Chapter 18
Cultural-linguistic markets
build on common languages and common cultures that span borders -Smaller than global, but larger than national
India's state TV (Doordarshan) intiallay tried to use TV to reach better health and agricultural practices to villagers
but in the 1970's & 80's, then-prime minister discovered it to be a very powerful political tool -Urban and middle-class viewers rebelled, demanding more entertainment -After that, Doorarshan had to be content to insert subtle pro-development themes (child health care and family planning) into soap operas that people like to watch
Music now sells in many forms
cassette, CDs, MP3 and streaming online -Piracy is prevalent in most places that music groups earn a living, mostly from live performances
There can be a contradictory tug-of-war between
cultural proximity and imported production values or, the cosmopolitan appela of sophisticated imported programs
International films, even when produced at national expense
do not break through the largely Hollywood-based control of international distribution -Most national markets, with the exception of larger nations are not big enough to make money with films that have little chance of international distribution
Production technology costs are going down, groups od experinced tehcnicians and artists have been trained in most countries, new stars/producers emerge on Youtube, and a number of low-cost program forms or genres have been devloped
even more expensive shows, like soap operas, are increasingly produced nationally
After the 1840's, newswire services, based on the then-now technology of the telegraph, the US Associated Press (AP), British Reuters, and Agence France Presse (AFP) were the:
first electronic news services, anticipating the increase in speed and volume of information of the internet
American producers used the cartel monopoly power to
fix prices, allocate and dominate markets, undercut and destroy other nation's film industries, and control global distributions in favor of Hollywood films over all others
Format sales give countries a sort of "program in a box" to produce locally
foreign format shows are invading TV in the US and else where in big ways
Privatizing
government assets refers to selling them to private owners -done to take broadcasting out of the public budget and make it privately supported through advertising -Many public broadcasters are feeling budget pressures, so many public and state channels now carry advertising
Korea has a much higher proportion of broadband users than the US does
government programs push this infrastructure and make it affordable -The US is barely in the top 20 globally in terms of speed, quality, and access to broadband internet
One threat to global and local music is piracy
in many countries, local and national musicians cannot make any money selling records since nearly all copies sold are pirated illegally -Artists support themselves by touring and giving concerts --> deterring people from becoming professional musicians
Regionalization of media is growing, as well
in several regions of the world, magazines, newspapers, and books have been transported easily across borders for centuries, serving regions of common language or culture
Music is much cheaper to produce than film or TV
it serves a wide variety of subcultures and market niches within and across nations because of this
Besides language, other aspects of culture are important in defining audiences
jokes, slang, historical references, political references, the familiarity of landscape and city spaces, gossip about stars, and remarks about current people and events are often culture or nation specific
Although geographical closeness or proximity helps media cross borders
language and culture seem more important than geography
Regionalization
links nations together based on geographic culture, linguistic, and historical commonalities
Glocal
local people borrowing or adapting global ideas -national soap opera reflects local culture, it can still help other countries if sponsored by a company in another country
Companies would refocus the market where they traditionally had influence and knew how to operate
major companies also suffered setbacks speculating in licenses for emerging wireless technology like third generation wireless
New has flowed across borders for hundreds of years
many early newspaper and newsletters installed correspondents in other countries so that they could publish foreign news for themselves
American TV exports represent a steadily increasing share of TV producers' profits
many shows made more money overseas than in the US, a number of American producers began to shape their programs to anticipate and maximize overseas sales in the 1980's and 1990's
A number of national telecommunication companies are going international or regional
many telephone companies brought telephone, cellular telephone, and data communications companies to Latin America, Africa, and Asia in the 1990's -As global telecommunications capacity busted in early 2000's, many firms sold off their international interests as profitability declined
Truly globalized markets are emerging as
many youths are exposed to the internet and shop online
American media still play a prominent role in the global scene, but
media industries from a number of other countries are also heavily involved across the world -There are also media whose goal is to cover a region -Some media, like FB, now explicitly target the world even if they started in a very specific place
As music production becomes cheaper all over the world
more groups are recording at all levels: local, national, and regional
As radio and TV became the dominant news media in many countries, the wire services developed material for them and later so did satellite channels (CNN)
news agencies now have to compete with the many news sources now available to everyone online
Cultural imperialism
occurs when some countries dominate others through the media Media products made in the United States dominate popular culture worldwide -The Simpsons (in over 200 countries in 2015) -Rupert Murdoch's companies reach about 3/4 of the globe with satellite Tv signals and even more countries with movies and Tv programs
The spread of the internet was initially slower, but growing rapidly
often uses cellular infrastructure to make up for the lack of wireless phone of cable TV
An increasing number of firms (like Fox and Sony) do actively look for international films to distribute to the US and abroad as well as,
opportunities to coproduce films with foreign companies
Although American-made films, TV shows, and music remain attractive to world audiences,
other global, regional, national, and local media industries, audiences, and regulatory bodies are emerging, with a wide variety of ideas, genres, and agendas
TV flow from news sources increased dramatically
other satellite-based news operations began to offer entire newscasts and even all-day news coverage across border, primarily to satellite TV receivers and cable TV operations
Many experts fear that relatively limited access to computers will keep businesses and professionals in the poorest developing countries from competing in a globalized market
others now hope that smartphones and tablets may make up some of the gap in receiving and creating information
Although cultural proximity is a strong factor, audiences in many countries still respond ver well to some kinds of important programs
particularly those whose emphasis is on action, sex, and violence, where dialogue or cultural nuances are minimized -Many of the most popular US films now focus on action and are explicitly aimed at foreign markets since it brings up to 3x more revenue
Rating and audience research over the years tend to show that, given a choice, people tend to
prefer to see national content in media
Telecommunication networks and the Internet permit outsourcing
ranging from computer programming to telephone call centers -Standardizes technologies into a single network that was much cheaper to use (small businesses could upgrade to faster technology) -Lack of information communication technology still hampers poorer countries
Facebook could be a dominant force in global media if it achieves its plan to
reach most of the world's mobile phones
Globalization
reducing differences that existed between nations in time, space, and culture
Localized
refers to a global company adapting its programs to local markets to make them more attractive
Turkey, Egypt, and Lebanon dominate a regional market in the Middle East characterized by
shared geography, language, and/or culture -Similar to the regional market for Mexican TV that includes US Hispanics
A significant exception to the localization of TV in many places is TV news
since the 1970's, TV news flow began to increase steadily from wire services, such as the Associated Press and news film sources from UK -They offered filmed footage for various national TV operations to use in their newscasts
Imported Tv formats are often replacing imported TV programs
since they have some advantaged of cultural proximity while retaining the value of using formulas that are proven rating successes elsewhere
There is a truly global music industry based primarily in the Us and Europe
speaking to a globalized youth culture
UNESCO
started in 1946, not with a regulatory focus, but with a mandate to increase exchanges of knowledge, education, and media between countries, hoping to reduce war and conflict in the long run
Technology changes, like global flow of music files over the internet can increase access to US music, but
technologies, like internet radio, digital downloads or streaming, and videos on YouTube are all increasingly used for regional and national music
Even as global and cultural linguistic markets for media are all increasingly important
the main point at which media are paid for through advertising fees, created, regulated, and consumed remains the nation
Cultural proximity
the preference of audiences for media in their own language and culture
Satellite footprint
the surface area covered by the satellite's signal -Almost automatically cover multiple countries , requiring international agreements on coverage and standards
The globalization of media is probably the most pervasive at the level of technology and media industry models ways of organizing and creating media
the world is becoming a more integrated market based in capitalist or market place economics -This exerts pressures to make media more commercial, supported by ads aimed at consumers, and to privatize or commercializes telecommunications or other media that were once government owned
Many producers have discovered that making too many references to current politics, use too much slang, or otherwise focus too narrowly on current local issues
their program are less well received form around the world -Seinfeld is too specific to the US -Sex and the City and The Simpsons does better abroad
Frequency and orbit allocations are routinely recorded by the ITU's B (boradcastig) division and overseen by periodic World Administrative Radio Conferences
they deice which country gets which orbit and frequencies -Poor countries complained this favors the larger ones
Hollywood studios, organized under the MPAA, have worked together to promote exports and control overseas distribution networks
they have done so with cooperation and collusion -Can be considered an anticompetitive violation of antitrust laws if were done domestically (permitted under Webb-Pomerene Act 1918)
People find international soap interesting because
they speak deeply to key issues for almost everyone: -the need to get ahead -the need to keep your family together -the ups and downs of romance -complex emotions that family life stirs up
In order for American firms to do Internet business in Europe, they have to negotiate an adjustment to those European rules
this is an area in which European standards may well push the United States toward stricter rules on privacy than would otherwise have been the case
As smartphones become primary means of accessing the internet
those networks are finally being built and becoming profitable -particularly in developing areas where cable never existed -Middle income nations are pushing to complete national 3G coverage -Advanced markets have 4G or LTE
Global corporations have to meet EU rules to operate in the large part of the global economy
those rules may become their working global standard
ITU created a third major dividion, development
to work with developing countries to accelerate their adoption of new telecomminications and broadcast-related technologies -Created WSIS in 2003 to focus on needs to promote greater internet access in developing countries. Also challenged US control voer Internet standards via ICANN
International law
treaties between countries, multi-country agreements, and rules established by international organizations
International media and telecommunication systems are regulated differently from national media systems
usually no direct enforcement power and regulation requires a consensus among nations that the proposed regulations or changes serve their various interests
People use the internet to find information and many have similar questions
webpages can be translated into 40 different languages instead of developing a separate webpage for each country. -Controversy over global campaigns and some firms find it better to go local in marketing strategies
Those who prefer and imported program are also more likely to be
well-off, better-educated, and urban
Twenty years ago, both the rich and poor's experiences relied on TV, but this is now changed
while over 90% of South Koreans have broadband internet access, less than 2% of Mozambicans have any kind of internet access
The Us dominates the film world
-American films filled over 80% of theater seats in Europe in 2014 -Overseas sales can more than triple those in the US
The strength of national and local radio has a great deal to do with a revival in national and local music around the globe
-Artists can be heard around the world on many station that appeal to affluent and globalized young people, but other stations are playing music by local artists --> appealing to more middle-class, working-class and poor people
Most often, music development has been left to musicians's initiatiave, market forces, and audience demand
-Audience members are often willing to pay for local and national music, although they also listen to and purchase global music
Some countries are getting creative with financial incentives to promote national film production
-Brazil lettgin natoinal and international companies deduct any losses on Brazilian film investment from their taxes --> film investment and production increased by 100 films a yeay
Rising trend for local versions of popular shows
-Brazilian version of Big Brother in its 15th season in 2015
When AT&T invested in foreign telecommunication companies, it also had competition
-British Telecom (UK) -Telefonica (Spain) T-Mobile (Germany) in the US
Internet is a revolutionary force in global information flow and a current challenge for many governments
-Can read news about your own country in official sources and foreign newspapers, international newswire servicesm political dissidents, and other sources not approved by government -Government controlling flows into country to limit access to certain content (politically threatening info)
Governments sometimes require that a certain proportion of nationally produced music be played on radio stations
-Canada requires satellite radio Sirius to include Canadian content -May subsidize national music industries to make sure that local music is produced
Nations vary considerable and what they can or will do to create media
-Companies based in larger, more prosperous nations can create more media content in those in small, poorer nations -Production companies in the US, UK, Japan, India, South Korea, and other media powers can afford lavish production values
Among the main issues in globalization of communications media are:
-Cultural imperialism -Media and information flows -Free flow of information -Media trade -Hacking and cyber-warfare between nations (and possibly large companies, as well) -The effects of media on national development.
In the European Union (EU) and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) regions (Canada, US, and Mexico), governments have negotiated agreements on ohw to handle such media border crossings
-EU 1989 tried to have "TV without frontiers" within EU, but the attempt to produce programming for a Europe wide TV market proved difficult --> Europeans are still divided by language and culture (don't want to read or watch in another language)
Quite a few films are produced in Asia (primarily India and China)
-Egypt is the film center of the Arab world -Nigeria of West Africa -Mexico and Brazil produce more films than any other Latin American countries Shows that film industries can be maintained, even in some developing countries if the domestic market is large or if the film companies produce for a multicountry audience and market
ITU is one of the few organizations to achieve any real power and change
-Encouraged ICANN to create URLs in all languages to enable global use of internet -Main division of ITU (ITU-T, telecommunications) is involved with technical standards for telecommunications -Controls some of the same regulatory problems individual nations solve within borders -Allocates the space orbits for satellite, since those orbits lie above and across national boundaries
Language provides a strong natural barrier to media improts
-In the US, most of what little imported TV or film comes from UK, Canada, New Zealand, or Australia because they are similar culturally and speak the same language -Many global youth are getting used to listening to music in English --> some have to sing in English to break into US market
Global institutions and companies have a major impact
-International Telecommunication Union (ITU) allocate satellite orbits, determine broadcast frequencies, and define the standard for telephones, mobile phones, faxes, and Internet connections -Cable & Wireless of the UK, Telefonica (Spain) run much of the world's communications infrastructure -Rupert Murdoch reached people directly with media and forced domestic competitors to react to them
Public broadcasters sometimes have let political parties control their news and information programs
-Italy, Silvio Berlusconi rose to political power by controlling the dominant three private networks, then maintained power, despite his conviction for tax evasion, by also controlling 3 public TV networks as prime minister
Where other aspects of culture are shared can help build cross-national markets
-Latin American countries used to import American situation comedies in the 1950's and 1960's --> now tend to import comedy shows from one another -US Spanish speaking audiences who usually prefer Mexican shows to Hollywood since they feel more familiar
National government can help or hinder media growth
-National goals for media, reflected in government policies, are often very different and they significantly affect how media are structured and what they create -Some nations, like China, expect media to cooperate with government political and economic goals -Some like Saudi Arabia or Pakistan, expect media to project a certain set of religious values
Majority of media companies have been structured to serve national markets, even though transnational and global companies are on the rise
-National governments have far more effective control over media through station licensing, economic controls, technology controls, and subsidies than regional or global institutions or treaties
Streaming on demand is a new trend, complicating film and TV distribution
-Netflix pushing international growth hard --> over 130 countries in 20 languages
Internet has attracted a wide variety of unexpected new users in a variety of countries
-Nonprofit and governmental organizations (human rights groups, churches, labor unions, etc.) -Tool for dictators who use social media to identity dissidents whom they arrest
Mobiles have exploded globally so that there is an average 90 mobiles per 100 people in most of the world
-Poorest areas lag behind -Mobile phones are the fastest at diffusing communication services since TV -Most countries have cell service as their primary telephone and increasingly as their major form of access to the internet
The internet exploded out of the US and into the rest of the world
-Proved attractive almost everywhere but computers and telephones that form the backbone of the internet are in much shorter supply in most developing countries
Since 1990, European, Asian, and other countries have increased private commercial broadcasting and reduced government and public ownership
-Publics often push for more broadcasting choices -Advertisers (both local and foreign) push to have commercial stations to put advertising on -Most countries have liberalized competition in broadcasting by permitting new private companies and individuals to enter the market
The Internet raises a number of new prospects for communication across borders
-Sending emails -WWW -Social networks -Music of video downloading
Other tough regulatory issues on the near horizon for the global Internet:
-Setting and collecting taxes on Internet commerce -Many European and other countries get much of their revenue from sales taxes that are evaded by Internet commerce. -Countries around the world also have very different positions on things like pornography or hate speech
Global media are not a Hollywood monopoly
-Simpsons made by animators in South Korea -Some major US media companies have been recently owned by Japanese (sony) or Canadian (Warne Records) companies -Rupert Murdoch: first based in Australia --> UK --> US
Many international producers have started working with Hollywood in financing, distribution, or even broader coproduction
-Some countries (Canada) offer sizable production incentives to have Hollywood companies shoot there -Becoming common to shoot exteriors in one country and sound stage scenes in another, edit in another, and add special effects in another Low-cost shooting locales, but finance and distribution remains centered in Hollywood
The purchase and use of computers and tablets have been spreading worldwide, but unequally
-Some countries: only the rich can afford -Others: government does not allow (Korea and Cuba fear residents will learn inconvenient truths about their living conditions)
A handful of publicly traded firms dominate the most globalized part of the media system
-Some of the largest are Disney, Comcast, Rupert Murdoch's news corporation, Warner-EMI, Sony -other main global firms: Apple, Microsoft, Google, FB, Amazon, Vivendi
In Africa, Asia, and Eastern Europe, governments often have owned and operated broadcasting systems in order to control radio and TV content
-Stated intention: to use radio and TC as powerful tools to develop their societies, but controlling politics is often the hidden agenda
Government controls over private broadcasters has varied among these countries
-Stricter controls in Canada than in the US (gov has tried to restrict the importation of programs from the US) -Many Latin American and Eastern European governments have exerted strong control over private broadcasters to obtain political support, mostly through economic pressures -In most private broadcasting systems, entertainment programming has dominated to meet the demands of advertisers for large audiences
Some films must be remade in the home country for audiences to enjoy
-The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo (2009, Australia) did not do as well as the US version (2011)
Sports and music, which transcend culture and linguistic barriers have helped pan-European Tv channels grow and find audiences
-They still prefer their own, but are more willing to listen to other nations music
The EU has also pushed against monopoly dominance by U.S. companies
-Threatened to take Apple to court for closing iTunes to competitors -Fined Microsoft for restricting competition with its proprietary technologies like Internet Explorer or Windows Media Player -Investigating Google for similar restriction of competition by forcing companies who license the Google Android cellular operating system who feature Google applications on their home screens
Music around the world seems to be both the most globalized and the most localized media
-Travelers to almost any country will hear a great deal of American and European music, but they will also hear a variety of local music -Nearly all cultures have a musical tradition --> usually adapts well to being recorded, played on the radio, streamed online, and sold on CDs
Local music can reflect location preferences in local languages and local news and talk tend to cover things that most concern people in daily life
-Wales: radio stations attract people to listening in Welsh in order to get the language alive and sell ads to the locals -A growing global community radio movement, trying to get more community groups on the air, strengthens this this trend
Among the few foreign, non-English speaking genre to be hits in the US are:
-stylish, violent action films from Hong Kong and China -Love dramas form Korea -Sexy, violent, cartoons from japan -Sports are universal appeal -Pop music is globalzied
Language is a crucial divider of media markets
-trade in TV between countries has been shaped by language and language seems to be shaping Internet patterns, as well
Several current reasons why film production, finance, and distribution remain concentrated in the US
1. Film is relatively expensive to produce (Hollywood film over $85 million; Global promotion costs continue to rise) 2. The economic success of a film is never guaranteed so it represents an expensive, risky investment to the producers, investors, and other funding sources, which many countries are unable to sustain 3. the distribution channels to enable a film to make money have been globalized to a greater degree than any other medium, except news services
Several key reasons why American film have dominated in variety of markets:
1. the enormous size of the US market for movies, which for many years permitted Hollywood to recover most of the costs of films in their domestic release 2. The heterogenous nature of the US audience, which includes diverse groups that demand simple, more entertainment orientated and more universal films
MTV is a an example of a channel that has become global in reach effectively
200 versions worldwide, with localizing what it does to each market, with local music and programs
Nation-states can still be powerful if they are well organized and determined
2014 European Union gave its citizens the "right to delete" links to misleading, defamatory content about themselves
Of the top 12-13 global media firms,
8-9 of them are American -depending on how one defines groups like News Corp -These types of companies are growing and globalizing quickly
Films of significant quality and interest have been produced in many countries, but few countries are currently producing many feature films
A number of poor nations have produced only a few full-length films in their histories (others not at all) -Film production has slowed down in many countries, such as most of Latin America and Africa, as many companies or government production institutes have fallen into debt or suffered other economic crisis
Other major aspect of globalization is the increasingly worldwide penetration of media technology
All nations now have quite a few people using the internet and satellite TV -New media can greatly increase global reach and access for many, but new media coexists with a global digital divide
In radio, the urge for cultural proximity by audience and market segmentations by advertisers often favors the very local
Although, people still want to hear national and global music and news
Internet-based TV is also revolutionizing much of the world
Amateur and professional producers in many places use YouTube, national equivalents to YouTube, and variety of social media networks to reach audiences
Television has a much more complicated flow between countries than film
American TV programs are very common and visible globally, but many other producers sell programs to national and transnational cultural linguistic markets, as well
Privacy laws have already required intense negotiation between EU standards, which are very protective of privacy and
American standard, which are much looser and less defined
Quotas or barriers to the import of film and TV lose some of their force when young, tech-savy viewers can download shows in different countries even though its banned form broadcast or local cable
Another major force in TV flow is the existence of global companies that stream TV contents between nations, either legally or illegally
New forms of TV are doing recognizable TV genres but also redefining genres like documentaries
As more mobile phones can record video and permit viewers to access it, new TV will explode and redefine what the medium means
Most countries produce increasing amounts of their own TV, music, Internet content, and magazines
But if they produce them by drawing on other country's models and genre ideas or format, it becomes a somewhat globalized product
The US, Japan, and others have more than 60 wired telephones and 90-110 mobile phones per 100 people. Also have an internet built on the telephone and cable infrastructure
But some nations have less than one wired telephone line per 100 people and ave moved to a largely cellular based phone and internet system
Time Warner and Disney generated around 15% of their income outside of the US in 2014
By 2014, countries outside the Us represented 70% of the total box office for all films
Several nations have developed their own satellite TV channels aimed at both national audiences and neighbors within the same cultural lingustic market
Can create a region-wide TV news audience
Facebook is one of the most popular websites in over 130 countries worldwide
Compete with some companies in parts of the world like Renren in China
The ownership of Hollywood itself became globalized when Sony purchased Columbia and TriStar film groups
Critics scrutinized the results to see whether films produced by Sony reflected Japanese, rather than American sensibilities (no real change found) -Both Bollywood (India) and Nollywood (Nigeria) are challenging Hollywood by turning out thousands of films at lower costs and releasing them for much lower costs too
US productions largely dominate video rental stocks since the same Hollywood firms that dominate theatrical distributions supply them
DVD sales or rentals are more diverse since there are parallel circuits for distributing films and TV programs from local producers to immigrant populations around the world who miss media from home
The internet has required some new regulatory mechanisms for basic tasks like setting standards and assignment domain names
Debates on: -Assigning domain names that use world languages -shifting power over ICANN from the US to the ITU
Cable TV has been expanding in most countries of the world
Direct broadcast satellite has also rapidly spread
Production of computers has been limited to a few countries in North America, Europe, Latin America, and East Asia
Efforts in less industrialized countries to develop computer hardware have been frustrating and expensive -The unequal distribution of income would allow fewer people in the developing world to afford computers for these reasons
2016
Facebook has 1.59 billion members worldwide
As elements of telecommunications infrastructure, satellites compete with an extensive set of world and regional fiber-optic networks
Fiber-optic cables carry the same kinds of signals carried by satellites across transoceanic distances, with greater speed and less distortion
The infrastructure for international media and information services has also become more globalized
For transoceanic transmission, there are several worldwide satellite networks, both government and commercial. -Quite a few national satellite systems also offer telephone and Tv transmission services to neighboring countries
Facebook is exploring new technologies from wifi towers to drones or balloons to get basic internet access out to its perspective customers
Google and FB press into developing countries that have unreliable telephone lines or slow internet connections to carry simplified versions of their programs to be able to use
2010
Google violates European Union privacy protections by collecting street-level data
There are also thriving national and regional music industries with a variety of genres and audiences, which is also popular in most countries
Historically, audience tastes tend to be multilayered, with many people listening to global music, regional or national music and local music to fit the different needs/interests
Film is the most globalized and most difficult to produce on a sustained basis international media
Hollywood film gained decisive advantage when WW1 and WW2 destroyed the competing film industries -After WW2, US government pressure on both conquered nations and former allies pushed them to open their markets wider to Us film in order to receive postwar aid
1865
ITU (International Telecommunication Union) begins as the International Telegraph Union
2003
ITU hosts World Summit on the Information Society to promote use of the Internet in poorer countries
Satellite orbits, like radio frequencies and telephone/mobile standards, are are regulated by the ITU
ITU was abosrbed into the larger United Nations System when it was started in 1945
A number of counties (UK, Taiwan) established quotes limiting the amount of imported TV programming to be shown
In 1989, the European Economic Community required member nations to carry at least 50% of TV programming produced within Europe -Hollywood and US government officials protested these rules at trade talks in the World Trade Organization (WTO) and in regional treaties like NAFTA
Major companies that dominate international music import also sell the dominant American and European pop music around the world
In many countries and regions, they also record and sell works by national or cultural-linguistic market artists -gives them a stake at promoting those artists, both at home and abroad when they perceive that there might be an export market
Access to TV is somewhat unequal around the globe still
In some parts of the world (much of Africa) most of the population still doesn't watch TV, particularly outside of the cities -Only 35-40% have a TV in Mozambique -Even the poorest in Latin America and East & South Asia have a TV --> more than any other medium
At first, US film studios and independent producers sold TV programs worldwide with the same economic and cultural advantages that American film producers had enjoyed
In the 1960's & 70's, American film, sitcoms, action-adventures, and cartoons flooded into many other countries -Since then, many countries have begun to create much of their own TV and to buy more from other countries, besides the US
In many countries, films are now most commonly seen on video or on Tv, rather than cinema houses
In the more affluent parts of most countries, increasing numbers of the middle class and economic elite have DVDs, satellites, or cable TV and Internet downloads or streaming to watch films or TV
Because the print media's reach is limited in many countries by low literacy and purchasing power broadcast media took on increased importance
In the poorest countries, radio is still the main mass medium for many people -In several parts of Africa and South Asia, some people do not even have access to radio because the signal does not reach them, they can't afford a receiver, or they don't have electricity or the means to recharge batteries
Some of the poorest countries where domestic radio stations don't cover the whole country, people in remote area may listen to international broadcasters
International radio commercial radio stations, or foreign government stations are usually on short-wave frequencies that can carry across thousands of miles
Through their frequency licensing power, almost all governments get involved in planning who gets to own or operate radio/TV stations
Leads many of them to get involved in controlling content -As TV becomes more broadly defined to include a variety of video productions on channels like Youtube, much bigger variety of actors are getting involved
Film finance is also drifting offshore
Mainland China is beginning to emerge as a financial power in film production -Both private investors and government-backed media funds are backing coproductions with Hollywood Studios
More countries are competing to sell or transmit media to others
Mexico, Brazil, India, and South Korea compete worldwide -"Gangnam Style" (South Korea) topped billboard charts in the Us and was the first music video to top 1 billion views globally
American TV programs face increased competition in a number of areas
More nations at virtually all levels of wealth are creating more of their own programming, in new forms of TV (like Youtube)
An increasing amount of countries created cable channels that show nationally produced movies almost exclusively
Notable distribution vehicle for national films that many viewers would not see otherwise
New services have begun in hotspot areas
Now try to use medium wave radio, which can be received by more people than short wave
The US and Canadian markets remain the most important to Hollywood, but
Other markets like Europe and Asia Pacific have grown greatly between 2006 and 2015
Some countries (Brazil, France) are aiming to be more self-sufficient in film
Others (China) want to produce for more global markets either alone, with regional partners, or with Hollywood
Record companies are similarly structured expect that they have more diverse set of origins and an even more international ownership
Parts of the music Big Three are based outside the US, including Warner-EMI, Sony- BMG Music group, and Vivendi-Universal -Russian company, Access, bought a 2% stake in Warner Music Group in 2011 before acquiring EMI -These companies also have large foreign branches that produce and distribute records within other markets, as well as distribute American and European music
State broadcasters are usually supported from government funds
Public radio and TV networks are often supported by audience licensing fees -In order to maintain independence form both government budget control and commercial pressures by advertisers (In Japan, everyone who owns a radio or Tv pays an annual licensing fee to go directly to public broadcasters to finance production)
In most countries, national and local radio become much more important than international radio
Radio can cater to the apparently widespread audience desire for local news, weather, and information and local talk shows and music
In south and east asian, such communication by print and by movement of teachers has been going on for millenia
Radio, TV, and satellite TV signals also spilled directly from one country to its neighbor -Well over half of the Canadian population can directly receive US radio and TV signals
1990
Satellite TV begins to compete with national control of TV
Dissidents that have been exiled from North Korea are creative with sharing information
Send flash drives to North Korea with South Korean shows and news information to those with limited internet or those who are controlled
In many countries, including most of Western Europe, either governments or not-for-profit public corporations originally operated TV broadcasting
Since the 1990's, a number of these countries have also introduced commercial TV, which became economically and culturally powerful -Goal: for public broadcasters to promote education and culture
In a number of countries where film production had been heavily subsidized, governments have found themselves unable to continue to support
Some countries still continue to subsidize their film industry, but this led to conflicts in trade talks with the US, which considers these subsidies an unfair form of protectionism
Many countries also privatized some pblic or government broadcast stations and netowrks
Sometimes, this was to reduce government political control of the state stations -France, privatizing some of the state TV networks to reduce state political power
TV broadcasting in many countries is divided among public, governmental, and private ownership
TV has been very expensive for private media to make it profitable in some poor countries
Now, TV news also flows on the internet
TV news flow s becoming more diverse, although audiences for these channels in the US have been low
The Internet is challenging not only global rules but also regional ones, like the privacy rules of the European Union
The EU has successfully pushed large Internet companies like Google to change its policies on privacy and the right to be left alone, or the right to delete old information on the Internet -The EU is also proposing to unite regulation on such issues across the whole EU region
High costs of US TV programs limits their distribution
The fees charged to foreign stations are set in relation to ratings, which sometimes makes US shows more expensive than domestic ones -Lower local ratings often regulate foreign shows to late-night hours when few are watching
Computers entered into business globally at considerable rate along with internet use
The first significant global impact of information services and data communications worldwide was the interconnection of far-flung operations of multinational corporations via data networks. -Today, it is most likely that the customer service representative we are talking to on the phone is based in India, where there is a large industry that trains people to talk to Americans or Australians
Behind the top global firm is a second tier of 30-40 media firms that make between $1-10 billion/year
These firms have national or cultural-linguistic strongholds or specialize in specific global niches -Some are American, but most come from Europe or Canada, some are based in East Asia and Latin America
Al Jazeera (Doha), CCTV 9 (China), and Russia Today have also pushed TV news operations into a number of countries
They became the alternative news sources -Often have a strong national point of view and questionable credibility
Some media industries have been global since the 1920's
They control many of the companies in other countries that distribute and exhibit the films produced in the US -J. Walter Thompson, RCA, and Motion Pictures Association of America (MPAA)
By the 1970's, many critics asserted that the major newswire services had too much control over international news flow
They followed standard American and European definitions of what news was: -diasters -sensational or unusual events -political upheaval -Wars or conflicts -famous personalities -current events This often produces negative coverage and images of other countries
Multinational firms record Jamaican reggae and dance hall as well as Caribbean salsa and Mexican Norteno
They sell them at home and export them to the US -Willing to risk distributing national music because musical tastes are more diverse and the costs are much lower than film or TV
Government protection of film industries in other countries is not surprising
They want to ensure that national film industries survuve
Information and reporting by a variety of people on Twitter have become both direct news sources for many and sources that professional news reporters use in their own story
This became particularly clear with microblogging in China and Twitter's role in Arab Spring political and social revolutions of 2011 -Many now argue that face-to-face communication, grassroots organizing, and mass media were all more important than Twitter in terms of lasting effects
Satellite and cable TV after 1990 brough in new forms of competition in much of the world
This forced broadcast TV to change -Has to compete with hundreds of commercial TV channels on satellite or cable TV aimed at nationally and dozen of regional languages
30 eyars ago, people talked about Americanization of media in the world
Today, they talk more about globalization
1945
UN founded, incorporating ITU, starting UNESCO
1976
UNESCO hosts critical discussion for proposals for a New World Information Order
Text messaging and internet access messaging sites are widespread over cellphones, more so than phone or cable wires
Wifi in phones is also spreading -Increasing numbers of global calls are made via computers on internet for very low costs or free
1914-1945
World Wars I & II permit Hollywood to outplace competitors
direct broadcast satellite (DBS)
a TV or radio satellite service that transmits signals from satellites to compact home receivers
AT&T's recent acquisition of satellite TV giant DirecTV was motivated by
a desire to expand into South American markets, where DirecTV had millions of subscribers
Licensing formats like Wheel of Fortune or Survivor are now rapidly increasing global buisness
a great deal of "local" or "global" programming is now based on such international formats and models
Many US groups are now coproducing with Chinese groups to
avoid quotes or make the films more attractive to Chinese audiences
Broadcasting has mostly been privately owned in Canada, Central America, and South America
because of the strong influence of US media and corporations and advertisers, who promoted commercial approaches in the 1930's & 40's
Major player in global regulation is the European Union
begun to set de facto global standards on antitrust and privacy issues
