaper articles suggesting either that most scientists just want to inform the public about climate change, or that most scientists aim to persuade the public and governments to take action to stop climate change. Those who heard scientists aim only to inform were more likely to report more trust in climate scientists and say they would take action to help the environment by reducing water use or joining community environmental activities (Rabinovich et al., 2012). If you want to persuade someone, start with information, not arguments (Hong & Park, 2012; Sen & Lerman, 2007) related to the sleeper effect:
Elements of Persuasion: 1. Who says ? The communicator See Credibility and Attractiveness:
Elements of Persuasion, 4 factors: 1. Who says ? (The communicator) See Credibility and Attractiveness:
Elements of Persuasion, 4 factors: 1. Who says ? (The communicator) __ (and liking) Having qualities that appeal to an audience. An appealing communicator (often someone similar to the audience) is most persuasive on matters of subjective preference.
Elements of Persuasion, 4 factors: 1. Who says ? (The communicator) Attractiveness (and liking) Having qualities that appeal to an audience. An appealing communicator (often someone similar to the audience) is most persuasive on matters of subjective preference. Even a mere fleeting conversation with someone is enough to increase our liking for that person and our responsiveness to his or her influence (Burger et al., 2001). aka Mere exposure Our liking may open us up to the communicator's arguments (central route persuasion), or it may trigger positive associations when we see the product later (peripheral route persuasion).
Elements of Persuasion, 4 factors: 2. What is Said ? (The message content) Appeals can also focus on what you can gain by using the preventative product ("If you wear sunscreen, you'll have attractive skin") instead of one focusing on what you lose ("If you don't wear sunscreen, you'll have unattractive skin"; O'Keefe & Jensen, 2011). Gain-framed messages focus on the advantages of healthy behavior (not smoking, exercising, wearing sunscreen) are __ effective than those framed in terms of loss (Gallagher & Updegraff, 2012).
Elements of Persuasion, 4 factors: 2. What is Said ? (The message content) Appeals can also focus on what you can gain by using the preventative product ("If you wear sunscreen, you'll have attractive skin") instead of one focusing on what you lose ("If you don't wear sunscreen, you'll have unattractive skin"; O'Keefe & Jensen, 2011). Gain-framed messages focus on the advantages of healthy behavior (not smoking, exercising, wearing sunscreen) are more effective than those framed in terms of loss (Gallagher & Updegraff, 2012).
Elements of Persuasion, 4 factors: 2. What is Said ? (The message content) __ __ people are effected by reason more. __ audiences often use the central route to persuasion. __ audiences take the peripheral route.
Elements of Persuasion, 4 factors: 2. What is Said ? (The message content) Highly educated are effected by reason more. Interested audience often use the central route to persuasion. Uninterested audiences take the peripheral route. Source: p193. Well-educated or analytical people are responsive to rational appeals (Cacioppo et al., 1983, 1996; Hovland et al., 1949). Thoughtful, involved audiences often travel the central route to persuasion; they are more responsive to reasoned arguments. Uninterested audiences more often travel the peripheral route; they are more affected by their liking of the communicator (Chaiken, 1980; Petty et al., 1981).
Elements of Persuasion, 4 factors: 2. What is Said ? (The message content) Messages also become __ persuasive through association with good feelings, such as what often accompanies munching food or hearing pleasant music.
Elements of Persuasion, 4 factors: 2. What is Said ? (The message content) Messages also become more persuasive through association with good feelings, such as what often accompanies munching food or hearing pleasant music.
Elements of Persuasion, 4 factors: 2. What is Said ? (The message content) Messages can also be effective by evoking __ emotions. When persuading people to cut down on smoking, get a tetanus shot, or drive carefully, a fear-arousing message can be potent (de Hoog et al., 2007; Muller & Johnson, 1990).
Elements of Persuasion, 4 factors: 2. What is Said ? (The message content) Messages can also be effective by evoking negative emotions. When persuading people to cut down on smoking, get a tetanus shot, or drive carefully, a fear-arousing message can be potent (de Hoog et al., 2007; Muller & Johnson, 1990). Experiments show that, often, the more frightened and vulnerable people feel, the more they respond (de Hoog et al., 2007; Robberson & Rogers, 1988; Tannenbaum, 2013). However, there are exceptions: People who read apocalyptic warnings about global warming reacted defensively by denying the existence of global warming. The researchers concluded that the apocalyptic message went too far in challenging participants' beliefs that the world is stable, orderly, and just (Feinberg & Willer, 2011). { Playing on fear works best if a message leads people not only to fear the severity and likelihood of a threatened event but also to perceive a solution and feel capable of implementing it (Devos-Comby & Salovey, 2002; Maddux & Rogers, 1983; Ruiter et al., 2001)
Elements of Persuasion, 4 factors: 2. What is Said ? (The message content) Products associated with humor were __ liked, as measured by an implicit attitude test, and were more often chosen.
Elements of Persuasion, 4 factors: 2. What is Said ? (The message content) Products associated with humor were better liked, as measured by an implicit attitude test, and were more often chosen.
Elements of Persuasion, 4 factors: 2. What is Said ? (The message content) Unhappy people ruminate more before reacting, so they are __ easily swayed by weak arguments. (They also produce more cogent persuasive messages [Forgas, 2007].)
Elements of Persuasion, 4 factors: 2. What is Said ? (The message content) Unhappy people ruminate more before reacting, so they are less easily swayed by weak arguments. (They also produce more cogent persuasive messages [Forgas, 2007].)
Elements of Persuasion, 4 factors: 2. What is Said ? (The message content) In one study, a confederate approached someone and asked them if they had lost their wallet. After the people checked and were relieved that they had not, the confederate asked them to buy Christmas cards for charity. Nearly 40 percent bought the cards, compared to only 10 percent who heard the appeal but had not felt the relief of still having their wallets. The researchers named this highly effective approach __-then-relief (Dolinski & Szczuka, 2012). Related to foot-in-the door phenomenon.
Elements of Persuasion, 4 factors: 2. What is Said ? (The message content) In one study, a confederate approached someone and asked them if they had lost their wallet. After the people checked and were relieved that they had not, the confederate asked them to buy Christmas cards for charity. Nearly 40 percent bought the cards, compared to only 10 percent who heard the appeal but had not felt the relief of still having their wallets. The researchers named this highly effective approach fear-then-relief (Dolinski & Szczuka, 2012). Related to foot-in-the door phenomenon.
Elements of Persuasion, 4 factors: 3. How is it Said ? (The message content) The __of __ is the way the message is delivered—whether face-to-face, in writing, on film, or in some other way.
Elements of Persuasion, 4 factors: 3. How is it Said ? (The message content) The channel of communication is the way the message is delivered—whether face-to-face, in writing, on film, or in some other way. With such power, can the media help a wealthy political candidate buy an election? In the United States, the candidate with more money wins 91 percent of the time. Winning candidates for Congress outspent their opponents 2 to 1—$2.3 million compared to $1.1 million (Lowery, 2014). Advertising exposure helps make an unfamiliar candidate into a familiar one. Mere exposure to unfamiliar stimuli breeds liking. Moreover, mere repetition can make things believable (Dechêne et al., 2010; Moons et al., 2009).-
Experiments find that thinking is stimulated by: a. using __ questions b. presenting __ speakers (for example, having each of three speakers give one argument instead of one speaker giving three). c. making people feel __ for evaluating or passing along the message d. __ the message e. getting people's __ attention. The consistent finding with each of these techniques: Stimulating thinking makes strong messages more persuasive and (because of counterarguing) weak messages less persuasive.
Experiments find that thinking is stimulated by: a. using rhetorical questions b. presenting multiple speakers (for example, having each of three speakers give one argument instead of one speaker giving three). c. making people feel responsible for evaluating or passing along the message d.repeating the message e.getting people's undistracted attention. The consistent finding with each of these techniques: Stimulating thinking makes strong messages more persuasive and (because of counterarguing) weak messages less persuasive. The theory also has practical implications. Effective communicators care not only about their images and their messages but also about how their audience is likely to react. The best instructors get students to think actively. They ask rhetorical questions, provide intriguing examples, and challenge students with difficult problems. Such techniques foster the central route to persuasion. In classes in which the instruction is less engaging, you can still provide your own central processing. If you think about the material and elaborate on the arguments, you are likely to do better in the course This simple theory—that what we think in response to a message is crucial, especially if we are motivated and able to think about it—has generated many predictions, most of which have been confirmed (Axsom et al., 1987; Haddock et al., 2008; Harkins & Petty, 1987).
TQ: Persuasion is __ in everyday life.
TQ: Persuasion is inevitable in everyday life.
If a credible person's message is persuasive, its impact may fade as its source is forgotten or dissociated from the message. And the impact of a noncredible person may correspondingly increase over time if people remember the message better than the reason for discounting it (Kumkale & Albarracin, 2004; Pratkanis et al., 1988). This delayed persuasion, after people forget the source or its connection with the message, is called the __ __.
If a credible person's message is persuasive, its impact may fade as its source is forgotten or dissociated from the message. And the impact of a noncredible person may correspondingly increase over time if people remember the message better than the reason for discounting it (Kumkale & Albarracin, 2004; Pratkanis et al., 1988). This delayed persuasion, after people forget the source or its connection with the message, is called the sleeper effect. Official Def: sleeper effect A delayed impact of a message that occurs when an initially discounted message becomes effective, such as we remember the message but forget the reason for discounting it.
In answer to the list of questions at the beginning of this section, the best advice for persuasion is the following:
In answer to the list of questions at the beginning of this section, the best advice for persuasion is the following: ∙ Use logic or emotion, depending on the audience and the message. ∙ Ask a small favor before making a big request. ∙ Offer two-sided messages that challenge arguments against your message. ∙ Go first or last for best results.
__ is the process by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.
Persuasion is the process by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors. Yet generally we call it "education" when we believe it, "propaganda" when we don't ( Lumsden et al., 1980).
__ effect : Other things being equal, information presented first usually has the most influence. See also recency effect.
Primacy effect : Other things being equal, information presented first usually has the most influence. See also recency effect.
__ effect : Information presented last sometimes has the most influence. Recency effects are less common than primacy effects.
Recency effect : Information presented last sometimes has the most influence. Recency effects are less common than primacy effects. Forgetting creates the recency effect (1) when enough time separates the two messages and (2) when the audience commits itself soon after the second message. When the two messages are back-to-back, followed by a time gap, the primacy effect usually occurs (Figure 4). This is especially so when the first message stimulates thinking (Haugtvedt & Wegener, 1994).
Resisting Persuasion: Challenging existing belief systems and developing counter arguments to those challenges (see attitude inoculation)
Resisting Persuasion: Challenging existing belief systems and developing counter arguments to those challenges (see attitude inoculation) How do people resist persuasion? A prior public commitment to one's own position, stimulated perhaps by a mild attack on the position, breeds resistance to later persuasion. pp217.
What is a "poison parasite" ?
Robert Cialdini and colleagues (2003) agree that appropriate counterarguments are a great way to resist persuasion. But they wondered how to bring them to mind in response to an opponent's ads. The answer, they suggest, is a "poison parasite" defense—one that combines a poison (strong counterarguments) with a parasite (retrieval cues that bring those arguments to mind when seeing the opponent's ads). Antismoking ads have effectively done this, for example, by re-creating a "Marlboro Man" commercial set in the rugged outdoors but now showing a coughing, decrepit cowboy.
Strength of Two-sided appeals (acknowledge both sides): In simulated trials, a defense case becomes more credible when the defense brings up damaging evidence before the prosecution does (Williams et al., 1993).
Strength of Two-sided appeals (acknowledge both sides): In simulated trials, a defense case becomes more credible when the defense brings up damaging evidence before the prosecution does (Williams et al., 1993). Thus, a political candidate speaking to a politically informed group, or a community group advocating for or against gay rights, would indeed be wise to respond to the opposition. So, if your audience will be exposed to opposing views, offer a two-sided appeal. Carol Werner and colleagues (2002) showed the disarming power of a simple two-sided message in an experiment on aluminum-can recycling. Signs added to wastebaskets in a University of Utah classroom building said, for example, "No Aluminum Cans Please!!!!! Use the Recycler Located on the First Floor, Near the Entrance." When a final persuasive message acknowledged and responded to the main counterargument—"It May Be Inconvenient. But It Is Important!!!!!!!!!!!"—recycling reached 80 percent (double the rate before any message, and more than in other message conditions).
The central route to persuasion Occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts. Effective for educated/interested people.
The central route to persuasion Occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts. Effective for educated/interested people.
The crucial aspect of central route persuasion is not the message but the __ it evokes in a person's mind. Our minds are not sponges that soak up whatever pours over them. If a message summons favorable thoughts, it persuades us. If it provokes us to think of contrary arguments, we remain unpersuaded. What circumstances breed counterargument? One is knowing that someone is going to try to persuade you. You might develop a list of arguments to counter every conceivable argument they might make—and you'd then be __ likely to be persuaded by them (Freedman & Sears, 1965). Persuasion is also enhanced by a __ that inhibits counterarguing (Festinger & Maccoby, 1964; Keating & Brock, 1974; Osterhouse & Brock, 1970). Political ads often use this technique. The words promote the candidate, and the visual images keep us occupied so we don't analyze the words. Distraction is especially effective when the message is simple (Harkins & Petty, 1982; Regan & Cheng, 1973).
The crucial aspect of central route persuasion is not the message but the responses it evokes in a person's mind. Our minds are not sponges that soak up whatever pours over them. If a message summons favorable thoughts, it persuades us. If it provokes us to think of contrary arguments, we remain unpersuaded. What circumstances breed counterargument? One is knowing that someone is going to try to persuade you. You might develop a list of arguments to counter every conceivable argument they might make—and you'd then be less likely to be persuaded by them (Freedman & Sears, 1965). Persuasion is also enhanced by a distraction that inhibits counterarguing (Festinger & Maccoby, 1964; Keating & Brock, 1974; Osterhouse & Brock, 1970). Political ads often use this technique. The words promote the candidate, and the visual images keep us occupied so we don't analyze the words. Distraction is especially effective when the message is simple (Harkins & Petty, 1982; Regan & Cheng, 1973).
The __-in-the-__ technique is a strategy for gaining a concession. After someone first turns down a large request (the door-in-the-face), the same requester counteroffers with a more reasonable request. aka, bargaining with a lower price after first giving a very high one.
The door-in-the-face technique is a strategy for gaining a concession. After someone first turns down a large request (the door-in-the-face), the same requester counteroffers with a more reasonable request. aka, bargaining with a lower price after first giving a very high one.
The __-in-the-__ phenomenon is the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request. EX: Drive Carefully sign experiment.
The foot-in-the-door phenomenon is the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request. EX: Drive Carefully sign experiment. Another useful experiment: Imagine being a young woman walking down the street in France. You're approached by a young man who says, "Hello, I'm sorry to bother you but I was wondering if you were busy now. If not, we could have a drink together if you have some time." Only 3 percent said yes. But if he first asked them for a light for his cigarette or for directions, five times as many (15 percent) assented (Gueguen et al., 2008). Small requests can lead to bigger choices. (Hopefully, being aware of such persuasion tactics will make you less vulnerable to them.)
The __ technique is a tactic for getting people to agree to something. People who agree to an initial request will often still comply when the requester ups the ante. People who receive only the costly request are less likely to comply with it.
The lowball technique is a tactic for getting people to agree to something. People who agree to an initial request will often still comply when the requester ups the ante. People who receive only the costly request are less likely to comply with it. Airlines and hotels use the tactic by attracting inquiries with great deals available on only a few seats or rooms; then, when those aren't available, they hope the customer will agree to a higher-priced option. Later experiments found that this works only if people verbally commit to their choice. For example, students were called and asked to donate $5 to a scholarship fund for poor students. Forty-two percent agreed. Other students were lowballed: They were at first told that if they made the donation they would receive a coupon for a free smoothie at Jamba Juice. If they agreed, the caller then said they just found out they had run out of coupons—but would the student still be willing to donate? Seventy-eight percent said yes. But if the students heard that the coupons were gone before they had a chance to say whether they would donate, only 16 percent agreed (Burger & Cornelius, 2003). Many states now have laws that allow customers a few days to think over their purchases and cancel. To counter the effect of these laws, many companies use what the sales-training program of one company calls "a very important psychological aid in preventing customers from backing out of their contracts" (Cialdini, 1988, p. 78). They simply have the customer, rather than the salesperson, fill out the agreement. Having written it themselves, people usually live up to their commitment
The __ for __ is the motivation to think and analyze. Assessed by agreement with items such as "The notion of thinking abstractly is appealing to me" and disagreement with items such as "I only think as hard as I have to."
The need for cognition is the motivation to think and analyze. Assessed by agreement with items such as "The notion of thinking abstractly is appealing to me" and disagreement with items such as "I only think as hard as I have to."
The __ route to persuasion Occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness Effective for uninterested people.
The peripheral route to persuasion Occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness Effective for uninterested people. aka, cues that trigger automatic acceptance without much thinking. In these situations, easily understood familiar statements are more persuasive than novel statements with the same meaning. Thus, for uninvolved or distracted people, "Don't put all your eggs in one basket" has more impact than "Don't risk everything on a single venture" (Howard, 1997).
The __-__ flow of __ is the process by which media influence often occurs through opinion leaders, who in turn influence others.
The two-step flow of communication is the process by which media influence often occurs through opinion leaders, who in turn influence others.
What makes persuasion effective? Researchers have explored four factors: the __ (who says it), the __ (what is said), the __ (how it is said), and the __ (to whom it is said).
What makes persuasion effective? Researchers have explored four factors: the communicator (who says it), the message (what is said), the channel (how it is said), and the audience (to whom it is said).
