Challenge and Change, Grade 12, Exam

Cyclical Theory of Change

- Change in society is much like changing seasons - trends, traditions, beliefs, and values in society are cyclical, coming into fashion one period, and falling out in favour of the next. - stresses the natural growth and demise of cultural expressions. - a society reaches a certain level of power and relevance, and then it will die off.

Jean Piaget

- Cognitive Development - Theorized that, to make sense of the world, children and adolescents create mental ideas (schemas) which they pour their life's experiences. The process of building schemas continues into adulthood. - Children move through 4 stages of cognitive development. Changes to the cognitive functions and behaviours of adolescents occur in the formal operational stage.

Davis and Moore

- Definitive Functionalists behind the explanation of social inequality - The greater the functional importance of a position, the more rewards society attaches to it. The overall effect of a system of unequal rewards is a more productive society.

Theories of Change

- Evolutionary - Cyclical - Challenge and Response - Functionalist - Conflict

Functionalist Theory of Change

- Functionalists study how society maintains stability and social order in the face of so many competing forces that drive change. - culture patterns and traditions contribute to social stability. - society is affected by social institutions - the establishment of new institutions generates new norms, roles, social expectations, and relationships.

Strauss-Howe (Generational Theory)

- Identified a repeating cycle in generational values. - Identified 4 Generational Archetypes - Claim that generational values alternate between 4 eras, which they call "Turnings." These eras produce generations of individuals who share the same values and outlook on life. - 4 Eras: Prophet, Hero, Nomad, Artist - During each 80 year period, each of the four turnings emerges, becomes popular, and gives way to the next. - Cycle always begins with a generation in a period of crisis.

Standards of Deviation

- Location - Age - Social Status - Individual Societies

Lawrence Kohlberg

- Moral Development - Modelled theory on Piaget's stages of cognitive development. - Interviewed children - 3 levels and 6 stages of moral development. - Key Finding -- there is a process of internalization that occurs as the individual develops moral behaviour. - Internalization is the change that occurs when a person's behaviour goes from being controlled externally to behaviour that is controlled by the personal standards and beliefs of the individual.

Conflict Theory

- Power (wealth) is the basis for relationships among groups and individuals and in society and is the source of certain forms of social conflict. - Socio-economic status varies among teens, influencing their purchasing power, role as consumer, and post-secondary choices.

Melvin Tumin

- Principles of Social Stratification - Argued that the importance of a position is not always determined by a high salary or level of prestige. - Economic rewards and prestige are not the only means of encouraging people to fill critical positions. Personal pleasure and intrinsic satisfaction also motivate people the enter particular careers. - Ability often doesn't determine an individual's success. Instead, gender and class are better predictors of who obtains positions associated with wealth, power, and prestige.

Erik Erikson

- Psychosocial Development/Adolescents - Believes that the primary motivation for human behaviour is social affiliation for ever. - Theory emphasizes the continual development of personality and behaviour through the life cycle. - 8 distinct stages of development. Each stage poses its own challenge and crisis for the individual to both face and overcome. - Describes adolescence as the period during which the individual's primary function is to establish a personal identity. - Identity must be fashioned out of the individuals efforts. - Believes that during adolescence, the individual develops a personal philosophy or ideology to go along with the personal identity they seek.

Phillip Zimbardo

- Stanford University Professor - Stanford University Prison Experiment - There are 2 prevailing temperaments among people that lead to either positive or negative change in the world. - Heroic Imagination -- people like Gandhi - Hostile Imagination -- people who unleash their worst behaviour on others. - While most people conform, yield, and succumb to the negative power of many social situations, there are always some who refuse and resist. - Those who exhibit Heroic Imagination can be compared to Upstanders. - Believes that we must teach people to think of themselves as heroes in waiting, ready to take heroic action in a particular situation that may occur only once in their life time.

Theories of Deviance

- Strain Theory - Control Theory - Differential Association Theory - Labelling Theory - Conflict Perspective on Deviance

Schools of Thought

- Structural Functionalism - Symbolic Interaction - Conflict Theory - Feminist Theory - Social Exchange

Margaret Mead

- Studies of adolescent girls -- participant observation - studied the cultural and biological factors that shaped adolescent girls in Samoa. - Observed, interacted, and interviewed 68 girls, between the ages of 9-20. To recover important data about adolescence, stress, and cultural norms. - Argued that cultural factors, rather than biological ones, caused the emotional and psychological stress of adolescence.

Evolutionary Theory of Change

- all societies evolve from simple beginnings and over time become more complex - Progress-- measured by a society's ability to move toward better living conditions, as well as its ability to innovate. - Change-- positive and beneficial force in society.

Conflict Theory of Change

- concerned with the inequities that plague society - groups with opposing interest are in conflict - greatest conflict is between the rich and the poor - every society is subjected to constant change, and that change brings disorganization and conflict, subjecting society to constant conflict. - conflict between those with authority -- obey class (without conflict) is forced to follow the command class.

The Challenge and Response Theory of Change

- every society faces initial challenges posed by it physical environment and by internal and external forces aimed at its destruction. The ability to respond to these threats will determine a society's fate. - successfully responding to challenges is the measure of a great society - new civilizations are built upon the mistakes of past cultures, they are careful not the repeat the same mistakes.

Feminist Theory

- social conflict is created by inequality related to gender issues and roles. - female teens may face barriers to pursuing their chosen career paths.

Structural Functionalism

- social structures exist to serve the needs of society and its members - adolescents accept their role as students in the education system, which serves the important function of transmitting knowledge, skills, and values necessary in adult life.

Symbolic Interaction

- the individual's role and function in society is determined by his or her interpretation and reaction to it. - adolescents are faced with the developmental tasks of determining their identity and forging an individual perspective. Adolescents are coming to see themselves as more than just a member of a group (such as the family).

Social Exchange

-weighs the costs and benefits of belonging to and participation in personal relationships and social groups. - social and peer pressure force many adolescents to conform to a group behaviour without adequately weighing the benefits and costs to themselves.

Ascribed Status

A social position assigned to a person without regard for his or her characteristics or talents.

Stratified Society

A society in which there is an unequal distribution of rewards among its members.

Social Justice

A society or institution that is based on the principles of fairness and equality and that understands and values human rights.

Macrosociology

A sociological approach that examines and analyzes social systems on a large scale.

Caste System

A system of social inequality in which a person's permanent social status is determined at birth based on their parents' ascribed characteristics.

Generational Replacement

A theory claiming that changes in adolescents behaviours and attitudes are important markers for long-term social change.

Conformity

Act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours to what individuals perceive as normal to their society or social group.

Deviance

Behaviour that violates the standards of conduct or expectations of a group or society.

Ethnocentrism

Belief that one's own culture, nation, or ethnic group is superior to all others.

Egoistic Suicide

Individual is not part of or supported by a cohesive social group and may have an overpowering sense of personal responsibility, which may lead to guilt over a perceived moral weakness or failure. Ostracized by the group, individual depends on a personal code of conduct but will feel isolated and helpless in times of stress. The social group has little effect on the actions of the individual.

Social Science Disciplines

Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology

Anomic Suicide

Responds to social change and crisis negatively. Times of social upheaval or change may break down social norms. Individual comes to believe that there are no clear modes of behaviour to guide him or her; the person becomes confused, life is rendered meaningless, and his or her role in social living pointless. Suicide is often brought on by a major disruption in the individual life, such as death of a parent or friend.

Max Weber

Sociology and Social Change - Culture is the predominant force in shaping human actions and society - Rationalization, the process whereby all aspect of human behaviour and social relationships are subject to administration, eventually leads society to be covered by an "iron cage", with control resting in bureaucracy. Weber on Class, Status, and Power - No single characteristic totally defines a person's position within the stratification system. - Status and Power = important factors for social inequality - Class, status, and power all influence each other and work together to contribute to social inequality.

Karly Marx

Sociology and Social Change - social change is the result of competition and the conflict that arises between social classes battling for power and economic resources. - Marxism -- sociologists use to view society and social change. - Economic power and material wealth create a situation of natural competition between classes in society. This conflict propels change to the economic system and to society as a whole. - Economic production and material wealth constitute real power in society and are the basis for most relationships in society.

Emile Durkheim

Suicide - suicide is a social phenomenon, linked to social causes powerful enough to influence an individual's behaviours and actions. - the deterioration of social relationships, as well as highly overbearing social relationships, could lead an individual to suicide as a remedy to their personal and social difficulties. - 3 Distinct Types of Suicide: Altruistic, Egoistic, Anomic

Absolute Poverty

The deprivation of resources that considered essential -- enough food, fresh water, and a safe place to live.

Fledging Adults

The groups of young adults, between the ages of 20-29, who for various social, economic, and/or emotional reasons, do not leave the parental home and transition into adulthood by achieving complete autonomy from their parents.

Egocentrism

The heightened self-awareness and self-consciousness.

Altruistic Suicide

The individual is so closely integrated with the social group that he or she will commit suicide for some perceived benefit to the group. This person believes he or she is dying for a greater social cause.

Social Movement

The most highly structured, rational, and enduring form of collective behaviour.

Socialization

The process by which an individual learns to function successfully in society, by internalizing the values, norms, and roles of that society.

Acculturation

The process of contact, exposure, and exchange of ideas between different cultures that results in adaptations and changes to both groups.

Social Stratification

The ranking of people in any given society by class and status.

Microsociology

The study of small groups and individuals within a society.

Social Change

Transformations in the beliefs, social interactions, practices, organization, and structures of society,

Social Paradigm Shift

When a new set of ideals, beliefs, and values become strong enough to affect and change the way individuals see and perceive reality.

Diffusion

the spread of a cultural trait from one society to another through social contact.